Coloring Outside The LinesThe Poetics of Race and Ethnicity in Sport

(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)

dl murphyKinesiology 101

Department of KinesiologySan Jose State University

“Racism is man's gravest threat to man – the maximum of hatred for a minimum of reason.”  – Abraham J. Heschel (Jewish theologian and philosopher, 1907-1972)

“Nothing reveals so much about us as how we play the games we play.” - Q, Star Trek

“Race is one of the most inflammatory, slippery, maddeningly paradoxical concepts to afflict human consciousness; witness its ugly history. Shamefully, perversions of biology, anthropology and psychology have at various times racially justified colonialism, slavery and disenfranchisement.”– John Rennie, ‘Little Black Pills’, Scientific American, Aug 2007

-“A fully functional multiracial society cannot be achieved without a sense of history and open, honest dialogue.” - Dr. Cornell West

- Bob Marley, Lyrics from “War”

“What life has taught meI would like to share withThose who want to learn.

Until the philosophy which hold one race superior and another inferior is finally and permanently discredited and abandoned.

Everywhere is war, me say war.

That until there are no longer first class and second class citizens of any nation.”

“Until the color of a man's skin is of no more significance than the color of his eyes. Me say war.

That until the basic human rights are equally guaranteed to all, without regard to race. Dis a war.

That until that day.The dream of lasting peace, world citizenship, rule of international moralitywill remain in but a fleeting illusion to be pursued, but never attained.

Now everywhere is war, war.”

Theoretical Approach | “Reading” Race, Ethnicity, and Sport

Three keys to reading sport, race, and popular media in U.S. society (Hartmann, 2000).

1. Sport in the U.S. is a contested terrain where racial images, ideologies, and inequalities are constructed and transformed.

2. There is a need to understand the power, prominence, and deep structuring significance of race in America.

3. Sport occupies a privileged and prominent role in U.S. society.

Contested terrains: Sport is a racialized space where meanings, power, presence, and voice are struggled over (Hall, 1981).

“Droppin’ Bad Science” | The Myths of Race• “Race” as a distinction between types of humans entered the European vocabulary towards the end of the 15th century (Wieviorka, 1995)

– Driven by growth in part by state sovereignty, slave trade, manifest destiny, economic, and colonialism

• By late 19th century, race logic is prevalent throughout Europe and U.S. - presupposes a sense of “naturalness” of ordering of social arrangements by on race.

– “Science and literature, scripture and law, culture and political rhetoric all worked in subtle and blunt ways to establish racial stratification” (Goldberg, 2004)

– The scientifically-endorsed concept of race found wide application in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (e.g.s eugenics)

– The idea of race (and implicitly, racial purity) became a mechanism for rigidly segregating groups within society by virtue of culture as well as physical appearance.

• End of the 20th century, academics consensus across disciplines – humanities, social sciences and biological sciences – biological races do not exist in humans. (Gannett, 2004)

“Color Me Bad” | Racial Myths and “Facts”

• Race is largely social not biological category• Assignment to different racial groups has often been linked

to sociocultural context and power– One drop of black blood used to make one black– Determined by random physical features – skin

pigmentation• Power issue – who determines what constitutes a racial

category?The Sociology of Biology

– Humans share the same basic gene structure– There more within group differences than between group differences– Social scientist reject race as a valid way to define human groups

Ethnicity | Identity

Ethnicity – refers to the cultural heritage of a group rather than biology

– A more appropriate way to differentiate between groups• Ethnicity is one of many social lines of identity that inform our involvement with the social world around us• Identity is a complex concept, connection between individuals and society, associated with time, place and membership in social groups, and is relevant to both ethnicity and race.

– So who we are, or more importantly, how we define ourselves and others in a particular sociocultural and historical context

• Multiple and fractured lines of identification: race, class, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, age, geography, language, and fashion

“How it Do?” | Power Structures in U.S. Society

• Historical patterns of social resource allocation, control, and power have lead to unequal stratification in the U.S.

• Power is derived from technology, weapons, property, economic resources, language, education, etc.

