SPLASH D8.6 GROUNDATER MANAGEMENT IN RIVER/LAKE … · Key data on basins and basin organisations...

Coordinating European water research for poverty reduction

ERAC-CT-2006-036268

SPLASH D8.6 GROUNDATER MANAGEMENT IN RIVER/LAKE BASIN ORGANISATIONS IN AFRICA DESK STUDY PROFILES Coordinating European water research for poverty reduction 15th December 2011 Vanessa Vaessen

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR NEEDS ASSESSMENT TO SUPPORT GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN THE LAKE AND RIVER BASIN ORGANISATIONS OF AFRICA

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Contents amendment record

This report has been issued quality assured and amended as follows:

Revision Description Date Signed

1 Draft 1 25.11.2011 David Love, Richard Owen

2 Final 15.12.2011 Vanessa Vaessen

Distribution: Refer to deliverable list in Description of Work 8.6

R = Report R

O = Other

PU = Public

PP = Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services).

PU

RE = Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services).

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Table 2. Key data on basins and basin organisations Please, include refs in each case, if data derived from published literature. Use numericals for each ref. (/1/, /2/, /3/, etc. and provide a ref. list)

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1.The Lake Chad Basin The Lake Chad Basin is located in the central part of Northern Africa and occupies an area of about 2.3 Mill. km² (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Location of the Lake Chad Basin.


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The basin is an extended plain mostly covered by medium to fine-grained sands except on its borders. The surface height varies from 3,300 metres above mean sea level (mamsl) in the north (Tibesti Mountains); 3,000 mamsl in the NW (Ahaggar Mountains) and 3,300 mamsl NN in the SW (Adamawa Plateau) (

Figure 2) to 180 mamsl in the Pays Bas (lowlands).

The central part of the basin is characterized by two different landscapes subdivided by the 14°N parallel: sand dunes and the absence of surface water of surface water sources are typical for the northern part (Kanem), while the south is richly watered by two main rivers that discharge in the lake. They the lake. They are the Chari-Logone that supplies about 95 percent of the annual volume of water that reaches the lake and the Komadugu-Yobe that Komadugu-Yobe that provides about 3 percent of the annual inflow into the lake (

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamawa_Plateau


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Figure 2). The precipitation over the lake surface completes the remaining 2 percent.

Within the basin there are very important and well-known swamp regions: the Yaérés in the extreme north of Cameroon, the Lake Chad itself, Lake Fitri, itself, Lake Fitri, the Massénya and the Salamat to the south and southeast of the Lake Chad respectively, and the Komadugu-Yobe to the north-east of the north-east of Nigeria (


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Figure 2).

Salamat

Massénya

Yaéré


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Tibesti Mountains

Ahaggar Mountains

Adamawa plateau

Kanem region

Pays Bas (lowlands)


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Figure 2. Topography of the area, heights in m above mean sea level (mamsl). A flat plain of less than 380 mamsl occupies the central part of the basin, based on SRTM30 data (USGS Shuttle Radar Topography Mission).

Climatically the basin is characterized by three different zones: hyper-arid to arid in the north, semi-arid in the centre and subtropical in the south. Mean annual rainfall varies from less than 50 mm in the north to above 1000 mm in the south. High temperatures throughout the year, very low humidity except during the rainy season from June to August, intense solar radiation and strong winds lead to a high annual potential evapotranspiration of around 2,200 mm (Carmouze, 1976).

2.Geology and Hydrogeology of the Basin Most of the Lake Chad Basin is covered by Quaternary sands (Figure 3) of different depositional origins. In the northern part of the basin prevails an aeolic deposition with the presence of dunes (Kanem region). Fluviatile, lacustrine and deltaic depositions that result in alternating sequences of thin layers of sand and clay and mainly clayey soils on the surface are typical in the south. Regionally, these Quaternary sands act as an unconfined aquifer. South of the 14°N parallel this aquifer shows a low hydraulic conductivity, especially vertical, due to the sequences of sand and clay. Furthermore, due to its flatness and low gradient (in average 0.0005), the horizontal flow is very slow or quasi-null (Vassolo, 2009).

At a depth of some 75 to 100 metres appears a thick layer of some 280 metres of clay from the Upper Pliocene age (Figure 4). This layer separates the Quaternary sands above from the Lower Pliocene below. The Lower Pliocene is composed of sand and sandstone and has a thickness of 30 metres, underlain by the sandstones of the Continental Terminal (Tertiary) with a thickness of some 150 metres.


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Figure 3. Geology of the Lake Chad Basin. The next figure shows a cross-section drawn along the line

Figure 4. Cross-section with the geology in depth, drawn between Maiduguri to the SW and Faya Largeau to the NE of the Lake Chad Basin (after Schneider & Wolff, 1992).

A A


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The Upper Pliocene is almost impermeable and builds thus an aquitard1 that confines the sandstones of the Lower Pliocene and Continental Terminal (CT) causing a widespread artesianism in the central part of the basin. According to Eberschweiler (1993), both the Pliocene and the CT have similar good hydrogeological properties and comparable water chemistry, therefore they can be considered as a single aquifer.

The deepest layers are the sandstones and sands of the Continental Hamadien and Continental Intercalaire (Cretaceous), which have not been studied yet and its extension is unknown. Due to the lack of data, it is very difficult to describe their extension and estimate their hydrogeological properties. The granitic rocks of the basement build the basis of the hydrogeological system.

Aquifer recharge to the upper unconfined sands depends enormously on the availability of water from precipitation and the deposition characteristics of the aquifer. Indirect recharge takes place in the southern part of the basin, where the recharge is generally a product of surface water percolation from flooded areas, rivers and lakes. It has been estimated at 5 mm/a for the Massénya and Yaéré swamps. Isotopes analyses show the presence of direct recharge in the north caused by percolation of precipitation accumulated in the valleys between the dunes. However, the low tritium values indicate that this recharge took place in the past, at least more than 60 years ago.

Recharge to the Lower Pliocene and the CT takes place at their outcrops, either at the border or outside of the basin (Figure 3).

3.Socio-economic and Environmental Conditions The 30 Mio people in the Lake Chad Basin belong to some of the poorest countries of the world2. According to the UNDP ranking for low human development, out of the 177 countries listed Sudan occupies the position 141, Cameroon the 144, Nigeria the 159, Chad the 171, CAR the 172 and Niger the 177. The settlements show even larger poverty levels than the already high national averages (Alker, 2008). Access to safe drinking water is low ranging for the year 2000 from 26% in Chad to 56% of the rural population of Niger (figures from the World Bank in UNEP, 2004). In rural areas, most of the water users obtain water directly from ponds during the rainy season or from hand dug wells in the dry period. Groundwater is the source for central water supply n the cities, but connection is not general due especially to the costs that cannot be afforded by a large amount of population.

1 Aquitard is a geologic formation that may contain water but is incapable of transferring that water to the surface or to another geologic formation. 2 Libya and Algeria in the northern part of the basin have a higher average GDP/capita.


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The sanitary conditions are very poor in all countries. Water prone infections like hepatitis, typhus and cholera are widespread. Diarrhea causes Malaria is endemic in the entire basin, except in the northern countries (Libya and Algeria).

Agriculture is the main activity in the region, mostly rain-fed in the south or recessional in the flooded areas. However, there is cash-crop irrigation (mostly rice and cotton) along the river courses. Between 1983 and 1994, demand for irrigation grew by 200% leading to overexploitation of the water resources which were already under stress due to severe droughts (UNDP, 2006). Groundwater irrigation is increasing in marginal lands, which is of concern due to the low irrigation efficiency.

4.Groundwater Governance The Convention and Statute (1964) of the Lake Chad Basin Commission established basic rules on how to manage water resources and how to proceed in the case of large water projects that could affect neighbor countries in the basin. In 2009, the Council of Ministers of the Lake Chad Basin Commission adopted the UN draft resolutions for transboundary aquifers as a basic document to rely on in groundwater management. Actually, the Lake Chad Basin Commission is in the process of adoption of a Water Charta for the basin. Although surface water is the

disch Despite the existence of a legal basis, groundwater management is not a concerted issue in the basin, especially because of the weakness of the Lake Chad Basin Commission. All member states decide on large investments and constructions (dams, deep wells) without taking into consideration the possibility of affecting neighbor countries. International donors always finance this kind of large projects under the condition of a non objection from the LCBC, which is easy to get due to lack of technical staff in the LCBC that could decide on the contrary.

5.References Deutsches Institut für

Entwicklungspolitik. ISBN: 3889853641.

Carmouze, J.-X, N° 1, 1976, pp. 33-56.


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Eberschweiler, Ch., 1993: Monitoring and management of groundwater resources in the Lake Chad Basin. Final Report. BRGM-LCBC.

Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC), 1964. Convention and Statute.

Schneider, J.L., J.P Wolff, 1992: Carte géologique et cartes hydrogéologiques à 1/1,500,000 de la Républic du Tchad : Mémoire explicatif. Document du BRGM N° 209, Vol. 2. Éditions du BRGM.

UNDP, 2006: Bericht über die menschliche Entwicklung 2006. Nicht nur eine Frage der Knappheit: Macht, Armut und die globale Wasserkrise. UNDP, Berlin.

UNEP, 2004: Lake Chad Basin. GIWA Regional assessment 43, University of Kalmar, Sweden. Fortnam, M.P. and Oguntola, J.A. (eds).

Vassolo, S., 2009: The aquifer recharge and storage systems to reduce the high level of evapotranspiration. In: Adaptive Water Management in the Lake Chad Basin. World Water Week 09. FAO.

River Basin

Lake Chad Basin

Major tributaries

Chari Logone; Komadugu Yobe

Riparian states (Members of the Lake Chad Basin Commission LCBC are indicated in bold)

1. Algeria____________________ 2. Cameroon_________________ 3. Central African Republic (CAR) 4. Chad______________________ 5. Libya_____________________ 6. Niger______________________ 7. Nigeria____________________ 8. Sudan____________________ 9. __________________________ 10. ________________________ 11. _________________________ 12. _________________________

Upstream riparian states

Cameroon, CAR, Nigeria, Sudan (only seasonal small rivers that do not reach the Lake Chad)

Downstream riparian states

Chad and Niger

Total basin area (km2)

2.3 million /1/

Mean annual runoff (mill.

23,350 (average since 1986) /2/


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M3/year) Total population (mill.)

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Riparian state Share (%) of basin area

Share (%) of population /3/

Mean annual runoff (million M3/year) /4/

Average rainfall in riparian basin part (mm/yr) /5/

Primary land uses/cover in basin part

Primary water uses in basin part

Major cities in basin part (Mill. pop.)

Protected areas, national parks in basin part

Major water transfer schemes between states

Transboundary conflicts over rivers

1. Algeria

3.8 0.02 None 27 None None None

2. Cameroon

2.1 5.41 4,700 970 Agriculture Agriculture, domestic

Maroua (0.206 estim.2005)

Waza National Park

Border at the lake

3. CAR

9.3 3.10 23,300 1106 Agriculture Domestic, aquaculture

Bossangoa (0.036 estim.2003)

National Parks

4. Chad

43.9 20.79 28,000 337 Agriculture Agriculture, domestic, livestock

(0.993 census 2009)

Zakuma National Parc

Border at the lake

5. Libya

0.1 0.00 None 29 None None None

6. Niger

29.0 5.97 200 78 Livestock, agriculture

Agriculture, domestic, livestock

Zinder (0.238 census 2010)

None Border at the lake

7. Nigeria

7.6 59.49 594 Agriculture Agriculture, domestic

Kano (3.739 estim.2006)

None Border at the lake

8. Sudan

4.2 5.22 negligent 478 Livestock, agriculture

Agriculture, domestic, livestock

None

9.

10.


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Year of formal recognition of Lake/Basin Org.

1964

Primary mandate of Lake/Basin Org.

Development of Chad basin and in particular the utilization of surface and ground waters shall be given widest connotation and refers in particular to domestic, industrial and agricultural development, the collection of the products of its fauna and flora /6/

Type of Lake/River Org.? (see /2/)

X Lake/River Basin Commission Technical Committee Lake/River Basin Authority

Name of treaties or legally recognized agreements governing water mgt. in the basin

1. Water Charta______________ Between (states): all members of LCBC ( to be adopted) 2. Joined Commission /7/_______ Between : Nigeria and Niger________________________

3. Joined Commission /7/_______ Between: Cameroon and Chad, virtually not working_____ 4. Cameroon Nigeria Mixed Commission /7/_ Between : Cameroon and Nigeria____________

5. _________________________ Between (states): ________________________________

6. _________________________ Between (states): ________________________________

7. _________________________ Between (states): ________________________________

8. _________________________ Between (states): ________________________________

Table 3. Key data on transboundary aquifers PLEASE, INCLUDE REFS IN EACH CASE, IF DATA DERIVED FROM PUBLISHED LITERATURE. USE NUMERICALS FOR EACH REF. (/1/, /2/,

/3/, ETC. AND PROVIDE A REF. LIST

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River Basin

Lake Chad Basin

Major shared aquifers in the basin

1. Quaternary ______________________________ 2. Pliocene _________________________________ 3. Continental Terminal ______________________ 4. Continental Intermediaire_____________________ 5. ________________________________________ 6. ________________________________________ 7. ________________________________________ 8. ________________________________________

Aquifer no.

Shared between which riparian states

Approximate area (km2)

Geological formation of aquifer (e.g. sandstone, karst, limestone, volcanic, sedimentary)

Depth location of aquifer: Shallow (0-20 m), Intermediate (20-100m), Deep (>100m)

Estimated storage (mill. M3)

Estimated annual recharge volume (mill. M3)

Primary recharge mechanism (rainfall, irrigation, river/lake, pre-historic)

Principal use/users of aquifer (Give order: agriculture, domestic, industry, mining)

Primary GW management issue(s)

Are there already known transboundary conflicts over this aquifer?

Level of TBA mgt. Note: A, B, C, D, E, Fa acc. to what has been achieved

1.

Cameroon, Chad, Niger, Nigeria

995,000 sedimentary

intermediate 5,000,000 470 River/lake and precipitation

Domestic and agriculture

A, B, E

2.


unknown

sedimentary

deep unknown unknown Rainfall and pre-historic

Domestic A

3.


unknown

sedimentary


Domestic A

4.

Cameroon, CAR, Chad, Nigeria;

unknown

sedimentary


Domestic A

Table 3. Key data on transboundary aquifers PLEASE, INCLUDE REFS IN EACH CASE, IF DATA DERIVED FROM PUBLISHED LITERATURE. USE NUMERICALS FOR EACH REF. (/1/, /2/,

/3/, ETC. AND PROVIDE A REF. LIST

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Niger 5.

6.

7.

8.

aA. Identification, B. Delineation, C. Diagnosis, D. Conceptual/numerical model, E. Allocation principles, F. Implementation of joint infrastructure projects

Table 3. Key data on transboundary aquifers PLEASE, INCLUDE REFS IN EACH CASE, IF DATA DERIVED FROM PUBLISHED LITERATURE. USE

NUMERICALS FOR EACH REF. (/1/, /2/, /3/, ETC. AND PROVIDE A REF. LIST

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1.

GROUNDWATER NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Limpopo Basin Commission LIMCOM

BY

Richard Owen

Africa Groundwater Network (AGWNET)

Nov. 2011



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Basin Profile: L I M C O M (the L impopo Water Course Commission) and G roundwater in the L impopo River Basin. Introduction: Basin Profile: The basin profile presented here will consider groundwater aspects with the basin in context of a framework consisting of five key aspects of the basin. These are:

a.Bio-physical and hydrological aspects of the river basin. b.Socio-economic factors within the river basin, including water use, users and conflicts c.Governance of the basin water resources at all stakeholder levels d.Resource management including water demand, infrastructure and data management e.Technical capacity and capacity building requirements for the RBO

Structure of this Report: This report focuses almost exclusively on groundwater issues that fall under the ambit of LIMCOM, the Limpopo River Basin Commission. The data presented were obtained largely by a search for the term

in LIMPOPORAK the Limpopo Basin River Awareness Kit, which is an official web site of LIMCOM http://www.limpoporak.com/en/default.aspx. The report thereby identifies the groundwater related

including transboundary aquifers and transboundary impacts of groundwater abstraction. Theme 1: Bio-physical and hydrological aspects of the r iver basin. Draining an area of approximately 408 000 km², the Limpopo River basin encapsulates a diverse landscape and four riparian countries in southern Africa - Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. The Limpopo River travels a distance of over 1 750 km from the confluence of the Marcio and Crocodile Rivers in South Africa to the Indian Ocean at Xai Xai, in Mozambique. Along its route, the river forms the border between Botswana and South Africa, then the border between Zimbabwe and South Africa, before passing into Mozambique at Pafuri. A map of the basin is available at http://www.limpoporak.com/UserFiles/Interactive/en/BasinMap/basinmap.html Area and percentage of the river basin for the four riparian states.

