March 1970 (23rd year) - U. K. : 2/-stg - Canada : 40 cents - France: 1.20 F

SPIN-OFFthe fruit

of space research

bbBl B

TREASURES

OF

WORLD ART

Neolithic goggles

This strange-looking figure, suggestive of a visitor from outer space, dates back to a period of

ancient Japan about which little is known. A hollow clay figurine (34.8 cm. high) it

was unearthed in northern Japan and was fashioned towards the end of the Jomon civilization

which lasted from about 5000 B.C. to the start of the Christian Era. Excavations have brought

to light several "goggled" figurines like this one. Certain archeologists believe that goggles

with horizontal slits like those employed by Eskimos to protect their eyes against snow glare

were also used in Neolithic Japan.

CourierMARCH 197023RD YEAR

PUBLISHED IN

THIRTEEN EDITIONS

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Spanish HindiRussian Tamil

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U.S.A.

Published monthly by UNESCO

The United Nations

Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization*

Sales and Distribution Offices

Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7*

Annual subscription rates: 20/-stg.; $4.00(Canada); 12 French francs or equivalent;2 years : 36/-stg. ; 22 F. Single copies : 2/-stg. ;40 cents ; 1 .20 F.

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Individual articles and photographs not copyrighted maybe reprinted providing the credit line reads "Reprinted fromthe UNESCO COURIER", plus date of issue, and threevoucher copies are sent to the editor. Signed articles re¬printed must bear author's name. Non-copyright photoswill be supplied on request Unsolicited manuscripts cannotbe returned unless accompanied by an internationalreply coupon covering postage. Signed articles express theopinions of the authors and do not necessarily representthe opinions of UNESCO or those ;of the editors of theUNESCO COURIER.

The Unesco Courier is indexed monthly in The Read¬ers' Guide to Periodical Literature, published byH. W. Wilson Co., New York, and In Current Con¬

tents Education, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Editorial Office

Unesco, Place de Fontenoyj Paris-7», France

Editor-in-Chief

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Assistant Editor-in-ChiefRené Caloz

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Managing Editors

English Edition: Ronald Fenton (Paris)French Edition: Jane Albert Hesse (Paris)Spanish Edition: Francisco Fernández-Santos (Paris)Russian Edition : Georgi Stetsenko (Paris)German Edition: Hans Rieben (Berne)Arabic Edition: Abdel Moneim El Sawi (Cairo)Japanese Edition : Takao Uchida (Tokyo)Italian Edition: Maria Remiddi (Rome)Hindi Edition: Annapuzha Chandrahasan (Delhi)Tamil Edition: T.P. Meenakshi Sundaran (Madras)Hebrew Edition: Alexander Peli (Jerusalem)Persian Edition: Fereydoun Ardalan (Teheran)

Photo Editor: Olga Rodel

Layout and Design: Robert JacqueminAll correspondence should be addressed to the EdItor-ln-Chlef

Page

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19

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22

SPIN-OFF: THEFRUIT OF SPACE RESEARCH

By Gene Gregory

(1) IS THE SPACE EFFORTA WASTE OF MONEY?

(2) SPIN-OFF FROM SPACE SATELLITES

(3) THE NEW SPACE-AGE TECHNOLOGY

(4) BENEFITS TO MEDICINE

(5) NEW SPACE-AGE MATERIALS

(6) NEW SPACE-AGE POWER SOURCES

(7) SPACE-AGE ELECTRONICSAND POCKET COMPUTERS

(8) THE 'SYSTEMS APPROACH'Applying the space team method

to major problems on earth

BEYOND BABEL

Laying the foundation of the first global society

By Arthur C Clarke

TREASURES OF WORLD ART

Neolithic goggles (Japan)

FOUR PAGES IN COLOUR

The earth also rises

The conquest of space a panoramic view

Prospecting earth resources from space

£over

This month's cover illustration,showing an apple in space, withan astronaut attached to it by anumbilical cord, is meant to conveya double symbolism. On the onehand, the fruits accruing to allmankind from the "apple" that is,communication and other satellites;on the other, that space research,and its living emblem, the astronaut,are directly tied to the "apple" thatis, our Planet Earth which has

begun to reap the vast benefits fromspace spin-off. What progress thatapple has made since it fell beforeNewton's eyes I