• Majority Group – interest lie in preservation of status quo or enhancement of current status– Minority Groups – distinct group in society that shares

common group characteristics, often occupy lower status in society

Vox Populi | Social Change and Agency

• Disparities and inequities are often the results of problems in social and public institutions– Institutional Racism – def. pattern of negative

treatment and oppression by society’s institutions• Focus on agency, counter-narratives,

challenges, and social justice rather than victimization

• Social Dialogue – interchanges between dominant and minority groups (e.g thru sport)

Change the GameAfrican American Experiences & Sport

(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)

Kinesiology 101Department of KinesiologySan Jose State University

Change the Game | African American Experiences & Sport

4 Historical Periods of A.A. Sport• Exclusion before the Civil War• Breakthroughs following Emancipation

Proclamation• Racial segregation between WWI &

WWII• Racial Integration after WWII

“Gonna Work It Out” | African American Experiences in U.S. Sport

• Early A. A. in sport exclusively male– 18th Century: Boxing, horse racing, trainers, jockeys– 19th & Early 20th Century: A.A. excluded from competition in

public organized sport • Leads to development of all-Black leagues • Harlem Gs, Satchel Paige, Josh Gibson• J. Robinson breaks color barrier 1946/47• Jack Johnson, 1908 boxing champion, barred, cavorted

with white women• Great White Hope (black boxers paid less, took dives,

and were champions)• Basketball: The Black Fives typically refers to leagues that first

thrived in the African-American communities of New York, Pittsburgh, Washington and Chicago in the teens and '20s but soon spread to the South and Los Angeles.

• Racist Rhetoric: Black players were athletically gifted, but lazy, unintelligent, animalistic, god-given talent not worked for

NCAA and the Black Athlete• NCAA – Prior to WWII participation mainly at Black colleges

– Black players absent in mainstream colleges until 1950s– By 1948 10% of basketball teams had black player(s)– SEC last conference to integrate 1960s – 1966 Un. Of Tennessee Football signs black athlete to football (20 years

after J.R.!)– 1966 Vanderbilt signs black basketball athlete– By 1975 Black athletes common in NCAA– Un. Alabama 1968 – no black players; 1975 start an all-Black line-up in

basketball• Huge effects on Black college athletic programs

– Programs dropped, level play diminished, fewer opportunities• Leads to increased exploitation of Black athletes

– Stacking, position profiling, lack of attention to grades and graduation rates

Current Sport and Social Issues | Black Athletes

• Post WWII Black athletes have made massive strides• Under representation and occupational power:

– management, coaching, agents, sport marketing decision makers, journalists, presenters, sport media decision maker

• “Coding” of Black athletic bodies and style– Gangsters or good boy (Iverson or Duncan)– Denigration of Black athlete and relationship to hip-hop

and rap (NBA dress codes)– Media scrutiny of Black crime and athletic stars– Hyper-sexualization of Black athletic bodies – “need to

be controlled”– God-given talent (unearned vs. earned) Hard-Worker

“Get Real Playa” | Black Athletes & The Media

• Dr. Boyce Watkins on Barry Bonds, OJ Simpson, Michael Vick (2:50mins.)

– Finance Professor, Syracuse University• Dr. Boyce “brings it” so be warned…• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iuw5

BFPLGqM&feature=related

Foundations from the Past | The Negro Leagues

Baseball: Negro American League (1937-1950) Negro National League (1933-1948) Negro Southern League (1932) American Negro League (1929) Negro National League (1920-1931) Eastern Colored League (1923-1928)

The Man | J. Robinson’s Journey

Jackie Robinson Stood Up for Equality– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wV3yu5

SlD0w

"Before and After Jackie" (1997 Jackie Robinson)

– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjHpIBcTT0Q&feature=related

Negro League Team All Star Team East – 1937 http://a.abcnews.com/images/US/ht_all_east_060128_ssh.jpg