Country A rea in each country (km⇢)

Percentageof the Basin

Botswana 81 400 20 % Mozambique 79 800 20 % South Africa 184 150 45 % Zimbabwe 62 900 15 % Total 408 250 Source: LBPTC 2010 Groundwater in the River Basin: The Limpopo River Awareness Kit devotes an entire page to surface water / groundwater interactions, focusing specifically on the alluvial aquifers occurring along river channels and specifically the Limpopo River main stem. Groundwater is mentioned as a potential component in the water balance in terms of a) transboundary (trans-basin) aquifer flows and b) extraction of groundwater for consumptive use. It is clear that LIMCOM is concerned about the impact of groundwater abstraction of river flow. consistent, basin-wide information about groundwater/surface water interactions is one area of concern raised in the LBPTC Scoping Study (2010). This concern was raised because not only does abstraction of groundwater from an alluvial aquifer, or an aquifer located close to a river channel, have an influence on local water availability, it also has an impact on downstream water users (human and environmental;

Botswana has embraced IWRM and has integrated surface water and groundwater resources in a single water resources master plan. In addition, the issue of Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/default.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/UserFiles/Interactive/en/BasinMap/basinmap.html#http://www.limpoporak.com/UserFiles/Interactive/en/BasinMap/basinmap.html



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(GDEs) is also raised and a specific mention is made of the riverine fringe where there are alluvial channel and alluvial plains aquifers. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/principles+of+hydrology/surface+water+groundwater+interactions.aspx The water resources of the Limpopo River basin are shared by four countries, with significant portions of each country and national populations contained within the basin boundary. The run-off from the riparian countries is shown in the table below: http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo.aspx Limpopo River riparian countries ranked by estimated present-day Mean Annual Run-off.

Country Catchment A rea (km⇢)

Naturalised Runoff (million m⇡)

Denaturalised Runoff (million m⇡)

Unit Runoff (denat. M A R) (mm)

South Africa 185,298 6065 2423 21.2 Botswana 46,818 506 475 6.6 Zimbabwe 62,541 1157 1157 15.6 Mozambique 84,981 315 Total 379,638 8 043 4055 9.8 * Denaturalised MAR will change when utilization of the Letsibogo Dam increases. ** According to Görgens and Boroto (1999), the MAR for Zimbabwe is the denaturalised MAR; according to GOZMRRWD DWD (1984), the given MAR is the naturalized MAR. Sources: Görgens and Boroto (1999); GOSA DWAF (1991); GOSA DWAF (2003 a d); GOB MMRWA (1992); GOZ MRRWD DWD (1984); FAO (1997) Source: FAO 2004 Estimates of the country area and populations within the basin are shown in the table below. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo.aspx

Summary of country-area and population of riparian states within the Limpopo River basin. *2001 Census Adapted from LBPTC 2010; Leira et al. 2002

The water resources of the Limpopo River basin support a large population and significant economic activities, including mining and agriculture, all of which depend on water for survival and growth. The Limpopo basin is of major importance, especially for South Africa and Botswana. The section on groundwater in the Limpopo basin is quite detailed and includes a map of http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo/groundwater.aspx Groundwater Resources in the Limpopo Basin and a discussion of the importance and uses of groundwater in the riparian states. There is a section on transboundary groundwater in the basin and three transboundary aquifers are identified: the Tuli Karoo basin (sandstone units: Botswana / South Africa / Zimbabwe); the Ramotswa basin (karst dolomite: Botswana / South Africa); and the Limpopo Pafuri basin (alluvium: South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique). However the strip alluvial aquifers along the main stem Limpopo river are not mentioned as transboundary aquifers. There is a section on groundwater exploitation in the basin; well yield potentials are considered to be generally low. There is also a section on groundwater data in the basin and it is pointed out that most of the data resides in the archives in the riparian nations and not at LIMCOM headquarters. There are other reports on the hydrogeology in the Limpopo basin: eg Holland and Witthuser (2011); WaterNet 2010 http://www.waternetonline.ihe.nl/workingpapers/12 Limpopo Hydrogeology.pdf In the section on the Limpopo River Water Balance, the web site identifies all the major components of the water balance including groundwater. Maps are provided for rainfall, run-off, evapotranspiration and water

Country A rea in L impopo River basin

Percentage of Country in the Basin

Population in the Basin*

Percentage of Country Population in the Basin*

Percentage of Basin Population

Botswana 81 400 km² 20 1 000 000 59 7 Mozambique 79 800 km² 20 856 466 5 6 South Africa 184 150 km² 45 10 700 000 24 79 Zimbabwe 62 900 km² 15 1 000 000 9 7 Total 408 250 km⇢ 13 556 466

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/principles+of+hydrology/surface+water+groundwater+interactions.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo/groundwater.aspx

http://www.waternetonline.ihe.nl/workingpapers/12%20Limpopo%20Hydrogeology.pdf



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demand, but there is no map for groundwater and the site indicates that there is no data available on groundwater inflows to and outflows from the Limpopo basin. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo/water+balance.aspx Human impacts on Groundwater Quality are specifically discussed in the web site, which indicates that there are both anthropogenic causes for poor groundwater quality such as wastewater disposal, agriculture (pesticides etc) as well as natural causes such as the rock type. Specific groundwater quality issues are presented for each of the 4 riparian countries. Overall the groundwater in the basin is considered to be of relatively poor quality, which when combined with its low productivity means that the prospects for large-scale groundwater use are considered to be low. Nitrate in groundwater is treated in greater depth than other contaminants. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/water+quality/human+impacts/groundwater.aspx. Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is specifically discussed under Water Quality: Industry and Mining and a detailed table lists the impacts on water quality from specific mines, but groundwater pollution is not specifically addressed. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/water+quality/human+impacts/industry+and+mining.aspx. Theme 2: Socio-economic factors within the r iver basin, including water use, users and conflicts The second theme of the Limpopo River Awareness web site is People and the River, which focuses on socio-economic issues. Groundwater in the Limpopo Basin is considered an important component of Blue Water Resources for Sustainable Livelihoods and for the Environment and Well Being. It greatly reduces the vulnerability to water stress of the communities living in the basin with regards to water availability for domestic, economic and development uses. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/people/human+development+initiatives/vulnerability.aspx Vulnerability to drought is specifically mentioned and groundwater is identified as an important component in mitigating the effects of drought: 'Limpopo Basin Strategic Plan for Reducing Vulnerability to Floods and Droughts'. Groundwater is also considered as a vital resource in terms of Poverty Alleviation, particularly with regards to water supply and sanitation issues, an

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/people/human+development+initiatives/poverty+alleviation/south+africa.aspx Access to water is considered a key development indicator in the four riparian states. The table below shows the status with regards to access to water in 200either piped treated water or groundwater from a properly protected source. This web page provides data that shows the reduced incidence of E.Coli from improved water sources. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/people/environment+and+well+being/access+to+water.aspx Access to improved drinking water sources and improved sanitation in the Limpopo River basin countries.

Country Population 20071 Proportion urbanised 20102

Access to improveddrinking water sources (%) (2006) 3

Access to improved sanitation(2006) 3

% Urban Rural Urban Rural Botswana 1 756 651 61.13 100 90 60 30 Mozambique 20 366 795 38.43 71 26 53 19 South Africa 47 900 000 61.70 100 82 66 49 Zimbabwe 11 392 629 38.25 98 72 63 37

1-LBPTC 2010 2- United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2009-2010 projections. 3- WHO 2008 Although the production of food crops for subsistence is not specifically linked to groundwater, the web site does indicate that traditional water harvesting systems are based on knowledge of a variety of factors, including groundwater systems, and that these traditional water harvesting techniques have been sustainable for generations, supplying water for domestic purposes and nutrition gardens. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/people/people+of+the+basin/cultural+diversity/indigenous+traditional+knowledge.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo/water+balance.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/water+quality/human+impacts/groundwater.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/water+quality/human+impacts/industry+and+mining.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/people/human+development+initiatives/vulnerability.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/docs/InterNatInstDocs.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/docs/InterNatInstDocs.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/people/human+development+initiatives/poverty+alleviation/south+africa.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/people/environment+and+well+being/access+to+water.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/people/people+of+the+basin/cultural+diversity/indigenous+traditional+knowledge.aspx



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Theme 3: Governance of the basin water resources at all stakeholder levels. Under the theme of Governance, groundwater is referred to five times as follows:

1.The first reference is to an international example of river basin management in the Danube River basin. 2.The next reference is to the SADC Regional Strategic Action Plan where a SADC regional

Groundwater Management Program is indicated for both RSAP-1 and RSAP-2. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/sadc/sadc+action+plan.aspx. There is a specific Groundwater Management Program in SADC RWR 3.

3.The third reference to groundwater is in the LIMCOM agreement: http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/water+governance+in+the+limpopo+basin/agreement.aspx. A rticle 1 of the LIMCOM agreement defines the Limpopo watercourse as a system of surface and groundwaters of the Limpopo, parts of which are situated in the territories of the Contracting Parties. A rticle 3 presents the objectives of the commission: ion shall be to advise the Contracting Parties and provide recommendations on the uses of the Limpopo, its tributaries and its waters for purpose and measures of protection, preservation and management

As can be seen from this, LIMCOM is an advisory multi-state organization that has as its core objective the wise and balanced use of all the waters, including groundwater, in the Limpopo basin.

4.The fourth and final reference to groundwater refers to Groundwater in the national laws of Botswana. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/water+governance+in+the+limpopo+basin/national+policies+and+laws/botswana.aspx

In addition to the information provided in the LIMPOPORAK site, the LIMCOM web site provides some further information on the governance of the Limpopo basin. http://www.limcom.org/ Objectives of L I M C O M " The Objectives of the Commission shall be to advise the Contracting Parties and provide recommendations on the uses of the Limpopo, its tributaries and its waters for purpose and measures of protection, preservation and management of the Limpopo (LIMCOM Agreement 2003) The Council is designed to act as a technical advisor to the Contracting Parties on matters related to the development, utilisation and conservation of the water resources of the Limpopo. LIMCOM Agreement 2003 (English and Portuguese)

Structure of L I M C O M

Other L I M C O M publications / documents. Revised SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses (2000) LBPTC Scoping Study Main Report (2010) LIMCOM Stakeholder Participation Roadmap Workshop Report (2010) Theme 4: Resource Management within the L impopo River Basin. The first reference to groundwater under this theme occurs in Water Infrastructure- G roundwater in the

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/sadc/sadc+action+plan.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/water+governance+in+the+limpopo+basin/agreement.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/water+governance+in+the+limpopo+basin/national+policies+and+laws/botswana.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/water+governance+in+the+limpopo+basin/national+policies+and+laws/botswana.aspx

http://www.limcom.org/

http://limcom.org/en/Publications.aspx



24

Basin. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/in+the+basin.aspx This section gives considerable detail on the groundwater resources, as quoted below.

Groundwater is mainly used in the Limpopo basin for irrigation and rural supplies (Barros 2009). It is noted that over 1 000 boreholes have been drilled in the Limpopo basin, however, very few of these have had continuous water levels measured and there is limited information on depth, geological characteristics, and location (LBPTC 2010). The existing aquifer in the medium lower Limpopo Valley has depths ranging from 80 to 200 m (Barros 2009). The map showing the number of boreholes in the basin is shown in the River Basin section under the Groundwater Chapter.

Very little monitoring of groundwater conditions has been conducted throughout the basin and has only been completed where resources have been overexploited. The main need for groundwater data is due to the interconnected nature of groundwater and surface water interactions as discussed in SW/GW Interactions in the River Basin

The basin has a varied hydrogeology and groundwater potential. The western part of the basin in Botswana consists largely of indurated Karoo sediments and Kalahari sands, which have moderate to low groundwater potential. The central parts of the basin in South Africa and Zimbabwe are largely crystalline rocks and fractured aquifers with low groundwater potential. Downstream in the eastern part of the basin in Mozambique, groundwater is stored in extensive sedimentary aquifers but unfortunately much of the groundwater is saline and not well suited to large-scale development. The transboundary aquifers in the basin are identified as follows: Transboundary Aquifers Within the Limpopo River basin there are three transboundary aquifers along the northern border of South Africa with Botswana, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe (Cobbing et al. 2008): Ramotswa Dolomite Tuli Karoo Limpopo Aquifer

The Limpopo aquifer underlies the Limpopo River, which is a well-known sand river in southern Africa. It is also a transboundary aquifer with unconsolidated alluvial deposits, which fill the river channel and build up the irregular adjoining floodplain. Sustainable utilization of the aquifer is dependent up the management of surface water in the river (Cobbing et al. 2008). A mean saturated thickness is noted at 3.5 m with a hydraulic conductivity of 120 m/day (Cobbing et al. 2008). The aquifer is the broadest east of the Limpopo/Shashe confluence increasing to 500 to 700 m as it enters Mozambique, but narrows to 50 m near the Limpopo/Crocodile confluence. Transmissivity, estimated from pump testing boreholes near the confluence of the Motlouse and Limpopo Rivers, is in the order of 2 700 m⇡/day (Alemaw 2008).

The following table estimated annual groundwater abstractions in the Limpopo River basin (Environmentek, CSIR 2003). Estimated annual groundwater abstractions in the Limpopo River basin.

Country Estimated Annual Groundwater Abstraction (Mm3/year) Sector Use

Botswana ~23,1 Domestic, Irrigation Mozambique ~15 Domestic South Africa 462 Domestic, Irrigation, Mining Zimbabwe ~5,9 Irrigation Source:Environmentek, CSIR 2003 Clearly abstraction of such quantities of water from the alluvial aquifers associated with the active river channels will have a very significant impact on river flow. Maupin (2008) has suggested that South Africa abstracts water for irrigation in excess of the potential, while the other states, particularly Mozambique, under-utilize their Limpopo basin water resources. The Limpopo River is cited as being an area for potential

sable land-based

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/in+the+basin.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river.aspx


http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo/groundwater.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/river/hydrology/hydrology+of+the+limpopo/surface+water+groundwater+interactions.aspx




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The other two trans-boundary aquifers in the Limpopo basin are: The Ramotswa Dolomite, a transboundary karst aquifer lying between South Africa and south-eastern Bostswana (Staudt and Vogel. 2003). Due to its karst nature, it has high well yields, rapid recharge from rivers, and high vulnerability to pollution. There is concern that the aquifer may be susceptible to over abstraction by South African commercial agriculture (Cobbing et al. 2008). In addition the impacts of groundwater abstraction on the status of surface water flows is not known. The Ramotswa dolomite aquifer

-up supply for the capital, Gaborone, north of Ramotswa. However there are concerns that the aquifer is susceptible to pollution from pit latrines. On the South African side, the transboundary aquifer has not been well developed, but there is rising demand in the area which includes Mmabato, the capital of North West Province. 2. The Tuli Karoo aquifer is a sandstone unit of the upper Karoo that straddles the Botswana / South Africa / Zimbabwe triple junction. This is a dual porosity sedimentary rock aquifer but both the primary porosity and the fracture porosity are limited. The Karoo aquifer consists of the Forest sandstone aquifer, overlain by Karoo basalts and underlain by low permeability mudstones and fine grained formations. The aquifer may be confined and semi-confined in some parts of the basin. The low transmissivities and consequent low borehole yields of the Karoo rocks straddling the Botswana / South Africa / Zimbabwe border mean that the transboundary impact of groundwater abstraction is likely to be very small. This web page continues to discuss groundwater recharge in the basin and provides two small-scale maps showing the estimated recharge rates across the basin see below. This is followed by a short review of groundwater use and critical groundwater issues within the four riparian countries. In Botswana, groundwater is often the only water source and it is used extensively for domestic, livestock and mining use. In Mozambique, much of the groundwater in the Limpopo basin is saline and not suitable for consumption. However the town of Xai Xai is supplied by groundwater. In South Africa, groundwater in the Limpopo is used for municipal water supply, mining, irrigation and rural water supply. In Zimbabwe, irrigation from alluvial aquifer occurs along the Mzingwane River, and elsewhere groundwater is used for rural water supply. The web site indicates that climate change will affect the evaporation and precipitation and hence the groundwater recharge rate. The extent of the population depending on groundwater will also be affected. Exactly how climate change affect precipitation is not known, and the site makes general reference to decreasing water quality and quantity as well as flooding. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/small+scale+water+supply+and+sanitation/climate+change+impacts.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/small+scale+water+supply+and+sanitation/climate+change+impacts.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/small+scale+water+supply+and+sanitation/climate+change+impacts.aspx



26

G roundwater resources of the L impopo River basin , including recharge estimates. Source: WHYMap 2008

G roundwater recharge in the L impopo River basin. Source: CSIR 2003



27

Under Resources Monitoring, the web site discusses groundwater monitoring as shown below. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/resource+monitoring/importance+of+monitoring.aspx Generally, the aim of groundwater monitoring is to determine the quantity and quality of groundwater, temporal changes and trends, sustainable yields, the impacts of groundwater abstraction, groundwater recharge mechanisms and recharge rates and various other hydraulic properties. Groundwater monitoring is important for the following reasons: To develop an understanding of the regional and long-term groundwater quality and quantity which will allow for optimal management of groundwater resources To identify possible human impacts To identify and monitor major pollutant sources, including their locations and the movement of the pollutant in the aquifer To determine compliance with regulations and standards To assess the effectiveness of pollution control measures, such as groundwater protection zones To determine the quality of groundwater, particularly with respect to its possible use as a source of drinking water, industry, irrigation, etc. To understand recharge areas (zones), recharge mechanisms and recharge rates To develop an understanding of the hydraulic properties of the aquifer Information Management: The web site refers to the groundwater databases in Botswana and in South Africa, but has no information on groundwater information systems in Mozambique or Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe does have a borehole database housed in the Groundwater Branch at Zinwa (Zimbabwe National Water Authority). It is recognized that there are many monitoring gaps throughout the basin and that there are many challenges to obtaining adequate monitoring data. Since river basin management is likely to be predicated on the availability of suitable data required for decision- making, the issues of monitoring are highly significant. The recommendations for integrated basin-wide monitoring are shown below: Recommendations to provide a trans-boundary monitoring network include the following: Ratification by all member countries of the LIMCOM river commission; Completion of a comprehensive water resource and water quality basin specific study; Provision of a single integrated data and information system for all water uses in the basin; Comprehensive ground and surface water monitoring program consistent in quality throughout the basin; Data should be compiled and analyzed in one consistent format and coordinate system; and Data should be collected and presented in one language.