Drawing McDonnell Douglas Astronautics

3

SPIN-OFFthe fruit of space research

Much has been written on man's conquest of space in the past twelve years,crowned by the two successful landings on the moon by U.S. astronautsin 1969. Less appreciated, but perhaps far more significant than the spectacularaspects of space exploration itself, are the spin-off benefits that is,the vast accumulation of practical results for men on Earth of space research.Last year, the "Unesco Courier" asked Mr. Gene Gregory, U.S. engineerand writer specializing in economic and technological questions, to undertakea special inquiry into the fruits of space research. Mr. Gregory's findingsoccupy a major portion of this issue, and reveal a vast array of new productsand processes, innovations in materials, revolutionary progress in electronicsand computer technology, and a host of benefits for developed and developingcountries in communications, weather forecasting, food and agriculture,education, health and medicine, industry and manufacturing, transportationand commerce, new sources of energy, geology, hydrology, oceanographyand other applied sciences of direct use to all mankind today and in the yearsto come. On page 32, Arthur C. Clarke, the world famous science writer,discusses the implications and promise of what he calls "The century ofthe communications satellite."

"

« r^o^ wiji

A

by Gene Gregory

A

Is the

spaceeffort

a waste

money

The strange form floating above the> lunar landscape in this photo-montage

is one of the many new products' developed through space research. A

revolutionary three-dimensional fabric,

J it was built into the boots used by_ the first astronauts on the moon,>. since it is extremely light and an.b extraordinary insulator. It can be puto to many terrestial uses.

LS the Apollo 11 and 12spacecraft raced toward their ren¬dezvous with the moon last July andlast November, these most ambitiousof man's ventures were the focus of

a sharp and lively debate back onearth about the real meaning and value

of space exploration.

Twelve years had passed since theSoviet Union launched the space age

by firing Sputnik I into earth orbit onOctober 4, 1957. The United States hadspent some $44 thousand million onspace programmes, $24 thousand mil¬lion on the Apollo project alone. Hun¬dreds of thousands of top scientistsand technicians had been striving

together in by far the largest team ofspecialists ever mobilized in a singleundertaking.

Yet the basic question was stillbeing asked: "Is this trip reallynecessary?"

Was the moon landing a pointless"stunt", however adroitly executed, ora breathtaking demonstration of man'sunlimited capabilities? Would the bil¬lions allocated for space be better

spent on solving pressing problemshere on earth? What, in short, isthere in all this running around in

space for those of us who remainearthbound mortals?

Arnold J. Toynbee, the esteemedBritish historian, expressed the con¬

cern of many serious-minded scep¬tics for whom the moon landing sym¬bolized a yawning gap between tech¬nology and morals.

"In a sense," Toynbee remonstrated,"going to the moon is like building thepyramids or Louis XIV's palace atVersailles. It's rather scandalous,

when human beings are going shortof necessities, to do this. If we're

clever enough to reach the moon, don'twe feel rather foolish in our misman¬

agement of human affairs?"

But others contend that there is

money enough for the moon and taskson earth, too. And some go furtherto point out that the conquest of spacehas done much, through the develop¬ment of new ideas, new attitudes, new

techniques and new structures for themanagement of large-scale undertak¬ings, to prepare man for a major offen¬sive against the unsolved social andmaterial problems at home.

"If you look at the thousands ofyears of civilization," Sir BernardLovell, director of Britain's JodrellBank Observatory reminds us, "youwill find that only those communitiesthat have been prepared to strugglewith the nearly insoluble problems atthe limits of their technical capaci¬

ties those are the only communi¬

ties, the only times, that civiliza¬tion has advanced. The Roman Em¬

pire decayed when ¡t ceased to beprogressive in this sense, and thereare other examples. To a certainextent, you see the beginnings of itin the United Kingdom today, but for¬tunately not in the United States andcertainly not in the Soviet Union."

Queen Isabella of Spain was con¬fronted with something of the samesort of question nearly five centuriesago when she sold her jewels toassemble the resources necessary to

finance the trip to the Indies ofChristopher Columbus and his crew.

Her prime motives may well havebeen the glory and riches she expec¬ted to accrue to Spain. But the greatresults of this historical venture were

not the spice and gold it brought toSpanish coffers, nor the vast territo¬rial acquisitions which gave Spaindominion over the first global empirein history.

Far more important, the Columbianexplorations marked the beginning ofa major new cycle in the developmentof the world, enhancing man's masteryof the seas and bringing together inone great community, however un¬happily, the entire human race.