All Black basketball before integration http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.blackfives.com/images/basketball_holder.jpg&imgrefurl=http://onebrothasmind.blogspot.com/2006/03/brothas-have-been-playin-ball-

longer.html&h=419&w=339&sz=20&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=Ougj4j5HryyJYM:&tbnh=125&tbnw=101&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dnegro%2Bleague%2Bbasketball%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3DRNWE,RNWE:2004-31,RNWE:en%26sa%3DN

All Black Basketball Leagues http://www.blackfives.com/images/basketball_holder.jpg

Racism in European Soccer

• European Racism http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jwpO-nnFY9g

Learn more…• Eto'o facing racist treatment

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQv4aIXaGQ4&feature=related

• Racism In Football I• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=10dv0BYeuF8&featur

e=related• Racism in football II• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BD_KyDB69-c&featu

re=related

Racism in Video Games• Stereotypical African American Male

Roles in Video Games – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ulMFaz-

1Qco&feature=related• Asian and Latino Male Stereotypes in

Video Games– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bpgu_9b

CPeA&feature=related

Si, Se Puede! Latino Involvement in Sport

(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)

Kinesiology 101Department of KinesiologySan Jose State University

Si, Se Puede! | Latino Involvement in Sport

Latino/a – term used to describe men and women who heritage traces to Spanish speaking nations and cultures

–Central American, South America, Caribbean, Spain, & Portugal 1. Heterogeneous group, wide range of geographies, religions, cultural practices, etc.2.Majority of visible participation in boxing, soccer, and baseball3. Growing economic and population presence will mean wider involvement of Latinos in U.S. Sport

Latinos Management/Front Office Positions:• Major League Baseball 13, NBA 7 and MLS 22 percent

Representation at the Pro Team Level (2001-02):• Latinos are 30% on MLS rosters • 5 and 8 percent in MLB and the NBA

“Beisbol Been Very Good To Me”? | Latino Revolution and the “National Pastime”

Baseball largest sport presence of Latinos– Latinos have been a part of major leagues since 1902– Mainly Cubans pre WWI– Darker skinned Latinos were barred before 1948– Many players “passed” for white or Latino

Today, Latinos are 26% of major league; 43% in all leagues• Economic labor exploitation? • Cheap players from Caribbean• In 2000 – 750 Latino pros – mainly from Caribbean and Central America• Language barriers, cultural issues, and economic concerns• Human trafficking thru sport?• What is the moral responsibility to educate, acculturate, labor rights?• How about those who don’t make it?

Si, Se Puede! | Latino Involvement in Sport

Why Latinos? Why Baseball?– Popular and growing sport in Latin America– Weather often allows for year-round competition– Social mobility and wealth potential or myth of! – 2001 highest paid pros were Latinos! – MLB sees easy-to-exploit labor force that has a constant

supply• Yet, for very one Sammy Sosa there a 1000 failures• Cheaper than singing U.S. talent• Tejada signs for 2,000, teammate Grieve 1.2 mil.• 90 – 95% did not reach the pros

• So upward mobility thru sport? Where have we heard this before? The numbers say, not likely.

Chicago White Sox manager Ozzie Guillen became the first Latin-born manager to win a World Series.

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://assets.espn.go.com/photo/2006/0921/hhm_ap_chavez_195.jpg&imgrefurl=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/columns/story%3Fcolumnist%3Dlapchick_richard%26id%3D2599046&h=262&w=195&sz=17&hl=en&start=13&tbnid=NWRrFau3H7nrfM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=83&prev=/images%3Fq%3DLAtino%2Bboxers%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a

%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DG

AP Photo/Duane Burleson

Arturo Moreno became the first Latino majority owner of a major U.S. sports

team when he purchased the Anaheim (now Los Angeles) Angels in 2003. http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://assets.espn.go.com/photo/2006/0921/hhm_ap_chavez_195.jpg&imgrefurl=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/columns/story%3Fcolumnist%3Dlapchick_richard%26id%3D2599046&h=262&w=195&sz=17&hl=en&start=13&tbnid=NWRrFau3H7nrfM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=83&prev=/images%3Fq%3DLAtino%2Bboxers%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DG

NASCAR has reached out to fans in Mexico by establishing operations in

Mexico…or Cheap Labor? http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://assets.espn.go.com/photo/2006/0921/

hhm_ap_chavez_195.jpg&imgrefurl=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/columns/story%3Fcolumnist%3Dlapchick_richard%26id%3D2599046&h=262&w=195&sz=17&hl=en&start=13&tbnid=NWRrFau3H7nrfM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=83&prev=/images%3Fq%3DLAtino%2Bboxers%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den

%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-US:official%26sa%3DG

Latinos & Soccer | Return of the Foreign Sport?