The section: Resource Monitoring: Information for Decision Making presents some critical observations on the need for accurate scientific data when making decisions about water management. The confidence with which the outputs of scientific assessments can be used in decision-making is directly related to the availability and quality of the data used (Morgan 2009). The web page directly mentions the need to incorporate Groundwater Risk Assessments into institutional decision making structures and provides an example aquifer vulnerability assessment protocol from South Africa that is shown below. It brings to attention the role of Environmental Legislation in this regard. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/resource+monitoring/strategic+decision+making.aspx Case Study: Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment Protocol (A V AP) AVAP was designed in accordance with the following main stages of an aquifer vulnerability decision support framework: Source: Saayman et al. 2007 Stage 1: Screening and Scoping to determine whether an assessment of groundwater contamination

risk is required for decision-making Stage 2: Assessment to determine the risk of groundwater contamination, which depends on the

characteristics of the contaminant and the vulnerability of the aquifer to pollution Stage 3: Decision-making which integrates the outputs of the risk assessment into a cost benefit

analysis, which the decision maker evaluates with consideration of relevant laws, regulations and guidelines and the principles and values of society

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/resource+monitoring/importance+of+monitoring.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/resource+monitoring/strategic+decision+making.aspx



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Resource Monitoring: Existing Monitoring: The issue of very high transmission loss / river flow decline from the Limpopo River along its course has been identified. Clearly the groundwater abstraction from alluvial aquifers within the river channels has an impact on the scale of these losses. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/resource+monitoring/existing+monitoring.aspx Water Demand: http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+demand.aspx Groundwater is specifically mentioned: Assessing water demands in the Limpopo River basin is complicated by the fact that there are four countries sharing the basin, numerous sectors and services that require water and uncertainties as to availability of water - especially with respect to groundwater resources and the potential impacts of climate change. Water demand management studies suggest that the proposed irrigation potential of 15,000 ha from the Limpopo basin Botswana, with 44% coming from groundwater, should be lowered to 5000 ha. limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/irrigation+infrastructure/botswana.aspx Water Use in the Basin http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+demand/water+use/water+use.aspx Figures for the water use in the basin are presented on a country basis. Groundwater demand is mentioned with respect to rural water supply. Conservation and Water Re-Use limpoporak.com/en/management/water+demand/conservation+and+reuse.aspx The recycling / artificial recharge of partially treated wastewater to groundwater is seen as a possible strategy to cope with increasing water demand in Botswana. Water Allocation http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+demand/water+use/allocation.aspx This section speaks of the requirement for permits for all commercial water use, but the case of groundwater abstraction permits is only mentioned specifically in the case of Botswana. Water Infrastructure refers to groundwater infrastructure such as well fields and boreholes and discusses the need for sufficient investment to construct, maintain and repair water infrastructure in general. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure.aspx. Small Scale Water Supply and Sanitation, the subject of groundwater comes up repeatedly, and it is stated that the arid regions of the basin are highly dependent on groundwater, particularly domestic water for small-scale users in rural areas. It is also noted that borehole water is often consumed without treatment and groundwater pollution can occur. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/small+scale+water+supply+and+sanitation.aspx Development, Operation and Maintenance of Water Infrastructure http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/development+operation+maintenance.aspx - Groundwater is mentioned, but only in a peripheral way. A SADC study has indicated that much of the groundwater infrastructure is not functional at any point in time and that it needs continuous maintenance. Such issues are generally considered to be the responsibility of the national authority and not the RBO. The Value of Water: Social Costs The value of water with regards to groundwater replenishment is indicated here ranging between US$10-90 /ha /year. limpoporak.com/en/management/value+of+water/environmental+costs/social+costs.aspx Theme 5: T echnical Capacity and Capacity Building Requirements for the RB O Governance > Integrated Water Resources Management > Capacity Development http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/integrated+management/capacity+development.aspx. This page provides

organizational and institutional levels for capacity and capacity development, as expressed below

unleash, st -DAC 2006).

The web site goes on to state: Many river basin organisations are not fully able to deal with the complex and dynamic nature of transboundary water management. Challenges include excessive bureaucracy (which

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/resource+monitoring/existing+monitoring.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+demand.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/irrigation+infrastructure/botswana.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+demand/water+use/water+use.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+demand/conservation+and+reuse.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+demand/water+use/allocation.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/small+scale+water+supply+and+sanitation.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/water+infrastructure/development+operation+maintenance.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/management/value+of+water/environmental+costs/social+costs.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/integrated+management.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/integrated+management/capacity+development.aspx



29

results in over-regulation), resourcing issues with staff, programming that is technically oriented rather than strategic, and, too often, weak decision making and conflicting priorities (Pres 2008).

The four main steps for capacity development in the context of transboundary river basin management are identified as: 1) Understanding the International and Country Contexts 2) Identifying and Supporting Sources of Country-Owned Change 3) Delivering Support 4) Learning from Experiences and Sharing Lessons Governance > Integrated Water Resources Management > Capacity Development > Organisations. This page lists a number of capacity building organizations that operate within the Limpopo basin. Global Water Partnership Southern Africa: http://www.gwp.org/ WaterNet: http://www.waternetonline.ihe.nl/ Cap-Net: http://www.cap-net.org/ FETWater: http://www.fetwater.co.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC): http://www.wrc.org.za/ In addition the page mentions other organizations such as IWMI (International Water Management Institution), WARFSA (Water Research Fund for Southern Africa) and the various universities in the region. Governance > Southern African Development Community > SADC Action Plan Capacity Building is indicated as a pillar of Regional Strategic Action Plans, RSAP1 and RSAP2 for water

C B 4 3 Capacity Building for Joint Integrated Basin Management

Strengthening River Basin Organisations

Governance > Stakeholders > Non-Governmental Organisations. Several NGOs that work in the water sector in the Limpopo basin are specifically identified and those that do capacity building are listed. Summary: The LIMPOPORAK web site provides a good understanding of how LIMCOM and the riparian states view the groundwater resources in the Limpopo basin, and identifies many of the threats, challenges and opportunities for improved groundwater management in the basin as a whole. Together with the interviews of key management and professional within the Limpopo Commission, this document will provide a good basis for assessing the future needs of LIMCOM with regards to groundwater management. References:

6-242. Barros, R. 2009. Integrated Water Resources Management in Mozambique: The case of the Limpopo Basin. Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Environmental Sciences. Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland. 85 pp. Cobbing, J.E., P.J. Hobbs, R. Meyer and J. Davies. 2008. A Critical Overview of Transboundary Aquifers shared by South Africa. Hydrogeology Journal. DOI 10.1007/s10040-008-0285-2. Environmentek, CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research). 2003. Protection and Strategic Uses of Groundwater Resources in Drought Prone Areas of the SADC Region. Groundwater Situation Analysis of the Limpopo River Basin, Summary Report. Prepared for SADC. CSIR Environmentek Report No. ENV-P-C 2003-047. Holland M and Witthuser K. 2011. Evaluation of geologic and geomorphic influences on borehole productivity in crystalline bedrock aquifers in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Hydrogeology Journal. Vol 19. No 5.


http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/integrated+management.aspx

http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/integrated+management/capacity+development.aspx

http://www.gwp.org/

http://www.waternetonline.ihe.nl/

http://www.cap-net.org/

http://www.fetwater.co.za/

http://www.wrc.org.za/


http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/sadc.aspx


http://www.limpoporak.com/en/governance/stakeholders.aspx



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LIMCOM The Limpopo Watercourse Commission. Official website: http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo River Awareness Kit. 2011. http://www.limpoporak.com/en/default.aspx. (Many references throughout the document come from this web-site. Individual references are identified with the URL in the document) Limpopo Watercourse Commission Agreement. 2003. http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Basin Permanent Technical Committee (LBPTC). 2010. Joint Limpopo River Basin Study Scoping Phase. Final Report. BIGCON Consortium. Morgan, K. 2009. Understanding how Data Quality impacts Decision Quality. Research Triangle Institute, Washington, D.C. Maupin A. 2008. The Limcom: a water management commission or a way to express countries unequal powers? 4th International Workshop of Hydro-Hegemony Owen R and Madari N. 2010. Hydrogeology of the Limpopo Basin: Country studies from Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. WaterNet Working Paper 12. Pres, A. 2008. Capacity Building: A Possible Approach to Improved Water Resources Management. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 24:1, pp.123-129. Southern African Development Community (SADC). 2000. Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Region. Southern African Development Community (SADC). 2011. SADC Groundwater and Drought Management Project website. http://sadc-groundwater.org/objective.php . Southern African Development Community (SADC). 2005b. Regional Strategic Action Plan on Integrated Water Resources Development and Management, Annotated Strategic Plan 2005 2010, pp. 68. Staudt M and Vogel H. 2003. Environmental Hydrogeology of Ramotswa. Geological Survey of Botswana / BGR.


http://www.limpoporak.com/en/default.aspx


Table 2. Key data on basins and basin organisations

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River Basin

Limpopo River Basin

Major tributaries

Marico, Crocodile, Bonwapitse, Lotsane, Mogalakwena, Shashe, Umzingwane, Sand, Bubi, Mwenezi, Elephants, Changane,

Riparian states 1. South Africa 2. Botswana 3. Zimbabwe 4. Mozambique


Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe.


Mozambique, Zimbabwe


408,250 km2

Mean annual runoff (mill. M3/year)

5.5 Mm3 / yr (4,055-8,034 Mm3/yr)

Total population (mill.)

13,556,466


Share (%) of population

Mean annual runoff (million M3/year)

Average rainfall in riparian basin part (mm/yr)







1. Botswana

20 7 (1.0 m) 506 Mm3/yr

250-550 mm/yr

Rainfed agriculture, livestock, wild-life

Urban Gaberone (0.3m) Lobatse, Serowe, Francistown

Game Reserves

No Ratified SADC treaty

2. South Africa

45 79 (10.7 m) 6065 Mm3/yr

300-1050 mm/yr

Agriculture, Urban, Mining

Irrigation Urban,

Johannesburg (7.2 m) Pretoria Polokwane

Kruger National Park

No Ratified SADC treaty

3. Zimbabwe

15 7 (1.0 m) 1157 Mm3/yr

300-650 mm/yr

Livestock Agriculture

Irrigation Urban

Beit Bridge (0.02 m) Gwanda (0.05)

Gona-Re-Zhou

No Not ratified

4. Mozambique

20 7 (0.85 m) Not known

350-850 mm/yr

Agriculture Livestock

Irrigation Chokwe (0.06m) Xai-Xai (0.13m)

Limpopo No Ratified SADC treaty

Year of formal LIMCOM Agreement 2003.


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recognition of Lake/Basin Org. Primary mandate of Lake/Basin Org.

" The Objectives of the Commission shall be to advise the Contracting Parties and provide recommendations on the uses of the Limpopo, its tributaries and its waters for purpose and measures of protection, preservation and management of the Limpopo (LIMCOM Agreement 2003)


River Basin Commission


1.LIMCOM Agreement signed 2003 ratified by end 2011 between (states): Mozambique, South

Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe (not yet ratified by Zimbabwe)

2.Limpopo Basin Permanent Technical Committee (LBPTC) 1986 Between (states) Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa

3. Joint Water Commission (JWC) 1996 Between (states): Mozambique and South Africa 4. Joint Permanent Technical Commission (JPTC) 1987 Between (states): Botswana & South Africa 5. Joint Permanent Commission for Cooperation (JPCC) 1997 Between (states): Botswana and South Africa 6. Agreement to establish a Joint Water Commission (JWC) 2002 Between (states): Mozambique and Zimbabwe


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River Basin

LIMPOPO


1. Ramotswa Dolomite Aquifer Botswana and South Africa 2. Tuli Karoo Aquifer Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe 3. Limpopo Aquifer South Africa, Mozambique, Zimbabwe

Aquifer no. Shared between which riparian states











1. Ramotswa Dolomite Aquifer

Botswana / South Africa

?? 50 km2 est

Karst dolomite

20-100 m Not known Not well known 20 mm/yr

River infiltration

Gaberone water supply

Nitrate pollution

pit latrines

Irrigation in SA vs Urban water in Botswana

A

2. Tuli Karoo Aquifer

Botswana / South Africa / Zimbabwe

Consolidated sediments and Volcanics

Variable 20 -100 m

Not known Not known

Direct from rainfall / river infiltration

Rural water supply

Assess recharge rates

No A

3. Limpopo Basin Aquifer

All Along the river channel

Alluival deposits

5 50 m Not known Channel aquifers saturated by flow

River bed recharge

Irrigation Impact on surface flows

Upstream downstream conflicts in Zimbabwe

A, C, D,



35

1.

GROUNDWATER NEED ASSESSMENT

Nile Basin Initiative NBI

BY

Callist Tindimugaya and Muna Mirghani

Africa Groundwater Network (AGWNET) & Nile IWRm-Net

Nov. 2011


36

BASELINE STUDY OF THE NILE BASIN INITIATIVE The River Basin: Bio-Physical The Nile is one of the great rivers of the world, feeding millions and giving birth to entire

extending for more than 3 million square kilometers. From its major source, Lake Victoria in east central Africa, the White Nile flows generally north through Uganda and into Sudan where it meets the Blue Nile at Khartoum, which rises in the Ethiopian highlands. From the confluence of the White and Blue Nile, the river continues to flow northwards into Egypt and on to the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile River Basin includes ten African countries namely Burundi, DR Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzanian and Uganda. Nile Basin is characterised by serious environmental degradation, such as soil erosion and water pollution, which are growing problems throughout the region. Land degradation leads to loss of agricultural fertility affecting livelihoods of rural communities as well as increased sedimentation of reservoirs and canal systems. More and more of

waters are becoming unsafe for use and this deteriorating water quality is resulting in increased prevalence of water borne disease.

Compared to many other large transboundary river basins, the Nile Basin is a water scarce region. Most of the water is generated from less than one-third of the total geographic area. While water availability is already scarce it must be further noted that possible climate change impact may increase the variability of supply and possibly even reduce it.

National development activities in the Nile basin are often planned in isolation from -optimal use of resources, negative social and

environmental impacts and delays in implementation resulting from lack of clear measures and agreement on transboundary implications.

Given the finite availability of water and the increasing demand for it, the need for a coordinated development and management of the water resources of the basin has become a necessity rather than a choice. Coordination is required not only nationally between water dependent sectors such as agriculture and power but also among the countries that share these transboundary water resources.

Managing the water resources of the Nile is a major challenge. The Nile is shared by nine countries, each having important but varying needs and demands upon the shared water resources. There are significant development needs across the basin and these often have impacts beyond the borders of any individual country.

Each of the governments of the Nile riparian countries makes great efforts year by year to deal with the above development challenges through country programming. Each countries targets to develop and utilize the common Nile water resources for agricultural


37

food production, aquaculture production, drinking water supply, flood and drought management, hydropower generation, navigation, tourism, and as recipient of waste water, among other uses. Over time it became apparent that a situation where each country acts unilaterally to meet its development objectives was untenable and leads to sub-optimal water resources development, incompatible development agenda of riparian countries, inequitable sharing of benefits, and escalation of tension in the region. Therefore cooperative action on the Nile was not only desirable, but also the best way forward for sustainable management and development of the common Nile water resources. Cooperation on the Nile can increase the range and magnitude of direct benefits to riparian states, and serve as a catalyst for greater regional integration, both economic and political, with potential benefits far exceeding those derived from the river itself

People and the River: Socio-Economic The Nile Basin is currently home to over 160 million people and it is expected that the population will double in the next 25 years, increasing the demand on water use. The River Nile, its natural resources and environment are assets of immense value to all the riparian countries and long-lasting cooperation among the nine countries will continue to promote integrated management, sustainable development and equitable utilization of the water resources, for the benefit of present and future generation. The NBI assists its member countries to strengthen economic growth and to reduce poverty by identifying and preparing investment projects for the development of shared water resources. These projects have multi-country or transboundary implications, providing benefits to all the countries involved as well as sharing the costs. In addition to leading the preparation, the NBI facilitates agreements between countries for investment financing and for future management through the national agencies. The NBI creates investment opportunities that cannot be created by countries acting on their own. Working regionally helps countries to identify and benefit from efficiencies and economies of scale in pursuit of common national objectives. A primary example is tackling the power deficit in the region. Through projects to build power interconnections, the NBI is working to join up markets and enable trade.

These are projects that are able to attract investment financing due to the needs they address (such as electricity generation or flood mitigation), their professional design to international technical, social, and environmental standards, and their high economic and financial rates of return. To date, NBI has utilised preparation financing of US$76 million to gain US$784 million of investment financing, and this impressive 1:10 ratio is set to increase with a growing pipeline of projects. NBI is continuing to develop its capacity to mobilise resources, underpinned by the growing commitment to regional cooperation and integration of its member countries.


38

river basin management. This represents the priority needs of countries within the Nile Basin for increased access to reliable and cheap electricity, for increased food security and productivity, and for increased protection and better management of the environment as a basis for livelihoods of many of the Basins people. Within these three sectors, projects range in size and scope covering irrigation and drainage, watershed management, flood early warning and protection, fisheries, power interconnectors and power generation. Governance: Legislation and Institutions The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) is an inter-governmental organization dedicated to equitable and sustainable management and development of the shared water resources of the Nile Basin. NBI Member States include Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. Eritrea is as an observer. The NBI was established on February 22, 1999 in Dar es Salaam, by Ministers responsible for Water Affairs of each of the nine Member States. The Nile Council of Ministers (Nile-COM) agreed on a Shared Vision which states: achieve sustainable socio-economic development through the equitable

.

NBI has its Secretariat (Nile-SEC) in Entebbe, Uganda with a responsibility of continuing the process of building cooperation among Member States and building capacity to conduct basin-wide water resources management. In 1999, Nile-COM

entary

(SAP) to guide Nile cooperation. The NBI is managed by the Nile-COM, which is the governing body and supreme policy and decision making organ of the NBI. Member States provide technical guidance to NBI, through their representation on the board, the Nile Technical Advisory Committee (Nile-TAC). The latter comprises of senior water officials (two per Member State). The Nile-TAC also provides technical advice to their respective water Ministers and the Nile-COM in general; it acts as an interface between the Nile-COM and NBI on one hand as well as Development Partners on the other. To facilitate in-established a National NBI Focal Point institution, referred to as the NBI Office. Among other things, the NBI office provides a forum for in-and activities; assists with promoting coordination and integration with other relevant national activities and initiatives as well as with logistical arrangements for incoming NBI missions. The staff of the NBI office includes National Inter-agency and Inter-sectoral representatives, and others recruited on full time basis. The NBI lacks common policy frameworks and transboundary water policies all of which


39

Resource Management: Water Demand, Infrastructure, Management and Monitoring

The Nile Basin is a crucial shared resource that needs to be monitored and carefully used to maintain its value to the countries of the basin. The system is important for both socioeconomic and ecosystem issues for all the countries within the basin. Many of the states within the basin are arid or semi-arid and depend on the basin waters for a large fraction of their water supply and irrigation.

However the Nile basin suffers from a high variability of rainfall and resulting floods and droughts. This is worsened by the fact that there is insufficient storage infrastructure that could help to alleviate these impacts.

Although a lot of hydrological data is collected within the member states of the Nile Basin, very little hydrological information and in particular time-series data has been shared by basin countries. Consequently it is extremely difficult to accurately understand the behaviour of the river system. When studies are conducted on the system there has not been a platform through which technical experts from each basin country can access these publications or share analyses. Without this forum, it is very difficult for individual countries to obtain agreement from neighbouring countries that may be affected by the potential transboundary impacts.

There has never existed a basin-wide analytic system which countries could access to openly and transparently share information and aid the understanding of broader impacts.

At the present time, groundwater/surface water interactions are known to be a major factor in the Nile basin, but are not explicitly included in basin planning efforts and management strategies. In part this is so because this interaction is not well understood. In particular, the importance of groundwater in maintaining the ecosystems of the various swamps is unknown and needs to be determined if proper management strategies are to be instituted.

Various studies carried out in the Nile Basin (IAEA, 2004) have noted that the groundwater has not been considered as part of the overall water budget of the basin by most national and regional water planning and management organizations. Although NBI generally acknowledges that groundwater is an important issue in managing the basin, groundwater has not been formally included in various projects and programs.

This is exemplified by the fact that the Nile Basin has an extensive network of hydrological stations but groundwater monitoring in the basin is limited with only a few countries starting it up. While identification of areas where groundwater is important in sustaining surface water flow is important, it is noted that there are large areas of the basin where data is lacking and instituting a groundwater monitoring program would help bridge this gap. Development of a successful model could also help focus the monitoring and predict changes brought about by changes in management practices


40

To address the limited groundwater knowledge in the basin, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) funded a project from 2003 to 2006 to understand groundwater

many issues remained unresolved. It was noted that more work needed to be carried out in the Nile basin to understand groundwater-surface water interactions and the role groundwater plays in water balance and sustainable development of the basin.

Noting the need for a continuing study of various areas in the basin, using both hydrologic and hydrogeological methods, as well as modelling techniques, IAEA in collaboration with UNDP/GEF initiated a follow up study to further understand groundwater-surface water interactions, carryout our water balance modelling of the basin and to promote knowledge of the importance of groundwater in the Nile Basin to the various stakeholders. Specifically more information will be generated on the impact of groundwater/surface water interactions in the lakes and wetlands and its implications for the ecosystem. In addition, the extent of groundwater input into the Nile river systems and the contribution of groundwater to the water balance of the Nile system will be further understood. The results of this study will make it possible to demonstrate to Nile Basin countries how groundwater should be included in current activities and in policy and management decisions in Nile Basin Management. This will also facilitate incorporation of groundwater element into the current structure of Nile Basin management.

Building Cooperation and Capacity The NBI works to foster cooperation in water resources of the Nile Basin through effective set of basin-wide activities and projects. These projects, which were targeted as catalysts for broader socio-economic development, address the major water-related sectors and cross-cutting themes deemed critical by the Nile riparians to ensure an integrated and comprehensive approach to water development and management. In 2003, the Nile-COM agreed that a shared vision could be legitimized by action on the ground, action that could benefit the peoples of the Nile Basin. The main activities proposed in the Basin as a strategic action program included the Shared Vision Program (SVP), and the Subsidiary Action Program (SAP). The Shared Vision Program and the Subsidiary Action Program are two complementary programs supporting each other. The Shared Vision Program was the foundation building; while the Subsidiary Action Program takes care of investment. The SVP comprised of eight basin-wide projects, with a major focus on building trust, confidence and capacity in member countries as well as creating an enabling environment for trans-boundary investments. The Shared Vision Program was largely completed during 2009. The Shared Vision Program provided the first basin-wide forum in the Nile Basin for collaborative action on a range


41

of water-related areas. Through SVPs. significant work has been carried out in strengthening the ability of both people and institutions within the basin in different water-related areas; broadening networks of stakeholders, as well as promoting stakeholder involvement, basin-wide dialogue and information exchange on issues of common concern and transboundary significance. The different Shared Vision Projects have generated a wealth of knowledge products, best practices, practical tools, strategic and analytical frameworks as well as policies and guidelines that promote an integrated and comprehensive approach to water and related resources management and development. All these serve as building blocks for the future permanent River Nile Basin Organization following the conclusion of negotiations on the Cooperative Framework Agreement. The SAP is the investment arm of NBI focusing on preparation of investment projects that are trans-boundary in nature. The overriding goal of the investment agenda is to contribute to poverty alleviation, reverse environmental degradation and promote socio-economic growth in the riparian countries. This program is managed by two sub-basin offices, one in the Eastern Nile region for the Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program (ENSAP) and the other in the Nile Equatorial Lakes region for the Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program (NELSAP). The two offices are located in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Kigali, Rwanda respectively. The Subsidiary Action Programs are in advanced stages of preparation of investment projects. The Subsidiary Action Program has made remarkable progress in building capacity for basin-wide water management and launching a significant investment portfolio to support water development. The implementation of the Shard Vision Program and the Subsidiary Action Program has laid a foundation for a regional cooperation among the Nile countries throughout the Nile Basin Initiative with support of Development Partners. The cooperation has created a climate of confidence within which an inclusive mechanism for working together has been established. However, some basin countries have limited technical capacity and financial resources to adequately address the challenges facing the basin. Thus, capacity building continues to be one of the focus areas of NBI.

References:

1.IAEA (2006). Adding the groundwater dimension to Nile River Basin Management. Project proposal to the Global Environment Facility.

2.Nile Basin Initiative website: www.nilebasin.org

http://www.nilebasin.org/


42

3.1UNECA (2011). Management of groundwater in Africa including transboundary aquifers: implications for meeting MDGs, livelihood goals and Climate Change adaptation. African Climate Policy Centre Working Paper 8


43

River Basin Nile Basin

Major tributaries White Nile and Blue Nile

Riparian states 1. Burundi 2. DR Congo 3. Egypt 4. Eritrea 5. Ethiopia 6. Kenya

7. Rwanda 8. Sudan 9. Tanzania 10. Uganda


Burundi, DR Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda


Egypt and Sudan


3 112 369


83

Total population

(mill.)

160 million people

Riparian state Share (%) of basin

Share (%) of

Mean annual runoff

Average rainfall in riparian

Primary land uses/cover

Primary water uses in basin

Major cities in basin

Protected areas, national

Major water transfer schemes

Transboundary conflicts


44

area population (million M3/year)

basin part (mm/yr)

in basin part

part part

(Mill. pop.)

parks in basin part

between states

over rivers

1. Burundi, 0.4

1 110

Domestic Gitega

2. DR Congo,

0.7

1 245

Domestic

3. Egypt

10.5

15

Irrigation Cairo Yes

4. Eritrea

0.8

520

Domestic

5. Ethiopia

11.7

1 125

Domestic Adis Ababa

6. Kenya

1.5

1 260

Domestic Kisumu

7. Rwanda

0.6

1 105

Domestic Kigali

8.Sudan

63.6

500

Irrigation Khartoum Yes


45

9. Tanzania

2.7

1 015

Domestic Mwanza

10. Uganda

7.4

1 140

Domestic Kampala


Established in 1999 as a transitional institution


Sustainable management and development of the water resources of the Nile Basin


Lake/River Basin Commission (transitional river basin organisation)

Technical Committee

River Basin Authority


1. Nile River Basin Cooperative Framework Agreement

Between (states): signed by 6 out of 9 states. Its ratification is on-going.


46

River Basin

Nile Basin

Major shared aquifers in the basin1

1. Mount Elgon aquifer

2. Upper Nile basin aquifer

3. Awash valley aquifer

4. Juba aquifer



Geological formation of aquifer

(eg: sandstone, karst, limestone, volcanic, sedimentary)

Depth location of aquifer:

Shallow (0-20 m),

Intermediate (20-100m),

Deep (>100m)







Level of TBA mgt.

Note:

A, B, C, D, E, Fa acc. to what has been achieved

1.

Kenya and Uganda

volcanic intermediate Rainfall domestic Water quality

No A

2.

Sudan and Ethiopia

sedimentary shallow Rainfall domestic pollution No A


47

3.

Ethiopia Sedimentary intermediate Rainfall domestic No A

4.

Sudan and Uganda

Sedimentary Intermediate Rainfall domestic Pollution No A



48

3.


Nubian Sandstone Aquifer NSAS

BY

Muna Mirghani

Nile IWRM-Net

Nov. 2011


49

Figure 1: Transboundary Aquifers in Africa

4. Needs assessment to support Groundwater Resources Management in the Joint Authority of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (JA-‐NSAS)

5. 5. Basin Profile Source: SADA Report of the NSAS project.

a. Geographical, physical, hydrogeological context The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer (NSAS) area extends between latitudes 13o -26o North and longitudes 19.4o-34.5o East. It lies within dessert, semi-dessert, and low rain savanna zones (figure 1). Climate Features: The climate of the region is characterized by low irregular rainfall, persistent drought, land degradation and desertification. The rainfall average is less than 25 mm annually in the most northern part. It generally increases towards the south averaging 200 mm around Khartoum but it is very erratic in distribution. In recent years a significant delay of rainfall is recorded as well as general decrease in the amount of precipitation. Winter season, which is characterized by dry wind, begins in December and ends by February. The summer season dominates the rest of the year. The mean daily temperature is fairly high with the maximum in the hottest months above 40o C. The absolute maximum average temperature is usually recorded in May- September. The minimum average temperature below 15o C recorded in December- March. The wind is mostly North to South.


50

Physical features: The regional geological framework of the NSAS area was originally established in the Late Proterozoic times and was governed by the former plate tectonics affecting the area between Africa, Europe, and Asia. The effect of the resulting stresses on the North African plate was the formation of basins, troughs, grabens, ridges, blocks and uplifted areas with different orientations. Volcanic eruptions followed many of the old lines and intrusion of granitic magma took place in the Lower Paleozoic. Hoggar-Red Sea Massif areas form the backbone of the Arabian Nubian Shield. All the Basement rock exposures are associated with that shield which tapers almost to the south and slopes regionally northward. Older Paleozoic rocks crop out near the basement contacts in South Egypt, South Libya, North West Sudan, and North Chad. Precambrian Basement outcrops immediately to the South, East, and Southwest of the Basin. Local exposures are also found at Oweinat area at the border between Egypt Libya, and Sudan. The Basement rocks are dominated by granites and granodiorites in addition to an association of metasediments, metavolcanics, metagabros and serpentines.

The Nubian formation is flat lying to gently dipping rocks made up of continental sediments including sandstones, grits, mudstones and conglomerates, overlain by alluvial deposits. The Nubian Sandstone beds have minor intercalations of siltstone and kaolintic sandstone. Nubian Sandstones derive from Precambrian and reworked sandy Palaeozoic deposits, not altered by metamorphic processes. Libyan part from late Jurassic to early Cretaceous, Egyptian part from Palaeocene. In Sudan the Basement rocks are uncoformably overlain by the Paleozoic sediments which outcrop in SE Libya, NW Sudan, and NE Chad. The maximum recorded thickness of the Paleozoic sediments is 1500 meters in Ennedi in Chad. The Paleozoic succession is dominated by fluviatile sand facies. Hydrogeological features The Nubian sandstone aquifer system (NSAS) is a large regional groundwater basin (figure 2), extending across the border of four African countries, namely Chad, Egypt, Libya and Sudan. It covers a total area of 2,200,00 km2 and encompasses the major part of Egypt (29%), and eastern part of Libya (32%), the northern part of Sudan (29%) and the northeast of Chad (10%). Thick layers of highly porous continental sediments form an enormous water storage system.

The lithological characteristics of the aquifer and the tectonic framework have a considerable effect on the groundwater flow regime. the latest model under IAEA has made efforts to simulate NSAS system (Figure 3), however, it has only focused on the Egyptian & Libyan parts, with inaccurate extrapolation at the southern parts of the NSAS in Sudan and Chad. The model was not based on natural boundaries of the system, and has mainly emphasized intensive development areas in Libya/Egypt and excluded the southern extension of the NSAS in Sudan and Chad contributing to less accurate results..


51

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#

SudanChad

Libya Egypt

L A K E N

A S

E R

Nil e

Riv e

r

Mut

Uzi

Suez

JaluSiw a

Fada

Aswan

Cairo

Baris

Gouro Tekro

Asyut

Derna

Tubruq

Al Kharga

Karim a

Tazerbo

Aw jilah

Dongola

Al Farafra

Rebyana

Bzaymah

ElAtrun

Matrouh

Benghazi

KhartoumOm durman

Ajdabiya

Al Bahareya

Ed Debba

Nukheila

Port Said

Koro Toro

Alexandria

Al Jaghbub

Bini Erdei

Wadi Halfa

Wadi Howar

Bir Misaha

Selim a Oasis

Faya Largeau

Matan Bishara

Laqiya Arbain

Matan As Sarra

Ounianga KebirOunianga Serir

Kufra

F igure 2: Nubian Sandstone Aquifer (C E D A R E 2001)

Age determination of the Nubian sandstone water with C14 at Kufra (Libya) and Kharga (Egypt) indicate that groundwater in the area was originated by Pleistocene recharge between 40,000 and 20,000 years ago, or by Holocene recharge during the last Pluvial period (6,000 B.C). The NSAS is, in most of its parts non-renewable. However, there is ample evidence to support the existence of recharge of the NSAS from the Nile River in a few areas at the eastern boundary, by precipitation in some mountain regions and by groundwater influx from the Blue Nile / Main Nile Rift system. The infiltration rate is estimated to be small compared to the natural groundwater flow due to discharge in depressions, evaporation in areas of low depths to groundwater table and leakage into confining beds.


52

F igure 3: NSAS simulation results under I A E A , 2009..

A number of studies had attempted to quantify the amount of potential recharge to the NSAS.

The amount of recharge was estimated to range between 1.1x109 m³/year (Bonifica-NWC, 1983-1989) to a maximum 2.4x109 m³/year computed as 2% of maximum annual river discharge at Dongola (Hunting and Mac Donald, 1979). Isotope analysis (1985-1986) indicated that wells closely located to the Nile (8-10 km) carry a considerable percentage of Nile water and that their water level fluctuations follow those of the River Nile. The degree of mixing between groundwater and Nile water is controlled to a great extent by the anisotropy of the aquifer.

Isotopes studies carried out within a German-founded project (A. Suckow et al., 1992) on the NSAS recharge proved that the Nile River reach to the west as well as Umm-Kedada Basin at the southern boundary of the NSAS as major sources.. The long-term averages of the recharge rate estimated from the measured isotope data were found to be 25mm/yr and 1.5 mm/yr, respectively.

Isotope analysis for the NSAS conducted within the activities of the IAEA (2006-2009) and focal office in Sudan concluded that groundwater close to the Nile (up to 40 km) is affected by river bank infiltration and that some areas along Wadi ElMuqaddam in Sudan may be affected by relatively young recharge from Khartoum-Blue Nile Basin. The study clearly shows however that most sediments distant from the Nile (more than 40 km) host regional palaeo groundwater.

Besides being a large potential source of recharge, the Nile could also act as sink when water level in the Nile is lower than that in the aquifer for long periods of time. The actual recharge to the


53

aquifer from the Nile not only depended on the annual discharge in the river, but also on the groundwater abstraction rates and their patterns from the aquifer.

b. Transboundary groundwater basins, uses/users, conflicts

3. - groundwater resources will imply the mining of

aquifer storage reserves, such that they will not be available for future strategic use. As such it has special social, economic, and political sensitivity compared to other water resource development.

In the arid desert areas of the countries that share the aquifer, groundwater is a primary source of water for human populations and the indigenous ecosystems. The status of development of the NSAS is characterized by very high intensity of national use in Libya and Egypt. This has led to declining groundwater levels in Egypt and Libya, and pollution in Libya. Transboundary impacts have not been reported, but most likely in Sudan. With growing population pressures, and decreasing water available from other sources, there is increasing pressure to enhance the abstraction of this tremendously valuable resource that, under current climatic conditions and based on current knowledge, appears to be only marginally rechargeable. This increased pressure to use these shared groundwater resources, despite unclear knowledge of the transboundary impacts, represents a potential threat to a precious resource that if unchecked, could lead to deterioration of water quality and/or irrational water use with the potential to harm biodiversity, provoke land degradation processes or even lead to transboundary conflict.