MLS and “Hustling Culture.”• Marketing soccer to specific communities (Anglo and

Latino) via player signings and team identity and iconography.

• Chivas USA, ethnic marketing initiatives, community outreach, and cross-cultural competitions.

• Immigration, Mexican nationalism, and growing Latino consumer base in U.S.

• Modern soccer, multiple ethnic identities, “other” sport sold to marginalized groups and the mainstream.

The Number One Rule | Latinos & Boxing Boxing has a history of working class champions

– Has been a historical entry point for various ethnic groups:• Pre WWII - Irish, Italian, Jew; Post WWII Black, and now

Latino• Here again myth of mobility• Very few make it to the top!• Those that do often suffer major health issues• History of cheating, diving, organized crime, underworld,

and nefarious promoters• Recently very popular in Mexico and among Mexican-

Americans

• More research need on Latino/a experiences in sport• Growing demographic in the U.S.

Gregory S. Rodriguez: "Palaces of Pain: Arenas of Mexican American Dreams"Focus: Examined boxing and the formation of ethnic Mexican identities in 20th-century Southern California

“Boxing contributed to the restructuring or reproduction of ethnic, gender and national identities over the course of the 20th century. Boxing arenas became metaphors for the struggles over the meaning of race, gender, and citizenship that has preoccupied United States society in the twentieth century … an examination of Mexican-American boxing industries highlights the ways ethnic, familial, linguistic and class dynamics influenced Mexican-Americans and Mexican immigrants in negotiating new urban identities through popular culture."

Julio Cesar Chavez has generated great pride among Mexican and Mexican-American boxing fans. http://assets.espn.go.com/photo/2006/0921/hhm_ap_chavez_195.jpg

Oscar de lay Hoya – bi-cultural champion Mexican American http://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/boxing/hoya_camacho/art/hoya2.jpg

Puerto Rican Boxers & Cultural Pride

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhUITOqESHI

Selected Quotes from “On the Waterfront “(1954)

• “I could have been a contender. I could been somebody.” - Terry Malloy (Marlon Brando)

• “The only arithmetic he ever got was hearing the referee count up to ten”.- Big Mac

• Charlie: “Oh I had some bets down for you. You saw some money. “

Terry: “You don't understand. I coulda had class. I coulda been a contender. I coulda been somebody, instead of a bum, which is what I am, let's face it.”

Raging Bull (1980)• Jake la Motta (R. deNiro): I remember those cheers / They still ring in

my ears / After years, they remain in my thoughts.

Asian Americans | Making the Invisible Visible

Lack of visibility for Asian American athletesMore research need on these communities

– Research on A.A. sports revolves around Martial Arts • At elite levels:

– Female athletes are most well-known in upper class sports– Ice skating, gymnastics, dance, tennis, diving, badminton, golf– In 2000, 6 of top 50 female golfers were Asian– Tend to be individual sports? Why?– Korean, Chinese, and Japanese – Southeast Asians?– Male athletes…growth in professional baseball, but Japanese

born not U.S. born

• Participation growth at rec. levels in basketball?• Question of who is considered Asian? Pakistani? Indian?