The growth in exploitation of the groundwater storage reserves of the NSAS in Libya (The Great Man-made River) as well as in Egypt (western desert & East Oweinat) has led to the progressive reduction in major spring flows and oases.

The way in which the utilization of the NSAS groundwater is on unplanned basis could lead to incidental depletion of aquifer reserves, as a result of intensive groundwater abstraction. Hence, there is need to plan the exploitation of available groundwater resources, and guide their utilization with a view to making use-communities better prepared socio-economically to cope with increasing water stress as aquifer storage is depleted.

All four NSAS countries plan to place an even greater emphasis on groundwater resources to provide for water needs in the future. They all have similar climates, where surface water resources are scarce and groundwater resources need to be explored to meet increasing needs. As a result all countries have attached top priority in their respective national development plans to address water shortages and explore for alternatives.. Each of the respective aquifer countries is pursuing different development strategies.

The NSAS is a cross-border interconnected groundwater system, and this results in inevitable interdependence of all its users and stakeholders with their potential diversity in many other respects. Water-related activities in one state are likely to impact the water situation in another one


54

and water-related problems such as pollution can often only be solved through transboundary cooperation. Therefore, the need to cooperate on water issues beyond the borders of states has been broadly accepted for many years.

According to the FAO AQUASAT online database, latest information on the Nubian country water resources and development/ use status is provided in table 1. Table 1: Water Resources availability and use in the NSAS countries Latest value(s) Chad Egypt Libya Sudan &

S-‐ Sudan

Total population (1000 inhab) 10937 79716 6263 42478 Human Development Index (HDI) (-‐)

0.2948 0.6198 0.755 0.3787

Agriculture, value added to GDP (%)

13.63 13.68 1.865 29.69

Average precipitation in depth (mm/yr)

322 51 56 416

Surface water: produced internally (10^9 m3/yr)

13.5 0.5 0.2 7

Groundwater: produced internally (10^9 m3/yr)

11.5 1.3 0.5 4

Water resources: total internal renewable (10^9 m3/yr)

15 1.8 0.6 11

Surface water: inflow secured through treaties (actual) (10^9 m3/yr)

0 F 55.5 0 F 18.5

Surface water: total external renewable (actual) (10^9 m3/yr)

28 F 55.5 0 F 18.5

Groundwater: entering the country (actual) (10^9 m3/yr)

0 F 0 0 F 0 F

Water resources: total external renewable (actual) (10^9 m3/yr)

28 F 55.5 0 F 18.5 F

Surface water: total renewable (actual) (10^9 m3/yr)

41.5 F 56 0.2 F 25.5

Groundwater: total renewable (actual) (10^9 m3/yr)

11.5 F 1.3 0.5 F 4 F

Water resources: total renewable (actual) (10^9 m3/yr)

43 F 57.3 0.6 F 29.5 F

Dependency ratio (%) 65.12 F 96.86 0 F 76.92 F

Total water withdrawal (10^9 m3/yr)

0.367 L 68.3 4.326 37.14 L

Agricultural water withdrawal as % of total water withdrawal (%)

51.77 L 86.38 82.85 87.12 L

Industrial water withdrawal as % 24.11 L 5.857 3.051 0.5994 L


55

of total water withdrawal (%) Municipal water withdrawal as % of total withdrawal (%)

24.11 L 7.76 14.1 2.282 L

Total freshwater withdrawal (primary & secondary) (10^9 m3/yr)

0.367 F 68.2 F 4.308 F 37.14 F

Desalinated water produced (10^9 m3/yr)

0 F 0.1 F 0.018 F 4.00E-‐04 F

Direct use of treated wastewater (10^9 m3/yr)

0 F 2.971 0.04 0 F

Percentage of total actual renewable freshwater resources withdrawn (%)

0.8535 F 119 F 718 F 79.43 F

Conservation agriculture area as % of cultivated area (%)

0.049

F -‐ FAO estimate L -‐ Modelled data

(c) 2011 FAO of the UN

c. Water governance framework & Stakeholder involvement The four NSAS countries have already embarked on cooperation on the management of the NSAS water resources. Egypt and Libya initiated the process in the early 1970s and formalized it in1992 with the creation of the Joint Authority for the Management of the NSAS. Sudan joined the Joint Authority in 1996 and Chad followed in 1999.

The main original objectives of the Joint Authority are: (i)to oversee strategic planning, (ii)to develop a NSAS monitoring programme and (iii)to exchange data and information on the respective water resources and extraction.

Awareness of, and cooperation on, water issues has increased tremendously within the last few decades. NSAS states formally or informally agree to a common set of rules that govern their interactions. Yet the challenges keep expanding ever more rapidly due to growing demand for freshwater resources.

In October 2000 two agreements were signed by the NSAS countries, namely: Agreement No. 1 established terms of Reference for the Monitoring and Exchange of

Groundwater Information of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System. Agreement No. 2 established Terms of Reference for Monitoring and Data Sharing.


56

F igure 3: organizational Chart of the Joint Authority for the Study and Development of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (JASD-NSAS)

The agreement No. 1 aimed at developin

for the Development of a Regional Strategy for the utilisation of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System.

Agreement No. 2 aimed at maintaining continuous monitoring of the aquifer to observe the regional behaviour of the NSAS. It involves consent of riparian countries to share monitored parameters of the aquifer for sustainable development and proper management of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System.

Stakeholder participation is not yet envisaged by the JASD-NSAS. The regional Authority still works as an intergovernmental body with high restriction to external involvement. While nationally an inter-ministerial committee is occasionally formed for coordination of some activities. Even research on the basin is prohibited in some countries where access to data is only constrained to selected Ministry officers involved in NSAS project.. All projects/ activities are carries in an environment where organizational or office politics often appear to cloud a project's progression.


57

e. Technical capacity, data Data and technical capacity were major challenges to gain sufficient knowledge about the Nubian aquifer and develop a regional strategy for the utilization of the NSAS water resources..

From 1997-2002 through IFAD has supported an important initiatives and baseline activities to implement a joint survey of the socio-economic development policies and plans in the aquifer areas and the establishment of a NSAS Regional Information System (NARIS) database. NARIS facilitates data storage, processing, display and analysis and became instrumental in the preparation of data for a regional NSAS models. The modeling scenarios have been based on a survey of the

-economic development strategies related to the aquifer. It provides indication of the impacts on water levels and water quality over a period of 60 years of development and abstractions. The model has been updated in 2009 to simulate 3D aquifer system at areas of high levels of abstraction in Libya and Egypt. However, it cannot be employed for operational use. Data gaps that facilitate the joint management of the NSAS, including additional mechanisms for effective use and inter-country communication, need to be addressed. The NSAS countries are currently planning for the expansion of aquifer monitoring and observation well networks. There are, however, important capacity gaps. References: Groundwater in International Law: http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5739e/y5739e05.htm#bm05 Joint Authority website: http://www.jasad-nsas-ly.org/en/index.php AQUASTAT online country database: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/dbases/index.stm

http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5739e/y5739e05.htm#bm05

http://www.jasad-nsas-ly.org/en/index.php

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/dbases/index.stm


58

River Basin

Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System

Major tributaries

Riparian states 1. Chad 2. Egypt 3. Libya 4. Sudan


Chad, Sudan


Egypt, Libya


2,200,000



139.394











1.

10 7.85 322 Domestic

2.

29 57.19 51 Agriculture Cairo

3.

32 4.49 56 Domestic, Agriculture

Tripoli

4.

29 (634,000 km2)

30.47 200 Domestic, Agriculture (637 Mm3)

Khartoum Oasis, Wadi Howar


1999 (earlier agreements were not involving all Basin Countries)


The Authority has been established to carry out the following objectives: 1- Study, development and investment of water resources in the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer

System and strengthen the regional corporation between member states (NSAS website), (i)to oversee strategic planning, (ii) to develop a NSAS monitoring programme and (iii)to exchange data and information on the respective water resources and extraction.


59


Lake/River Basin Commission Technical Committee Lake/River Basin Authority


1. Programme for the Development of a Regional Strategy for the Utilisation of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS), Tripoli, 5 October 2000._________________ Between (states): Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan ____________ 2. Agreement No. 1 established terms of Reference for the Monitoring and Exchange of Groundwater Information of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System. __________________ Between (states): Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan_______________ 3. Agreement No. 2 established Terms of Reference for Monitoring and Data Sharing. ___ Between (states): Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan ________________


60

River Basin

Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System


1. Main Nile River sub-basin












1.

Egypt, Sudan

656,398 km2

River Deep 1.1-2.4×109

m³/year

river agriculture, domestic

ABCD (at Project level)

aA. Identification, B. Delineation, C. Diagnosis, D. Conceptual/numerical model, E. Allocation principles, F. Implementation of joint infrastructure project

61

1.


Okavango River Commission OKACOM

BY

Ben Mapani

WaterNet

Nov. 2011

62

THE OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN GROUNDWATER BASELINE SURVEY By

Benjamin Mapani

University of Namibia, Faculty of Science, private Bag 13301, Windhoek ([email protected])

The River Basin: BioPhysical conditions The Okavango delta river basin affects three riparian states, Angola, Botswana and Namibia. The

Okavango river has its source in southern Angola, and then flows in south-easterly direction until it

reaches the town of Rundu on the Namibia-Angola border. It then flows easterly for about 200 km,

marking the border between Angola and Namibia. Then at Bagani (Divundu) it turns south-easterly again,

crossing into Namibia for about 23 km then finally into Botswana where it ends into the inland delta

known as the Okavango Delta.

Relief

As shown in figure 1 below, the relief of the Okavango basin varies greatly, from high relief in Angola

(from near the source in Huambo to the Namibian border, near Rundu (circa 1000 km of river length))

and then flattens out in a meander river system from Rundu to near Maun in Botswana (660 km of river

length). The implication is that most of the groundwater flow direction would be towards the Namibia

border from Angola.

Climate and implications for recharge

The climate in the Okavango basin averages 450 mm per annum, a third of the rainfall recorded in the

Angolan side of the basin. The months of December-February, the temperatures can reach a maximum of

40° with a humidity of 50-80%. Between March-May, the temperatures reach a maximum of 30°, with a

cool nights, whereas the in June-July the temperatures are lower with maximums of up to 25° and cold

winters. In Between September-November the temperatures creep up to 40°. Recharge implications from

the rainfall averages is skewed towards the Angolan side. Approximately 60% of the water balance is

lost in transpiration; another 40% is lost via evaporation (36%) and 2% is recharged to groundwater

aquifers (www.blog.africabespoke.com). Another 2% is lost as outflows into Lake Ngami. However

this water balance is very roughly calculated and needs refining.

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.blog.africabespoke.com/

63

Wildlife

The Okavango basin has a wide variety of wildlife that includes the African Bush Elephant; the plain

zebra; African buffalo; hippopotamus; giraffe; black rhinoceros; white rhinoceros; chachma baboon;

lechwe,; topi; blue wildbeest; nile crocodile; lion; cheetah; leopard; brown hyena; spotted hyena; greater

kudu; sable antelope; warthog and wild dog. All these animals depend on the lush vegaetation and water

resources in the delta and the river course.

Birds are numerous, and the following are common, fish eagle; crested crane; lilac breasted rocker;

hammerkop; ostrich; sacred ibis; weavers and sparrows. Among many commodities are fish; these

include tiger fish; tilapia; and cat fish.

Figure 1. Relief of the Cubango-Kavango river basin from Huambo in Angola to Maun in Botswana.(Source:

OKACOM Annual Report, 2010).

64

Figure 2: Google image of the Okavango delta and an assortment of tourist lodges and camp sites.

People and the groundwater resources: Socio-Economic Five ethnic groups of people are found in the Okavango river basin and delta. The Hambukushu, the

Diruku (Dceriku), the Wayeyi, and to a smaller extent the Mafwe and Lozi (all being Bantu speaking);

the Bugakhwe and Gxanekwe are San. The population density is cluttered around the delta and along the

river banks, so as to access mainly the water and fish resources. Other communities that live farther away

from the Okavango river, derive these same benefits from the tributaries of the Okavango river most of

which are perennial. Only a small fraction of the population in the river basin derive their water from

wells and boreholes. In the Namibian part of the basin, communities farther away from the river basin are

given water by the department of Rural Supply in the Ministry of Agriculture via water points. Water is

transported by trucks to all allocated water points. This is the case because in this part of the basin, few

rivers occur (Figure 2) and the water is mostly present as alluvial aquifers. These water points are

concentrated along the B6 highway from Rundu to Katima Mulilo.

Other than the San, the bantu speaking ethnic group are all pastoralists, whose main source of livelihood

is farming and livestock rearing. Thus groundwater is major resource that can alleviate many a

65

needs of water.

Groundwater Governance: Policy, Legislation and Institutions The Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM) has three main organs:

1.The Commission (founded under the 1994 agreement).

2.The Okavango River Basin Steering Committee (OBSC)

3.The Okavango River Basin Secretariat (OKASEC), established under the 2007 agreement.

The three sovereign states of Angola, Botswana and Namibia agreed to sign the "OKACOM Agreement"

in 1994, in Windhoek, Namibia. The Agreement commits the member states to promote coordinated and

environmentally sustainable regional water resources development, while addressing the legitimate social

and economic needs of each of the riparian states. The three countries recognize the implications that

developments upstream of the river can have on the resource downstream. Most of the river is currently

undeveloped and is recognized as one of the few "near pristine" rivers in the world. (OKACOM website:

www.okacom.org)

The 1994 OKACOM Agreement gives it legal responsibility to;

Determine the long term safe yield of the river basin

Estimate reasonable demand from the consumers

Prepare criteria for conservation, equitable allocation and sustainable utilisation of water

Conduct investigations related to water infrastructure

Recommend pollution prevention measures

Develop measures for the alleviation of short term difficulties, such as temporary droughts

Address other matters determined by the Commission

In 2004, the Commission had recognized the need to establish a Secretariat to implement decisions of the

Commission and started the process of putting this in place. In April 2007, the three contracting parties

signed a new agreement of the "Organizational Structure for the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water

Commission", establishing the Secretariat as an internal organ of OKACOM.

The Secretariat is responsible for providing administrative, financial and general secretarial services to

OKACOM as well as leading information sharing and communication on behalf of the Commission. It

http://www.okacom.org/

66

was agreed that Botswana would be the first host for the Secretariat, which now has fully functional

offices in Maun, headed by an Executive Secretary and inaugurated on 2 February 2008 in an official

ceremony coinciding with World Wetlands Day.

Groundwater management does not feature as much on the OKACOM work plan, which is quite focused

on the surface water aspects of the basin. Its addition would be an added advantage as the ecosystem is

supported by its groundwater resources. In general the residents of the delta depend on both surface and

shallow wells for their water needs. Aquifers in the Caprivi region, to the northeast of the delta have been

studied and found to contain three types of aquifers. Shallow aquifers, which in some parts are saline;

moderately deep aquifers, in excess of 60 m below the ground, which can be either saline or may contain

fresh water resources, and deep aquifers which are mainly of fresh water constitution. This work was

done in the Namibian section only under the BGR cooperation with Namibia and Germany some four

years ago (DWA, 2007).

The SADC secretariat has planned to launch the Groundwater Management institute (SADC GMI) centre

in Bloemfontein, South Africa, to address the groundwater issues within SADC. Its mandate will be to

excellence in the areas of groundwater management, groundwater drought as well as the management of

SADC GMI initiative, to be launched at the end of 2011. The Okavango river system and delta is an

ecosystem which is also dependent on its groundwater architecture. The management of this groundwater

needs to be addressed directly by OKASEC. That way the implications of groundwater mobility and

usage will be managed by the same organization.

Groundwater Resource Management: supply and demand management, GW resource assessment and monitoring, data bases, analytical tools/models There is no comprehensive study that has been done on groundwater resources of the whole Okavango

basin. A few studies have been done in the Linyanti-Chobe basin, including the Linyanti-Katima Mulilo

area by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA, Namibia) in collaboration with BGR (Germany). As

such no major issues of groundwater supply can be reported; however it can be emphasized that there is a

great demand for groundwater in this area; specifically in areas not serviced by perennial streams (see

67

figure 2).

Every year close to 11 000 000 000 000 litres of water flow into the delta as the input water balance; out

of which 60% is lost to transpiration; 36% to evaporation; 2% to occasionally flows into Lake Ngami in

Botswana and 2% percolates into groundwater aquifers. This implies that the delta can flush out a major

proportion of saline salts. In the work done by DWA and BGR (2007), it is evident that at least three

types of aquifers are present in the Linyanti-Chobe groundwater aquifers; consisting of an upper saline to

slightly fresh aquifer; a middle fresh water aquifer and a lower freshwater or saline in some places saline

aquifer. The control over whether the aquifer is saline or fresh depends on the geology.

Table (Source: OKACOM 2010 Annual report, Maun, Botswana)

Capacity Building and Data Sharing: Training, knowledge and data sharing In an interview conducted with Ms Laura Namene, who works for the OKACOM Okavango Basin Steering Committee, on the 4th of November 2011; it was revealed that OKACOM has very little capacity in Groundwater. There is also not much capacity in hydrology in general as the commission normally engages experts to investigate specific problems. However OKACOM is

government, e.g., the Department of Water Affairs in Namibia, which feeds into the OKACOM secretariat and steering committee. The steering committee is encouraging the peoples of the basin

68

to engage in irrigation, aquaculture, tourism and domestic farming. The Strategic Action Plan for the OKACOM secretariat and Steering Committee is not yet complete. There are no actions planned yet for groundwater activities or research; as such this is a very crucial area for which not much data exists at OKACOM level, except as exists in the individual riparian states. References OKACOM annual report, 2009 OKACOM Annual Report, 2010 www.blog.africabespoke.com

http://www.blog.africabespoke.com/


69

River Basin

OKAVAGO

Major tributaries

Cuito, Cubango, Kwando, Linyanti

Riparian states 1. Angola 2. Botswana 3. Namibia


Angola, Namibia


Botswana, Namibia


36 000 km 2 in Angola 17 000 km2 in Botswana 7 000 km2 in Namibia


Inflow = 11 000 Million M3/year Outflow = 9 900 Million M3/year












1. Angola

60% 54 3 Million metre cubed

1350-2000 Subsistence agriculture

Farming/domestic use

Cuchi, Menongue, Cuanga, Calai

Mavhinga, Longa, Luengue, Mucusso

2. Namibia 12% 36 1 million Metre cubed

750-1000 National park/Subsistence agriculture

Farming/domestic use

Rundu, Divundu

Caprivi game reserve, Mahango game, mamili national park reserve

3. Botswana 28 % 10 6-7 million metre cubed

450-640mm

National park

Tourism/domestic

Maun Moremi Wildlife reserve, Chobe national park

10.


70


15th September 1994


Act as the technical advisor to the Contracting Parties on matters relating to the conservation, development and utilization of water resources of common interest in the Okavango River basin


Lake/River Basin Commission: River Basin Commission Technical Committee Lake/River Basin Authority


1. "OKACOM Agreement" in 1994, in Windhoek, Namibia Between (states): Angola, Botswana and Namibia. 2. _"Organizational Structure for the Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission"_agreement of 2007, establishing the Secretariatt in Maun, Botswana. Between (states): _ Angola, Botswana and Namibia.


71

River Basin

OKAVANGO RIVER BASIN


1. ________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________












1.

Rainfall No

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.



72

6.

GROUNDWATER NEED ASSESSMENT

OMVS

BY

Moustapha Diene


Nov. 2011


73

O M VS B ASIN PR O F I L E SU M M A R Y

a. The Basin The basin physical characteristics The Senegal River basin is located in West Africa, between latitudes 10°30 and 17°30 N, and longitudes 7°30 and 16°30 W. The Senegal River is the second longest river of West Africa (length 1,800 km), and its main tributaries are the Bafing, Bakoye and Faleme Rivers, which have their sources in the Fouta Djallon Mountains (Guinea) or in Mali. The Senegal River is mostly the northern boundary of Senegal, and its basin is estimates to about 300,000 km2. It has three distinct parts: the upper basin, which is mountainous, the valley (itself divided into high, middle and lower) and the delta, which encounters lot of sites of biological diversity and wetlands. The high plain in Northern Guinea covers 31,000 km2 (11 % of the basin), 155,000 km2 are localized in Western Mali (53 %), 75,500 km2 in Southern Mauritania (26 %) and 27,500 km2 in Northern Senegal (10 %). In terms of groundwater environment, the upper basin corresponds to basement rock aquifer, and the valley, as well as the delta, is the domain of sedimentary aquifers. The basin hydrology

mm/year); in the valley and the delta, rainfall is usually below 500 mm/year. Three major divides characterifrom October to February, and a hot and dry season from March to June. In terms of river flow, this climatic context has implication; high-waters period or flood stage takes place between July and October, and low-waters period between November and May - June.

flow. However the Bafing transfers half of the flow; mainly for this reason the Manantali dam (11.5 billions m3

from Saint Louis near the River mouth in the delta. At Bakel, which is the reference station on the Senegal River (due to its location below the last major tributary Faleme-), the average annual discharge is about 690 m3/s; this rate corresponds to an annual input of around 22 billion m3.


74

Source: Prepared for the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) by AFDEC, 2002.

b. People and G roundwater Resources Socio-economic context The population of the River basin is estimated to around 3,500,000 inhabitants (2002), among them 85 % live near the river. They represented approximately 16 percent of the total populations of the OMVS member states (Mali, Mauritania and Senegal, included Guinea). The population growth within the basin is about 3 % per year; considering this rate, the population amount will be in 2012 around 5 millions. Agriculture is the dominant economic activity, followed by fisheries. Actually irrigated agriculture is still the driving activity of the basin development, particularly in the valley and in the delta areas. Diverse varieties of products are grown (rice, onions, tomatoes, potatoes, sweet potatoes) on about 100,000 hectares of land: 60,000 hectares during the rainy season (June-September) and 20,000 hectares during the dry season (March-June). G roundwater environments The alluvial aquifer is the main shallow aquifer. It extends roughly in valley and delta areas, and in all of the flood plain at various depths, generally less than 2 m. Its mean thickness is about 25 m. These quaternary formations consist mainly of:

clays and fine sands, which correspond to Post Nouakchottian deposits, and coarse or gravelly alluvium, and clayey sands corresponding to the Ogolian period or recent

to mean Quaternary. The alluvial groundwater covers the major bed of the River. On the valley and delta parts of the basin alluvial aquifer is usually underlain by intermediate and deep aquifers, which are respectively:


75

Senegal and Mauritania (Trarza aquifer that supplies Nouakchott); near the valley, it may be assimilated to the quaternary aquifer due to similar geological facies;

Eocene aquifer consisting of calcareous and mainly of sandy formations in the valley, where it lays directly under quaternary formations, excepted in structural dome (upper valley) where it is absent;

Deep Maastrichtian aquifer that extends in overall sedimentary basin shared by Mauritania and Senegal, as well as Gambia and Northern Guinea Bissau; its outcrop appears through structural dome near Matam area in the upper part of the valley.

Interactions with the r iver Water level in the alluvial aquifer varies with the seasons and river level, along with the general hydrological regime in the valley. Piezometric measurements indicate that alluvial groundwater is alternately recharged and drained by the River. The hydraulic relationship between these different aquifers is mainly appreciable and varies spatially. The exchanged volume between the river and the groundwater is estimated to about 330 millions m3/year, this assessment is based on data from 1989. However, this volume depends heavily on yearly water availability, and the impacts of River management on groundwater are primarily sensitive on the alluvial aquifer. The latter shows annual water level oscillations whose magnitude is a function of the distance to the River and the proximity of an irrigated field. G roundwater level variation versus distance from river and ir rigated areas in different localities (/ /)

Yearly piezometric variation (m)

Dagana Podor K aedi Matam Selibabi

Far from irrigated fields and water course 0.2 - 0.3 0.5 - 0.8 0.2 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.2 0.4 - 1.0

Near water course 1.0 0.8 - 1.85 0.6 - 2.5 1.6 - 3.0

In irrigated fields 1.9 0.8 - 1.5 1 - 2 1.0

In irrigated fields and near water course 1.5 - 2.0 2.7 3.0

c. G roundwater Governance

Policy and legislation The Organization for the Development of the Senegal River (OMVS) is a river basin organization with a mandate to manage and develop Senegal River basin resources. It was established about three decades ago by three out of the four riparian states (Mali, Mauritania and Senegal). Major stages that have dominated the establishment of OMVS are:

On July 25, 1963, very soon after independence, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal signed the Bamako Convention for the Development of the Senegal River Basin. An

On May 26, 1968, the Labé (Guinea) Convention created the Organization of Riparian

States of the Senegal River (OERS,) to replace the Interstate Committee; After Guinea withdrew (January 1967) from the OERS, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal

decided, in 1972, to establish the OMVS, which pursues the same objectives.


76

Since then the main conventions or legal treaties governing OMVS can be summarized as followed: The Convention related to the status of the Senegal River (March 1972). The Senegal River

navigation and the equitable water access for users; The Convention creating the OMVS (11 March 1972); The Convention related to the Legal Status of Commonly-owned Infrastructures (December

1978), supplemented by the Convention concerning the Financing of Commonly Owned Infrastructures (March 1982).

The Senegal River Water Charter (May 2002) that set the principles and procedures for : o allocating water between the various use sectors, o acceptance of new water use projects o environmental preservation and protection o water user participation in decision-making processes.

Institutional framework The institutional framework of OMVS is as followed:

that defines the development and cooperation policy. Unanimity is the rule of the Conference.

The Council of Ministers is the concept and control body. It elaborates the overall policy on resources development and cooperation between riparian States.

The High Commission is the Executive body. It is in charge with the implementation of the

The Permanent Water Commission (PWC), consultative body for the Council of Ministers, that is in charge with defining the principles and modalities for allocating water resources among water use sectors

The Regional Planning Committee, a consultative element, that provide the Council of Ministers with advice on the pre-investment and investment programme

The Consultative Committee that assists the High commission in finding out the ways and means of implementing OMVS programme, particularly in mobilization of financial and human resources

OMVS National Unit in each member state, which plays the role of interface between national departments and the basin organisation.

d. G roundwater Resource Management

G roundwater supply and demand management Groundwater resources in the Senegal River basin currently play a more limited role in agricultural irrigation, which is one of the main activities developed by population. Surface water already meets the demand in this particular sector use. Among existing aquifers, the alluvial one may arise common interest between riparian states, in particular Mauritania and Senegal. Its geologic feature is closer to type A of Eckstein and Eckstein classification (in //), an unconfined aquifer, hydraulically linked with the river (losing or gaining, depending of season flow), both of which flow along an international border formed by the river. Unfortunately its utilization for large-scale development is limited by the hydrogeologic characteristics of groundwater-bearing formations with relatively low yield and local extension confined in a trip of 10 to 25 km width. However alluvial groundwater abstraction rate is not fully known, as well as the demand characteristics. It is clear that groundwater use is mainly for domestic purposes in scattered rural


77

population and for some small scale towns settled along the valley area, since in the delta groundwater is generally salty (EC>200 S/cm near Diama dam). As for other aquifers even though they are transboundary ones, their development is limited in general to only one country. While the Continental Terminal (e.g. Trarza aquifer) and Eocene aquifers (e.g. Brakna aquifer) are interesting for Mauritanian side in terms of water supply, the maastrichtian deep aquifer is not, because of its poor quality (salty). In reverse, this latter is the more developed groundwater in Senegal (high yield), while Eocene and Continental Terminal aquifers are low productive ones. G roundwater resources assessment and monitor ing There are huge uncertainties about quantification of recharge rate in alluvial aquifer, even if piezometric observations clearly establish the River flow impacts on groundwater level, as well as interconnection between aquifers at one hand, and between river body and alluvial aquifer at the

Since alluvial groundwater is in direct interaction with surface water, it may serve as a "relay" of recharge to underlain aquifers units. At this point of view it can play an important role in assessing hydrogeological balance. At the end of 80s, a network of more than 500 observation wells has been implemented in the Valley by the OMVS. Then a regular monitoring was carried out from 1987 to 1990 through a project funded by USAID agency. Its design was more oriented towards the

e project finished, piezometers were handed over to respective countries for monitoring; due to lack of capacity this task was not fully done as expected by states. Nethertheless, OMVS national Units have been mandated to collecte data delivered by national departments in charge with water resources management. If we look at at specific countries, we do notice disparities on groundwater data availability in the

piezometric network, while in Mauritania data are usually not centralised through national database. To ensure regular data it is established a reduced network that is monitored by telemetric mechanism, it is hence a pilote experience that need to carried on.

e. Capacity Building and Data Sharing: Training, knowledge and data sharing It is generally admitted that knowledge on transboundary alluvial aquifer is limited; it is obvious that major data and information are rather available for surface water. Focus was made on controlling river flow regime, to guarantee water availability for irrigation and more recently hydropower. OMVS does not have long monitoring series on groundwater to understand influence of regime

n. Thus, monitoring time and piezometric data are insufficient to ensure better understanding of rainfall change as well as river basin development on groundwater. It is usually admitted that the main hydrological change during the past twenty years is not result of new build infrastructures of the Senegal River, but a consequence of natural drought which strongly limited runoff depth on basin and therefore natural aquifer recharge. Through OMVS National Units workshop are held every year in each country member to collect data gathered by thematic national focal points (among them groundwater focal point). This activity is the main opportunity of data sharing between riparian countries.


78

References on Groundwater Management and River Basin Organizations (OMVS) /1/ CSE, CACG, GINGER, and SCP, 2009. SDAGE du Fleuve Sénégal. Rapport de phase 1 : Etat des lieux et diagnostic. /2/ FAO, 1997. Irrigation potential in Africa: A basin approach. FAO LAND AND WATER BULLETIN 4. FAO Land and Water Development Division http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0h.htm /3/Diagana, A., 1994. Etudes diagnostiques dans la vallée du Fleuve Sénégal de Bakel à Podor : relations eaux de surface et eaux souterraines. Thèse de 3ème cycle. Dépt. Géologie, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar. 126 pp + annexes. /4/Kane C.H., 2008. Etude diagnostique pour la mise en place et la réhabilitation du réseau piézométrique dans le bassin du fleuve Sénégal /5/Bassin du Fleuve Sénégal. http://www.riob.org/IMG/pdf/rapport-fleuve-senegal.pdf /6/ transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal. Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS). Document de projet préliminaire. /7/ Scheumann, W. and E. Herrfahrdt-Pähle, 2008. transboundary groundwater resources. German Development Institute (DIE Deuches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik). Bonn. 379 pp. ISBN 978-3-88985-364-6. http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/files/usbkoeln/2009/774/studie%2032.pdf /8/Tandia, M., 1996. Analyse piézométrique et caractérisation hydrodynamique et hydrochimique de la nappe alluviale de la Moyenne Vallée du Fleuve Sénégal (Rive droite). Mém. de DEA. Dépt. Géologie, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar. 88 pp + annexes. /9/ World Water Assessment Programme : case study Senegal river basin, year?? http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/case_studies/senegal_river/senegal_river.pdf

http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0h.htm

http://www.riob.org/IMG/pdf/rapport-fleuve-senegal.pdf

http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/files/usbkoeln/2009/774/studie%2032.pdf

http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/case_studies/senegal_river/senegal_river.pdf


79

Table 2. Key data on basins and basin organisations River Basin

Senegal River

Major tributaries

Karakoro River, Gorgol River

Riparian states 1. Guinea 2. Mali 3. Mauritania 4. Senegal


Guinea, Mali


Mauritania, Senegal


300,000

Mean annual runoff (Mill. M3/year)

22,000


Around 5.0











1.Guinea

11 - Not available

1475 agriculture agriculture Labé Not registered

2.Mali

53 - Not available

855 agriculture agriculture Kayes Kita

Bafing fauna Reserve

Not registered

3.Mauritania

26 - Not available

270 agriculture agriculture Kaedi Bogué Sélibabi Rosso

Diawling National Park (Ramsar), Chat Boul reserve (Ramsar),

Not registered

1989 and 2000 (Fossil valley project)


80

4.Senegal

10 - Not available

520 agriculture agriculture Saint Louis Matam Dagana Podor Bakel Richard-Toll

Djoudj National Park (Ramsar), Ndiaël and Gueumbeul special fauna reserves (Ramsar), Langue de Barbarie National Park,

Not registered

1989 and 2000 (Fossil valley project)


1972


Optimal and sustainable management of river basin resources


Lake/River Basin Commission

Technical Committee

X Lake/River Basin Authority Name of treaties or legally recognized agreements governing water mgt. in the basin

1. The Convention creating the OMVS (11 March 1972) Between (states): Mali, Mauritania and Senegal 2. The Convention concerning the status of the Senegal River (11 March 1972) Between (states): Mali, Mauritania and Senegal 3. The Convention concerning the Legal Status of Jointly-owned Structures (12 December 1978) Between (states): Mali, Mauritania and Senegal 4. The Convention concerning the Financing of Jointly Owned Structures (12 March 1982) Between (states): Mali, Mauritania and Senegal


81

5. Framework cooperation agreement (in 1992) Between (states): Guinea and the OMVS 6. The Senegal River Water Charter (May 2002) Between (states): Mali, Mauritania and Senegal (and Guinea, which jointed the basin organisation recently)


82

Table 3. Key data on transboundary aquifers River Basin Senegal River Major shared aquifers in the basin

1. Alluvial quaternary aquifer 2. Continental Terminal aquifer (Mio-Pliocene) 3. Eocene aquifer 4. Deep maastrichtian aquifer 5. Basement rock aquifer












1. Alluvial quaternary aquifer

Mauritania and Senegal

12,000 (considering area of major bed river of the valley)

Sand (fine to coarse)and silty sand

shallow Not available

300 river, irrigation

domestic Deficit of knowledge (interaction with river and underlain aquifers), salinity and pollution issues

No B, C

2. Continental Terminal aquifer (Mio-Pliocene)


Not available

Sand and sandstone

Intermediate Not available

Not available

rainfall, river

domestic interaction with river and other aquifers, recharge rate

No A, B

3. Eocene aquifer


Not available

Limestone, sand and sandstone


Not available

rainfall, river

domestic River recharge

No A

4. Deep maastrichtian aquifer


Sedimentary basin of

Mainly sand deep 350,000 Not available

Pre-historic domestic Salinity and fluoride

No D


83

Senegal and Mauritania

rates, recharge by the river

5. Basement rock aquifer

Senegal and Mali. Guinea and Mali

Not available

Weathered or fractured crystalline, meta-sedimentary or metamorphic rocks


Not available

rainfall, river

domestic Resource availability, sustainability

No A



84

7.