Back to the Future Native American Experiences & Sport

(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)

Kinesiology 101Department of KinesiologySan Jose State University

Jim Thorpe Olympian – Medals were stripped due to “semi-professional” status http://www.explorepahistory.com/images/ExplorePAHistory-a0h5t1-a_349.jpg

Jim Thorpe – Playing for the NY Giants http://www.nativeamericans.com/JimThorpe_NewYorkGiants.jpg

Jim Thorpe – Professional football player http://www.nativeamericans.com/JimThorpe_FootballStar.jpg

Billy Mills – 10k Gold Medallist http://www.stripes.com/photoday/040504.jpg

Native Americans & Sport• In 2000, 2 million Native Americans (0.7% of population)• Extremely heterogeneous society – differences in physical

appearances, customs, language, rituals, and social organizations• Faced 100 years of genocide and imperialism• Before Western colonialism (1700s) – 7 million N. Americans; less

than 250k by 1890!• Forced to live on reservations and attend Indian Boarding

Schools: “reeducated” in Western moralities• Identity in Popular Culture: Noble Savage or invisible (e.g.s

Dancing with Wolves) • N. Tribes had various indigenous games: horse racing, stick

fighting, lacrosse, ball games, board games, running, and archery

The Bad, The Worse, and The Ugly | N. Americans & Hollywood • “How Hollywood stereotyped the Native

Americans” • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hJFi

7SRH7Q&feature=relatedLearn More…• Native American Stereotypes & Truths • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e15Y

Dqt9n9M&NR=1

Thorpe to Mills | Native American Sportsmen

Notable N. American Sportsmen• Jim Thorpe – Olympian, baseball, and football• Billy Mills 1964 – won the 10K meters at Olympics• Notah Begay III – played on PGA tour • Six N. Americans have played in the NBA• 1998-99 NCAA – 310 of 70k plus student athletes were N. American • Sport Challenges and N. American Communities:

– Lack of economic resources– Travel distances– Racism – Social Collisions– Population and team size

The Price of Acculturation?

“If you go to far into society, there’s a fear of losing your Indian-ness. There’s a spiritual factor that comes into play. To become part of white society you give up half your soul.”

– Billy Mills

A Tradition of Shame | Indian Mascots

Sports teams use iconography: symbols, shields, logos, colors, mascots– Evoke emotion and tradition within fan community• Most use symbols of aggression from animal world

History of use of derogatory images and symbols in U.S. popular culture: racial caricatures in ads, films, music, fashion, and sport

– Pros: Braves, Indians, Redskins, Chiefs, Warriors, & Blackhawks– NCAA: Seminoles, Utes, Fighting Sioux and Illini, & Savages

Class Question: Do we see any other use in U.S. pop culture of a racial or ethnic group being imaged as a team mascot or logo?

Anti-Indian Mascot Movement

The Two Sides of the Aisle:• Concerted effort to remove names, images, rituals, mascots, and songs

that demean N.A.s • Serious resistance from perpetrating communities

– Arguments for Usage: • Use of mascots is tribute to indigenous peoples• Portrayed as brave, resourceful, and strong• Others argue use is no different than Fighting Irish or Vikings

– Arguments Against Usage:• Use is inherently demeaning• Not based in actual Indian heritages• Approval was never asked for nor given • Caricatures are often clearly racist and violent• Fits pattern of racist treatment

Grassroots Social Change http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/1364/nmascots/demonstr.jpg

Cardinals? | Stanford Indians until the 1970s http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://espn-att.starwave.com/media/ncf/2005/0919/photo/i_stanfordtree_195.jpg&imgrefurl=http://cal.thecrawfordfamily.net/blog/%3Fp%3D49&h=262&w=195&sz=33&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=tFT2NlR6nL6LpM:&tbnh=112&tbnw=83&prev=/images%3Fq%3DAnti-Indian%2BMascot%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den

%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en

Really!? I Mean Really!

Indian Mascot PSA

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fCBspSK4Iw

Turning The Tide | NCAA Action. Whaaat?

• NCAA bans Indian mascot representation in NCAA postseason play starting 2008.

• Any school with a nickname or logo considered racially or ethnically “hostile” or “abusive” by the NCAA would be prohibited from using them in postseason events. Mascots will not be allowed to perform at tournament games, and band members and cheerleaders will also be barred from using American Indians on their uniforms beginning in 2008.