GROUNDWATER NEED ASSESSMENT ORASECOM

BY

Tamiru A. Abiye


Nov. 2011


85

Table of Contents 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 82

1) THE RIVER BASIN ........................................................................................................................... 82

1.1 Bio-physical condition ............................................................................................................. 82

1.2 THE PEOPLE AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES ...................................................... 82

a. ............................................................................................................................................ 1.2.3 Water demand, socio-economy and environment ......................................................... 82

1.3 Hydrogeology ........................................................................................................................... 83

2. TRANSBOUNDARY GW BASINS, USES/USERS, CONFLICTS ................................................................ 84

2.1 Ramostwa dolomitic aquifer: Botswana/South Africa ........................................................ 84

2.2 Stampriet Artesian Basin: Namibia/Botswana/South Africa ........................................... 84

2.3 Fractured Karoo Supergroup Sedimentary Aquifer: Lesotho/ South Africa ................... 21

2.4 Coastal Sedimentary Aquifer: Namibia/South Africa ......................................................... 85

3) WATER GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK, HUMAN RESOURCES ............................................................ 86

3.1 Policy, legislation and institution ........................................................................................... 86

4. STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT .......................................................................................................... 88

5. GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT .................................................................................. 88

5.1 Supply and demand management ........................................................................................ 88

5.2 Groundwater resources assessment and monitoring ........................................................ 89

6. TECHNICAL CAPACITY, DATA ............................................................................................................. 89

6.1 Analytical tools ......................................................................................................................... 89

6.2 Capacity Building, database and data sharing .................................................................... 89

7. SWOT analysis ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

8. Conclusions ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

9. Recommendations ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

10. References ................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

People who have involved in the Interview process ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

ANNEX: Reply ........................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.


86

1.Introduction The Orange-Senqu River basin is located in the arid and semi arid part of Southern

Africa where the groundwater resource has strategic role for rural water supply (domestic, livestock and irrigation uses) besides as a source for mining and tourism in the riparian countries. Due to benevolent gesture of the riparian countries to meet the growing water demand and foster the interaction between countries on water resource issues, ORASECOM has been officially established in Nov. 2000. Of course there were bilateral

ORASECOM aims to develop the Orange-Senqu River basin for the benefit of all the respective states and is the first formal body established for the management of shared water resources since the Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems became an instrument of international water law in the Southern African Development Community (SADC 2000). It is very important to mention the fact that ORASSECOM has carried out a lot of activities in the basin and all the available information are uploaded on its website.

1)THE RIVER BASIN 8. 1.1 Bio-physical condition

The Orange-Senqu River basin, with a total area of 896,368 km2 and population of over 19 Million, is located in Southern Africa (Republic of Botswana, Kingdom of Lesotho, Republic of Namibia and Republic of South Africa). The two main tributaries are the Senqu River (originates from the Lesotho Highlandsfrom central part of South Africa). However there are other tributaries such as Molopo, Kuruman, Nossob, Auob and Fish Rivers, which are important in sustaining the catchment hydrography. The Orange-Senqu River flows in a westerly direction for 2,200 km to the west coast and discharges into the Atlantic Ocean. The river forms the border between South Africa and Namibia. The Orange-Senqu River is regulated by more than thirty-one major dams. Two of these dams are situated in Lesotho, five in Namibia and twenty-four in South Africa. The largest five reservoirs are those formed by the Gariep, Vanderkloof, Sterkfontein, Vaal and Katse Dams with capacities ranging from 1950 Mm3 to 5675 Mm3 at full supply level (ORASECOM 001/2009).

The riparian countries cover a range of ecological zones with high rainfall mountainous areas of the Lesotho Highlands, through the savannah grasslands of the central plateau to the desert conditions in the western part of the basin (1, 2). The entire country of Lesotho falls within the Orange-Senqu River basin, with the river flowing into South Africa. The total runoff of the Orange-Senqu River basin is in the order of 11600 million m3/year (ORASECOM, 2005)(18). 9. 1.2 THE PEOPLE AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 1.2.3 Water demand, socio-economy and environment

South Africa is by far the largest water user of the Orange-Senqu basin and accounts for 97% of total water use in the basin; Lesotho accounts for 1%, Namibia 2% and Botswana <1% (ORASECOM Awareness Kit). Agriculture accounts for 61% of water demand from the Orange-Senqu basin and is the major user in basin countries with the exception of Lesotho. In Lesotho industry and domestic water demands are higher than agricultural demands (ORASECOM Awareness Kit). It is important to underline the fact that to meet the demand, withdrawal is made mainly from the Orange-Senqu River while the groundwater reserve was not taken into consideration.

According to the ORASECOM Awareness Kit, the upper Orange-Senqu River includes the Orange Senqu River in Lesotho and the Orange River in South Africa above


87

the Vaal River confluence. The Lower Orange River includes the South African stretch below the Vaal River confluence, and Botswana and Namibia sections. In Lesotho, an estimated 70% of rural households produce vegetables in their home gardens and most of these gardens are rain-fed, supplemented with irrigation from household and/or community domestic water supplies. In the upper Orange River basin of South Africa, the main economic activity is livestock farming and there are extensive areas under dry land cultivation. In the lower Orange River basin, most of the agriculture is irrigated using water extracted from the river and from groundwater.

Fig. 1. Orange-Senqu River Basin (Source: ORASECOM)

The environment of the Orange-Senqu River basin is characterized by vast dry land primarily in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa with limited highland terrain in Lesotho. The basin is congested with various mining activities: Gold, Diamond, Copper, Uranium, PGE minerals etc. besides large-scale irrigation and many conservation areas. Regarding water use, groundwater takes prime position in the rural areas away from the main Orange River for all type of human activities. 10. 1.3 Hydrogeology

The most important hydrogeological system in Orange-Senqu basin countries is represented by transboundary system, which requires profound attention for the sustainable resource development. However, small hydrogeologic basins in each country provide water for the development of agriculture, industry, mining, domestic and tourism activities. These are (ORASECOM 004/2007) (3) : Botswana: Hydrogeology of the Molopo River Basin area:

The fractured porous aquifer, represented by the Karoo sandstones, comprises 37% and is the most common but saline.

The porous aquifers, represented by alluvial and Kalahari bed aquifers, comprise 35% are generally saline or low yielding and occasionally fresh.

The fractured aquifer includes the Archaean Basement and Proterozoic aquifers and Karoo Basalts, comprise 27%.

The Karstic fractured aquifers, which are represented by the Transvaal dolomite units, comprise only around 1%.

Orange-Senqu River Basin


88

Namibia: Important aquifer is the Stampriet Artesian Basin shared by Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. The main lithology is made of Kalahari sand and gravels. Isolated groundwater occurrence exists within the fractured basement rocks and sand dunes.

Lesotho: Groundwater resource has played a crucial role in water supply for both rural villages and urban centres in Lesotho, but more importantly for rural population. Main groundwater occurrence is in the Burgersdorp Formation (argillaceous 1.6 L/sec), Molteno Formation (sandstone 3 L/sec), Elliot Formation (interbedded sandstone, 1.3 L/sec), Clarens Formation (compact sandstones, 0.9 L/sec). These aquifers are part of transboundary system between Lesotho and South Africa.

South Africa: Groundwater has always been an important source of rural water supply. Dolerite dykes within the Karoo sedimentary rocks, weathered zones, alluvials are important host for groundwater even as a transboundary aquifer system. An important feature with regard to the groundwater resources of the Orange River Basin is the large dolomitic aquifers of the Upper Vaal. Tosca Dolomite Aquifer in the North West Province (recharge= 6.90 MCM/yr) which is a major aquifer in the area. The Karoo aquifers that cover virtually most of the area have generally only a moderate development potential. Low permeability, storativity and available aquifers storage are the limiting factors.

The Molopo-Nossob groundwater provides important background information without key results on transboundary aquifer information.

11. 2. TRANSBOUNDARY GW BASINS, USES/USERS, CONFLICTS Transboundary aquifer management will have major benefits to the four riparian

countries and to the groundwater stakeholders. According to Struckmeier et al 2006 (8) and Cobbing et al, 2008 (9) the main transboundary aquifers in the ORASECOM countries are: 12. 2.1 Ramostwa dolomitic aquifer: Botswana/South Africa

It is unique because of its dolomitic characteristic that has karst structures and consequently it has high yield, high interconnectivity with surface water and high vulnerability to pollution. There are two primary aquifers, namely the Ramotswa dolomite and the Lephala formation. Both aquifers are considered to be hydraulically connected. The upper karstic zone receives recharge from the river and percolating rainfall. According to Cobbing et al. (2008)(9), the dolomitic transboundary aquifer between South Africa and Botswana requires attention in order to avoid over abstraction from South African side for agricultural use. Most of the aquifers have not been studied from the transboundary perspective and this needs immediate attention from the riparian countries. In any case over-abstraction of these aquifers could have severe impact on the status of surface water resources through drying up of rivers.

Key issues relating to this transboundary aquifer analysis are (SADC, 2009) 11: Botswana:

major well field, serving as local water supply and as back-up supply for the capital, Gaborone, north of Ramotswa.

Aquifer pollution from pit latrines. South Africa:

The South African side of the transboundary aquifer has not been well developed, but there is considerable interest in it from national water planners, because of the rising demands in the area which includes Mmabato, the capital of North West Province. However, Cobbing et al, 2008 (9) indicated the presence of an over exploitation in the dolomitic aquifer by commercial farmers.

13. 2.2 Stampriet Artesian Basin: Namibia/Botswana/South Africa The basin contains two confined regional artesian aquifers in the Karoo sediments,

overlain by the Kalahari sediments that often contain an unconfined aquifer system. The study confirmed that extensive faulting resulted in a complex nature of this aquifer system. Recharge into the system in the north-western part of the basin is from structures such as faults, linked to sinkholes that serve as the main conduits for recharging the confined


89

sandstones. The recharge mechanism in the Botswana/Namibia boundary area is however still unknown.

In Namibia, there is a comparatively good understanding of the geology and hydrogeology of the Stampriet Artesian Basin. Groundwater occurs in the Auob and Nossob sandstones of the Ecca Group as well as the overlying Kalahari Group sediments. In the South African part of the basin, mainly along the Molopo and Nossob Rivers, the known productive and potable aquifers are in the Kalahari Group and the inference is that being down-gradient from the hypersaline Stampriet / Nossob Basin. The groundwater chemistry is mainly of good quality and poor groundwater quality is generally confined to the south-eastern corner of the Stampriet Artesian Basin. However, thorough and integrated study is needed from Botswana and South Africa side by considering the Stampriet aquifer as a single system.

Key issues relating to this transboundary aquifer system are (SADC 2009) 11: Namibia

Sustainable utilization of a significant aquifer, at this stage largely for commercial agriculture;

Management of losses due to leakage from the artesian aquifers and through inadequately designed boreholes.

South Africa: Exploration for and development of freshwater in the saline aquifer environment for

rural communities Establishment of public awareness and local management of the local resource Maintenance of arid zone ecosystems for farming and nature conservation purposes,

including issues of bush encroachment and water point management Botswana:

Sustainable utilization of land and water resources in a tribal stock farming environment 14. 2.3 Fractured Karoo Supergroup Sedimentary Aquifer: Lesotho/ South Africa

There is very good information on this aquifer from South Africa side, but less understood from Lesotho side. The 200 m thick Burgersdorp Formation found in much of the transboundary area is composed of low permeability mudstones and siltstones with minor sandstones. It is a semi-confined to confined aquifer with a mean transmissivity of 20 m2/day supporting borehole yields <0.5 l/s, except where intruded by dolerite dykes. Within the Burgersdorp Formation, many boreholes have been drilled into the baked margins of dolerite ring dyke intrusions to supply water to farms and small rural communities (9).

The Molteno Formation varies in thickness from 250 m in the south to less than 50 m in the north. It is the best aquifer where permeability is enhanced by intruded dolerite dykes or fracturing. This semiconfined aquifer with mean transmissivity of 20 m2/day has been developed at Roma and Teyateyaneng, where wellfields with individual borehole yields of more than 3 l/s have been installed. Outcrops of the Molteno Formation also form an important spring line with individual spring discharges as high as 0.5 l/sec. The Elliot Formation varies in thickness from 200 m in the south to 100 m in the north, and is often in hydraulic continuity with the underlying Molteno Formation. Although good water strikes are recorded at the contact between these formations, the Elliot Formation is regarded as a poor aquifer due to its compact nature. The 130 m thick Clarens Formation supports the lowest mean borehole yield of 0.9 l/s and transmissivity of 5 m2/day. The low transmissivities and consequent low borehole yields of the Karoo Supergroup rocks straddling the Lesotho/South Africa border mean that the transboundary impact of groundwater abstraction is likely to be very small(9). 15. 2.4 Coastal Sedimentary Aquifer: Namibia/South Africa

The main geology of the aquifer is made of Quaternary sedimentary rocks and sand dunes. The transboundary problem related to the aquifer in both countries is saltwater intrusion into the coastal aquifer system

The main water uses in all riparian countries are for domestic, livestock, irrigation, mining, tourism and industry while in addition surface water is also used for hydro power


90

generation. However, the use of groundwater is enormous in all rural communities for domestic use, irrigation and livestock.

The review of groundwater resources in ORASECOM (ORASECOM 004/2007 (14)) has little contribution towards the transboundary aquifer assessment and has little contribution also to the ORASECOM Secretariat and riparian countries to develop groundwater as a strategic resource. The report contains very shallow information without significant hydrogeological information for professional users. The SADC 2009 report describes on the capacity building activities, CD-ROM and Webpage in ORASECOM. Groundwater monitoring activities (water level and quality) are active in South Africa, Botswana and Namibia but less in the transboundary basins as a common effort. ORASECOM 005/ 2009 has a comprehensive groundwater assessment report for the Molopo-Nossob River basin (Botswana, Namibia and South Africa). Still detailed characterization of the transboundary aquifer especially the Stampriet and the dolomitic aquifer did not take center stage. Information on area, storage, recharge etc has not been addressed. However, more general assessment has been done, maps have been prepared on yield, saturated thickness, groundwater quality, groundwater level and groundwater recharge. Available national data base information in the Molopo-Nossob basin has been described in the report, which is a very important starting point for the implementation of detailed transboundary aquifer projects in ORASECOM. Conflict: According to the information obtained from the Executive secretary, it was noted that was no conflict on water use among the riparian countries. However, there is a growing competition among local users due to fast economic growth in the region. Hence, excessive water use in the countries could potentially raise the tension on top of alarming climate change impact. 16. 3) WATER GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK, HUMAN RESOURCES

17. 3.1 Policy, legislation and institution ORASECOM has an international and national legal personality (ORASECOM 2000). It

is operating based on the agreement signed on 03 Nov. 2000 at Windhoek, Namibia, among Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa. The ORASECOM 2000 agreement provides the establishment of the Council with the institutional structure as in Fig.1, which is the highest body of the Commission as a technical advisor to the Parties, as well as sets out objectives and functions of the Council, how it will conduct its business. All four states are signatories to the SADC Revised Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems in 2000, which was initially adopted in 1995 and then revised in 2000, in order that its provisions were brought in line with those of the United Nations Convention on the law of the non-navigational uses of international watercourses (1998)(5). This provides an opportunity to ORASECOM to implement tranboundary groundwater resources management.

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B

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s

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N

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A

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91

Fig 1. The ORASECOM operational structure.

Each basin state has its own legal, policy and institutional framework governing the use

of both national and international waters. However, the groundwater position in the institutional structures has not been shown in most of the riparian countries especially in the context of transboundary basin analysis. There is encouraging activity, in this regard, at SADC, there is groundwater activities in drought mitigation measure, but the detailed transboundary groundwater assessment and implementation should be an ORASECOM mandate.

The ORASECOM 2000 agreement does not explicitly indicate groundwater both as

local and transboundary resource and did not emphasise the transboundary aquifer characterization and governance in the basin; however, article 7.4 describes data sharing on hydrology, hydrogeology, and water quality, meteorological and environmental condition of the river system. This could create important role for ORASECOM in organizing suitable platform for transboundary aquifer assessment, data sharing, and management among the states. Lesotho: The Department of Water Affairs is responsible for water sector administration,

policy and data collection. All water uses (except domestic use) must be licensed, and domestic uses have priority. Most of the population lives in the Lowlands and experiences frequent water shortages, despite the plentiful supply in the Highlands (10).

South Africa: water resources including well-organized database, reports and hydrogeological maps.

Botswana: The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) is responsible for hydrological data, water resources development, water supply to major villages and the design and investigation of supply to rural villages and the servicing and support of the Water Apportionment Board. The Department of Geological Surveys (DGS), however, is responsible for the administration, management, and research of groundwater resources under the Boreholes Act (10).

Namibia: the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development holds overall responsibility Resource Management is responsible for the implementation of measures to ensure sustainable use and protection of water resources, the control of abstraction and water allocation and carries out the functions of planning and regulation of the water sector. Geohydrology division is responsible for groundwater management in the country.

ORASECOM has permanent secretariat at Centurion, South Africa and there is high

level of understanding in the cooperation for sustainable utilization of water resources in the basin including groundwater in the riparian countries due to low rainfall, arid climate and rapid development trend in the region.

The legal implication of each article in the ORASECOM 2000 agreement has been thoroughly assessed in ORASECOM 011/2007 Report (5).

The detailed institutional analysis of the four countries has been presented in ORASECOM 010/2007(6) report where groundwater has important place as division in four riparian countries Department of Water Affairs structure. Even though it is not indicated in


92

the institutional structure, the discussion made with hydrogeologists has confirmed the elevated role of groundwater in respective countries. However, there is no defined position for Hydrogeologist at ORASECOM. ORASECOM has to motivate the riparian countries the strategic role of groundwater based on SADC, AMCOW and UN resolutions in order to retain hydrogeologists in Government Departments, who can involve in the transboundary aquifer analysis and management issues for common benefit.

Human resources: ORASECOM Secretariat has permanent staff at HQ. However, there

is no dedicated position for a groundwater expert at HQ. From the oral discussion made with the relevant people in the riparian countries, it is noted that the Groundwater section in the Water supply authorities is understaffed and they rely on private consultants for groundwater investigation. The suggested way-out would be to strengthen the Geological survey Departments or Council for Geosciences, in the case of South Africa, to undertake the survey besides Universities. 18. 4. STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT

Article 5.2.4 of the ORASECOM 2000 Agreement indicates that Council can advise nhabitants in the territory of each Party concerned shall

participate in respect of the planning, development, utilisation, protection and conservation of

capacity rather than exposure at more senior levels. This can also be regarded as being confidence-building levels within the basin (11). Article 5 of the ORASECOM agreement

arecommendations are viable and implementable (11). The ORASECOM stakeholder Roadmap (13):

provides a broad framework, describes a progressive development of participatory approaches, does not differentiate between stakeholder participation in projects and participation in the business of ORASECOM.

The Roadmap does provide some suggestions and options centred around four key focus areas, these being:

Communication and information, Institution creation and development, Capacity building, and Institutional interfaces.

A number of key steps forward recommendation of stakeholder participation have

been given in ORASECOM 008/2009 Report. However, deserving attention should be given to the transboundary groundwater resource assessment and utilization.

Stakeholder participation in transboundary organisations like ORASECOM, therefore,

needs to include more than just participation in developing implementable recommendations, but also in the functioning of the organisation itself, albeit only be at an observer level(11). 19. 5. GROUNDWATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 20. 5.1 Supply and demand management

An important vehicle for the implementation of the Groundwater Management Programme has been the SADC Drought and Groundwater Management Programme, supported by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Its objective was the development of a SADC regional strategic approach to support and enhance the capacity of its member States in the definition of drought management policies, specifically in relation to the role, availability (magnitude and recharge) and supply potential of groundwater resources (12). In order to meet the growing water demand, supply is sought from transboundary aquifer system. Based on the discussion made with the respective hydrogeologists in the riparian countries, it was learnt that one of the International Shared Aquifer Resource Management


93

(ISARM) related project proposed by SADC was the Stampriet Artesian Basin that is shared by Namibia, Botswana and South Africa and the dolomitic aquifer shared between Botswana and South Africa (SADC, 2009)(12). Even though, it was a feasible transboundary proposal, the project did not get funding for implementation. It is known that SADC is the one who has sound technical background and institution to undertake the transboundary aquifer studies, but the involvement of ORASECOM in management and follow up aspect is very important for successful implementation of the results. 21. 5.2 Groundwater resources assessment and monitoring

Attempt to address the transboundary aquifer analysis through SADC has been made by Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. However, the contacted experts from Lesotho have indicated that no attempts were made from their side yet due to capacity limitation. Through SADC there was an attempt to address the Stampriet and the dolomitic transboundary aquifers. In terms of groundwater management and protection within ORASECOM there are joint initiatives on the Groundwater and Drought Management Plan which was completed as Phase II, that will include the above mentioned ORASECOM transboundary aquifer systems. This ISARM project will focus on aquifer protection as well.

An ORASECOM report 004/2007(13) describes very general groundwater assessment in the basin which has no practical use either for managers or groundwater professionals. The report did not contain valuable aquifer information. The transboundary aquifers of the region did not attract special attention in the report. Only little information on abstraction and use has been presented on local aquifers. Based on the discussion made with the riparian countries some monitoring activities are still active based on the country program especially in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. 22. 6. TECHNICAL CAPACITY, DATA 23. 6.1 Analytical tools

In the four riparian countries, qualified hydrogeologists with BSC Honours, MSc and PhD level (DWA South Africa, has got a PhD holder) are involved in Groundwater divisions who can carry out groundwater assessment and data collection. However, most of the expertise exists in the private sector with large number of private consultants residing in South Africa. High level of technical capacity with sufficient number at all levels is lacking in all countries especially in regards to groundwater, but close collaboration with the Geological Surveys and with systematic incentive for groundwater professional can mitigate the problem.

The ORASECOM 009/2007(26) report gave particular technical tools for surface water experts (Engineers and technicians) based on surface water numerical models. Nothing has been mention on groundwater analytical methods and capacity. 24. 6.2 Capacity Building, database and data sharing

There is a need for capacity building aimed at different targets in the commission, the ORASECOM Secretariat, representatives and administration in the riparian States, awareness building for the decision-makers, community etc. One important issue is the development of a common level of understanding among four states, the creation of opportunities for discussions, negotiations and joint management of groundwater resources primarily for the vast rural population and irrigation. The specific training course (24) on surface hydrology has groundwater as one component especially surface and ground water interaction, principles and techniques of recharge estimation. Groundwater quality and pollution issues are also part of the training parcel. However, transboundary aquifer characteristics (quantity and quality) based on shared data base structure needs particular attention. At the ORASECOM scale, hard science in Groundwater training may not be necessary which is a duty of Universities, however, key findings on specific aquifers to assist management and stakeholders are necessary. At ORASECOM, there is no on going or planned capacity building program in Groundwater, primarily in transboundary aquifer system.


94

From the discussion that was undertaken with the Executive Secretary of ORASECOM, it was noted that ORASECOM has data base for completed groundwater projects e.g. Molopo-Nossob. On a country level:

Botswana: DWA and DGS update separate databases independently and most of the time

ports are available.

Namibia: 40,000 records of Borehole Completion Forms of WW-numbered boreholes are available in Namibia. The Department of Water Affairs owns the data sets. Some 90,000 water chemical analyses of mainly major ions plus some bacteriological data is also available. Many operational analyses from distribution networks and chemical data from numerous groundwater schemes are also available from DWA. Hydrogeological map is available. In Namibia, water levels are monitored in the Stampriet Artesian Basin (south of Gobabis and east of Mariental). Hydrogeological maps and different groundwater reports are available.

Lesotho: Groundwater is used extensively within rural population, both as a source of domestic water supply and for irrigation. Groundwater database is available at DWA and DRWS. However, the data base in complete in most cases. Hydrogeological maps and reports are available.

South Africa: Groundwater data, reports and maps from RSA are available without any significant costs (only maps). Time series hydrogeological data is readily available through the Internet media, Electronic and hard copies of reports are available at minimal cost and can be obtained from DWA. High-level scientific reports on groundwater research results are available through the Water Research Commission

It very useful to mention the presence of online hydrogeological information in SADC

countries on www.sadcgwarchive.net Even though the riparian countries have large collection of national groundwater data

base, up to now the available data have not been shared among the countries for transboundary aquifer assessment. The information sharing within ORASECOM is guided/governed by the SADC Protocol on shared water resources and the ORASECOM agreement. There are many platforms through which data/information is shared through task team, council meetings, Intranet system. There is a disparity in the level of development of the countries in the basin; some have less processed data than others. There is a GIS based database on groundwater development potential in the Molopo-Nossob sub basin.

Monitoring of transboundary groundwater system has not been implemented yet within the basin. Possibilities exist through ORASECOM, which will facilitate joint monitoring activities by member states technical people, similar exercise as the water quality joint basin survey.

1.References 1)Bohensky, E., Reyers, B., van Jaarsveld, A.S. and Fabricius, C. (eds.) 2004.

Ecosystem services in the Gariep Basin. SUNPRESS, Stellenbosch. 2)ORASECOM 2005. A Preliminary Basin Profile of the Orange/Senqu River. Inwent

Capacity Development Programme. 3)ORASECOM 004/2007. Review of Groundwater Resources in the Orange River

Catchment. Report No. ORASECOM 004/2007 4)ORASECOM 008/2009. Proposals for Stakeholder Participation in ORASECOM.

Southern African Development Community Water Sector Support Unit Gaborone. Report No. ORASECOM 008/2009

5) ORASECOM 011/2007. Legislation and Legal Issues Surrounding the Orange River Catchment. Report No. RASECOM 011/2007


95

6)ORASECOM 010/2007. Institutional Structures in the four Orange Basin States. Report No. ORASECOM 010/2007.

7)ORASECOM 2000. Agreement between the Government of The Republic of Botswana, The Kingdom of Lesotho, The Republic of Namibia and the Republic of South Africa on the establishment of The Orange-Senqu River commission, 2000

8)Struckmeier WF, Gilbrich WH, Gun Jvd, Maurer T, Puri S, RichtsA, Winter P, Zaepke M (2006) WHYMAP and the world map of transboundary aquifer systems at the scale of 1:50,000,000Special edition for the 4th World Water Forum, Mexico City, March 2006, BGR, Hannover and UNESCO, Paris

9)Cobbing, J. E. Hobbs, P. J. Meyer, R. Davies J. 2008. A critical overview of transboundary aquifers shared by South Africa. Hydrogeology Journal (2008) 16: 1207 1214

10)SADC 2009 (Southern African Development Community). Proposals for Stakeholder Participation in ORASECOM. Report No. ORASECOM 008/2009

11)SADC, 2009. Sustainable development and management of transboundary aquifers. Project CONCEPT NOTE. WINDHOEK. NAMIBIA.DECEMBER 2009

12)ORASECOM, 2007. Roadmap towards stakeholder participation. Version 3, February, 2007

13)ORASECOM 004/2007. Review of Groundwater Resources in the Orange River Catchment. Report No. ORASECOM 004/2007

14)SADC, 2009. Transboundary water management in SADC orange-senqu river awareness kit (OS-RAK). Final Report

15)ORASECOM 005/ 2009 Groundwater review of the Molopo-Nossob Basin for rural communities including Assessment of national databases at the subbasin level for possible future integration Report No. ORASECOM/005/2009

16)ORASECOM 008 2007. Demographic and Economic Activity in the four Orange Basin States. ORASECOM 008/2007

17)ORASECOM 002/2007. Review of Surface Hydrology in the Orange River Catchment. ORASECOM 002/2007

18)ORASECOM (April 2005) A Preliminary Basin Profile of the Orange/Senqu River. Inwent Capacity Development Programme. ORASECOM report

19)ORASECOM, 2008. Preliminary Transboundary diagnostic Analysis, Orange-Senqu River basin. April, 2008

20)ORASECOM 006/2009. Feasibility Study of the Potential for Sustainable Water Resources Development in the Molopo-Nossob Watercourse. Groundwater Report. ORASECOM. Report No: 006/2009

21)ORASECOM 005/2007.Environmental Considerations Pertaining to the Orange River ORASECOM/005/2007

22)ORASECOM 010/2010. Joint Basin Survey-1. Setting the baseline water resources quality in 2010

23)ORASECOM 010/2007. Institutional Structures in the four Orange Basin States. Report No. ORASECOM 010/2007

24)ORASECOM 001/ 2009. Capacity building programme design and planning of a definitive capacity Building Programme for Technical Staff/ Experts/ Commissioners and Stakeholders. Report no. ORASECOM 001/2009

25)ORASECOM 009/2007. Current Analytical Methods and Technical Capacity of the four Orange Basin States. Report no. ORASECOM 009/2007


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River Basin ORANGE-SENQU

Major tributaries Senqu, Vaal, Molopo, Kuruman, Nossob, Auob and Fish rivers

Riparian states 1. Botswana 2. Lesotho 3. Namibia 4.South Africa


Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa


Namibia, South Africa


896,368 km2 (18, 19)


11600 (18)

Total population

(mill.)

15 738115 (2001) (17) , 19 million (2002) (19)


(Refer. 23 )


(Refer. 17)


(Refer, 18, 19)


(Refer, 14,18, 19, 21)


(Refer.20)


(Refer, 14, 18, 19, 20)

Major cities in basin part

(Mill. pop.)

(Refer, 17)


(Refer. 20, 22)


(Refer, 18, 19, 20)


1.South Africa

64.2% 29.8 6550 100 mm-1000mm

-Urbanization

-irrigation

-mining

-hydropower

-domestic

-Irrigation

-mining

-livestock

-Johannesburg (3.3)

-Mangaung (0.65)

-Emfuleni (0.66)

-Matjhabeng (0.41)

-Richtersveld National Park

-Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park

-Ai-Ais/Richtersveld Transfrontier

Lesotho Highland Water Project

Between Lesotho and South Africa 2,3)

Never happend


97

-tourism

-Industry

-Maluti a Phofung (0.36)

-Klerksdorp (0.36)

-Mafikeng (0.26)

-Highveld East (0.22)

National Park

-Augrabies Falls National Park

-Golden Gate Highlands National Park

-Vaalbos National Park

780 Mm3/a into South Africa (5)

2.Lesotho

3.4% 100 4000 800 mm-1150mm

-Farming

-Forest

-domestic use

-irrigation

-livestock

-tourism

-mining

-hydropower

-Industry

-Maseru (0.45)

-Leribe (0.36)

-Berea (0.3)

-Mafeteng (0.24)

-Mohale's Hoek (0.21)

-Sehlaba-Thebe National Park

-Masitise Nature reserve

- -la-letsie protected area

- Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation and Development area

- Bokong Nature Reserve

-

National Park

- Liphofung Reserve

- Muela Nature

Never happend


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Reserve

3.Botswana

7.9% 2.8 337 200mm -600mm -pastoral farming, -commercial farming

-livestock

-domestic use

-livestock

- mining

-tourism

-Industry

-Tsabong (0.046)

-Mmathethe (0.048)

-Goodhope (0.034)

-central Kalahari game reserve

- Gemsbok National Park

-Khawa Wildlife Management Area

-Inalegolo Wildlife Management Area

-Corridor Wildlife Management Area

Never happend

4.Namibia

24.5% 8.9 494 50mm-600mm -Pastoral farming

-wildlife

- domestic

- livestock

-irrigation

-mining

-tourism

-Industry

-Keetmanshoop (0.074)

-Mariental (0.073)

-National Diamond Coast Recreation Area

-Hardap Recreation Resort

-Naute Recreation Resort

-Ai-Ais Hot Springs

Huns Mountains park

-Fish River

Never happend


99

Canyon Park

-Sperrgebiet National P.

Year of formal recognition of Basin Org.

Windhoek, 03 November 2000

Primary mandate of Basin Org.

Integrated development and management of the water resources of the Orange-Senqu River to the mutual and equitable benefit of all parties

-Develop a comprehensive perspective of the basin

-Study the present and planned future uses of the river system

-Determine the requirements for flow monitoring and flood management

Type of Org. X River Basin Commission (7)

Technical Committee

Lake/River Basin Authority


2.1978: South Africa and Lesotho, Joint Technical committee to investigate feasibility of the Lesotho Highland Water Project

3.1986: South Africa and Lesotho, Agreement signed

4.1999: South Africa and Lesotho, Highland Water Commission

5.1987: South Africa and Namibia, Joint Technical committee

6.1992: Permanent Water Commission

7.SADC Revised Protocol, 2000 Between: South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho and Namibia

8. ORASECOM Agreement, 2000 Between: South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho and Namibia

(Reference # 8, 9, 19)

100

River Basin ORANGE-SENQU


1.Ramostwa Dolomitic Aquifer: Botswana/South Africa

2.Stampriet artesian basin: Namibia/Botswana/South Africa

3.Coastal sedimentary aquifer: Namibia/South Africa

4. Fracture Karoo Supergroup sedimentary aquifer: Lesotho/ South Africa

(Reference #4, 13)



Geological formation of aquifer

(e.g. sandstone, karst, limestone, volcanic, sedimentary)

(Refer. 3, 9, 14, 15)

Depth location of aquifer:

Shallow (0-20 m),

Intermediate (20-100m),

Deep (>100m)

(Refer. 3, 9, 14)




(Refer. 14, 21)


(Refer. 9, 14, 20)



Level of TBA mgt.

Note:

A, B, C, D, E, Fa acc. to what has been achieved

1.

Ramostwa Dolomitic Aquifer

Botswana/ South Africa

No info. Ramostwa dolomite basin (Pomfret/Vergelegen)

-‐Low gw potential

-7.20 m3/hr (2.0 l/s)

-Deep

No info. 1.65-1.71 mm/m (21)

-Rainfall

-Commercial farm

-domestic

Over abstraction (9)

No information

A, C

(8, 9, 12, 16)

2.

Stampriet artesian basin

Namibia/

Botswana / South Africa

No info. SW Kalahari /Karoo aquifer (Aeolian sand)

-Yield <1.0m3/hr to 8.6m3/hr

-Low gw potential

-Deep

No info. No info. -Fossil gw

-Rainfall

-livestock

-domestic

-Mining

-Recharge estimation (11)

-Hydrogeological map (11)

No information

A, C

101

-Groundwater monitoring

-Data base (11)

(8, 9, 12, 16)

3

Coastal sedimentary aquifer

Namibia / South Africa

No info. Coastal sedimentary basin

-Intermediate No info. No info. -Rainfall

-

-irrigation

-domestic

-livestock

-Salt water intrusion (8)

No information

A

(8, 9)

4.

Fractured Karoo Supergroup sedimentary aquifer

Lesotho/

South Africa

11628.56 (8) in Lesotho

Karoo sedimentary aquifer

-Burgersdorp Formation: argillaceous: 1.6 L/sec,

-Molteno Formation: sandstone: 22 L/sec (well field), >3L/s (single well)

-Elliot Formation: sandstone: 1.3 L/sec

-Clarens Formation: sandstone: 0.9 L/sec

-50-200m thick

-0.9->3 L/sec

-Intermediate

195.88 (8, 9,

14) in Lesotho

No info. -Rainfall -domestic

-irrigation

-Low yield No information

A

(8,9)


SPLASH D8.6 GROUNDATER MANAGEMENT IN RIVER/LAKE … · Key data on basins and basin organisations...

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