• Read More at: http://www.cnle.net/2005/08/ncaa-bans-indian-mascots/

“Can’t Get With That?”| Dude, Oppression of One Group Oppresses Us All

“Get on the Mic!”|Small Group Discussion

• What do you think about the anti-Indian mascot debate?

• Should all ethnic mascots be removed? • Is this over-political correctness?• How should we got about removing

Indian mascots?• Who should decide?

Sociocultural Aspects of Racial & Ethnic Sport Participation(adapted from Eitzen and Sage, 2003, Ch 13)

Kinesiology 101Department of KinesiologySan Jose State University

“Break it Down” | Not So Taboo

So the question has been asked…Are Black athletes more athletic in sports (i.e. superior)

to Whites due to genetics and superior physiology?

A loaded question with numerous logic holes:1. How do we need to define who is Black?2. How do we define athleticism?3. Which sports are we talking about? All?4. How do we test such a broad population base?5. What does genetic science have to say?6. What roles do socialization play?

Absurdity of Race-Linked Physical Difference & Sport Achievement

Black athletes are over represented in specific sports at elite levels: NCAA & Professional

– Football, basketball, track and field, boxing – Prestige sports magnify race-sport discussion

Is Black dominance in the above named sports due to physical superiority?– Answers lie in sociology not biology

1. Slippery Logic: If Blacks are superior in these sports, does it mean Asians are superior in martial arts; Whites in hockey, race car driving, tennis, golf; Latinos in soccer and baseball? Starting to see the absurdity yet?

2. Proponents seek to replicate and continue political and economic status quo; “naturalness” to social order

The Sociology of Race Biology

Biological Determinism– Assumptions that certain races are superior to others due to

certain psychophysiological genetic traits– Serious problems with biological race science

• Who is Black?• Shifted over the course of history• Racial categories are not fixed or unambiguous

– Blacks exhibit a wide-range of physiological features– Previous studies have been ill developed, poor scientific

method, sample population problems, based on out-dated methodologies and practices

• Blacks are not a homogenous group; the assumption that one can say “Blacks”, “all Blacks” are one thing is inherently racist

“Flip The Script Homey” | Sociocultural Influences

Humane Genome Study – There are greater ranges of differences within races than between races

– 100k genes in humans; only 1-6 genes regulate skin color– Black are more unlike each other than they are different

from most Whites– Social variables influence sport participation, identification,

and competition• Environmental factors, diet, training methods,

geography, sport infrastructures, political climate, economic considerations, & cultural import of sport

The question is not nature vs. nurture (heroes or villains), but rather how nature interacts with nurture

Structural Constraints & “Opportunity”

To explain racial/ethnic sport sociocultural situations need to look at:

1. Occupational structures2. Sport opportunity structures

Factors that influence participation:– Sport seen as viable path out of economic hardship– Cultural importance and visibility of sport in

communities– Part of historical dialogue of growing visibility in U.S.

popular culture – Prevalence of role models– Social pressures and idiosyncrasies

Style and Substance | Cultural ImprovisationAdditional Considerations:

1. Urban or rural area2. Cost of play3. Field space4. Safety 5. History of participation

Styles of play are often linked to sociocultural idiosyncrasies– Black communities have history of invention, creativity, &

improvisation – seen in art, music (jazz), cooking, and language • Think Brazilian soccer

– Evidenced in styles of sport play (but not all!, one can never essentialize!)

Racial Discrimination in Sport Perspectives:• Black visibility in pro and NCAA sports has served to

mask socioeconomic inequities• Sport is not immune to racism – as we have

demonstrated

Two Prominent Issues:• Assignment of player positions

– Stacking, positional profiling• Rewards and authority structures

– Ownership representation and economic allocations

Stacking the Deck | Positional Disproportionality

Stacking: Term refers to situations where minority group members are disproportionately found in specific team sports (& positions) and underrepresented in others

– E.g MBL 4% Black pitchers; 40% Black outfieldersBlalock & Grunsky Research:

– Lower the degree of purely social interaction on the job, the lower will be degree of racial discrimination

– To the extent that performance level is relatively independent of skill in interpersonal relations, the degree of racial discrimination is lower

Loy & McElvogue Research:– Centrality to play is related to racial stacking– Positional authority over play– Central positions held overwhelmingly by Whites, non-central

positions by minorities

Stacking the Deck | Positional Disproportionality

Examples of Racial Stacking– NFL – Blacks in running back, receiver, & corner, corner positions– NCAA women’s volleyball – Blacks in hitter positions, Whites as

setters– Canadian Hockey – French Canadian as goalies – British soccer – West Indian and Blacks in forward and wide

positions– Australian rugby – Aborigines in wide positions– MLB – Black outfielders, Whites pitchers– Track and Field – Black in short distances and long/triple jumps;

Whites in long distance, field events

Economics and globalization are changing this a bit; best players increasingly put in positions based on skills, $$, and winning

Ask the Egg Heads | Some Theoretical Approaches

Moss Kanter Hypothesis: – Greater the numerical proportion of a minority in a social

organization, the more likely genuine integration will occur– Such as in the case of NBA and NCAA basketball– See pg. 300 of Eitzen text

Edwards – Authority and Outcome Control Hypothesis:– 2 Critical variables in positional segregation

• The degree of outcome control or leadership responsibility• Association between athletic skill and intelligence

requirements of different positions• Then linked to racial abilities and “naturalness”

Ask the Egg Heads | Some Theoretical Approaches

McPherson Social Modeling Hypothesis:– Proposes that Black youth self-segregate into positions historically

played by Black players• Role model emulation• Previous minority success• Community adulation & expectations

Eitzen & Sanford – determine whether Black athletes changed from central to non-central positions more frequently than Whites when moving from h.s. to NCAA to pros.

• Data sample 387 pro football players• Whites held more central positions than Black in pros• Blacks more likely to change to noncentral positions• Possible focus on specific positions due to higher chances of

rewards and success

“You Gonna Get Yours”| Rewards and Authority

Inequities in opportunities after sport career – Lack of visibility in media positions– Rarely as play-by-play or sportswriters, mainly sideline reporters

Officiating (2001-02): • NBA: 78% Black players, 67% refs White• NFL 2/3 players Black; 84% officials White• MBL – 41% players minority, 91% umps White

Management & Front Office (2001-02):• NFL 6% coaches were minorities• MBL 23% managers minority• No racial minorities in NHL• MLS 3 Latino coaches• NCAA Football: 4.7% head coaches were minority• 21.6% in NCAA basketball men

The Glass Ceiling | Leadership & Opportunity Paucity of minorities in leadership positionsLeadership:

– Front Office, Media Directors– Head Coaching, Head of Scouts, Head Trainer & Doctor– President/CEO or V. President

Hiring Practices: – Overt racism– No previous history in central, decision-making positions during playing careers

used as excuse not to hire• So, stacking kept one out of decision making situations during playing

career, then not hired later on based on premise of no central, decision making experience

– Token interviewing • NFL e.g. - Job opens up, a few Black coaches are called in to interview to

meet mandates by league for minimum number of minority interviews during hiring process, few are hired: Romeo Cornell, Dennis Green

Social Change and Agency Various ways to enact social change in sport:• First, counter-narratives do exist as we have discussed• Recent visibility in minority-driven ownership groups• Higher profile athletes returning to game in leadership roles (M.J. & I.

Thomas, and others)• Still not enough to meet some parity in leagues and decision making • Some growth in minority broadcasters (ESPN) & local news (often

geographically specific)• Process to change will be long one; advances and set-backs and

reinterpretations• Key is returning retired minority athletes into the game and mentoring into

business and decision making roles• Less biased, more balanced media reporting and coverage of minority

athletes • Growth in player power sharing and labor representation

Posting Online | Have Your Say • Over the course of the next week, please

post your thoughts on the any of the issues covered in the race and ethnicity section

• What spoke to you?• Anything change your mind?

– Expand on topics discussed in class– Min. of two paragraphs– Reads your classmates thoughts first