It is not too much to contemplate

that similar experiences may be await¬

ing us as we embark on the contem¬porary venture into unknown space.This is not simply because outer spaceprovides a new dimension to poten¬tially new resources, nor because thepossibility of finding life on other pla¬nets has suddenly become much morereal. Of even greater importance isthe vast accumulation of new techno¬

logy and new techniques resultingfrom the first decade of space explo¬ration.

Not unnaturally, the sheer specta¬cular quality of the moon landing ten¬ded to focus the world's attention on

the heroic aspects of the achievement.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

5

6

WASTE OF MONEY? (Continued)

Somehow, the casting of the Apollo11 and 12 voyages on millions of tele¬vision sets around the world gave itthe character of a sports event. Focuswas on the astronauts, champions ofa new interplanetary Olympiad, andon the faultless performance of thespacecraft In the process, the realsignificance of space exploration be¬came obscure.

If the experience of the past threeor four thousand years has any value,it tells us that in freeing himself fromthe millenial confinement of the earth's

gravitation and its atmosphere, manhas added a vast new dimension to

his environment and to his character.

In broadening his horizons, he has ina qualitative* sense altered his verybeing and completely changed hisrelationship to the rest of nature, and

this in turn presages sweeping chan¬ges in every field of human activity.

Colossal strides in civilization in the

past have followed each majoradvance in man's observation of the

skies. Astronomical discoveries, time

after time, have influenced and, in

some cases, shifted the very course ofhistory.

Now, the impact of space explora¬tion the most momentous of all

human adventures promises to usherin a new stage of civilization the broadoutlines of which remain undefinable,if for no other reason than that the

exploration has only begun. Thepotential of the universe for mankind

is as completely unknown today aswas that of the New World after the

return of Columbus to Spain.As Margaret Mead, the American

anthropologist, has put it: "Once youraise the question that other land than

this earth is possible to live on, thatother places are possible places tofound colonies, or that there may beother living creatures somewhere, youhave changed the whole place of manin the universe. You've altered every¬thing. This involves a considerablereduction of human arrogance and atremendous magnification of humanpossibilities."

Just as the age of earth explorationcompletely transformed the politicalmatrix around the globe, the space age

will radically. alter the present globalpolitical constellation and institutions.

The nation state, already ill-suited tohuman needs in the last half of the

twentieth century, can hardly beexpected to effectively serve man'sgoals in space.

The on-again off-again trip to Mars,originally scheduled for the 1970s,will very likely be too expensive foreither the United States or the Soviet

Union to undertake alone. By com¬bining in this and other projects in theconquest of space, it is possible toco-operate where prejudices and con¬flicting interests are least involved. Inthis age of global problems, the neces¬sity of co-operation in space as humanbeings with predominantly commoninterests cannot but have a feedback

on earth. If and when space explora¬tion becomes more than a marginalactivity, its higher priority is bound togive new stimulus to international jointventures in space.

Already COMSAT (CommunicationsSatellite Corporation) and INTELSAT(the international space communica-

THE BULLET

IN THE BRAIN

AND THE SPACE

CENTRIFUGE

In 1968, a man named JosephBarrios was shot in the head, thebullet lodging in the brain. Beforeattempting an operation to removeit, doctors hit on the idea to tryto reposition it to a less criticalarea with the help of a centrifugecapsule used to train astronauts.Barrios was accelerated to six times

the force of gravity for fiveseconds (photo left). Theexperiment worked, eliminatingthe need for surgery. Right, aNASA space helmet is fitted on achild with a heart defect to studyoxygen consumption. A suctionpump circulates fresh air through thehelmet, picking up the exhaledbreath and drawing the combinedfresh air and exhaled breath

into an oxygen analyser. Theconventional rubber mouthpiece usedto collect exhaled air has beenfound awkward for children.

tions organization of 70 membercountries) have established a patternfor international public utilities inspace communications. American andSoviet rockets are launching Euro¬pean, Australian and Japanese satel¬lites into space. And some 40 track¬ing stations around the globe, involv¬ing varying degrees of internationalco-operation, participated in the Apolloproject.

But if no one knows where this new

adventure in space will eventually takeus, what new worlds will be discoveredwhat new horizons will open as mancolonizes the moon or other planets,

or what advantages may be found inmanufacturing instruments and equip¬ment in the vacuum of ogter space,the first decade of the Space Age has

given us a foretaste of what is in storefor the future.

Since 1967 hardly a person on earthhas not been directly or indirectlyeffected in one way or another by theresults of the space exploration.Liberated from the forces that have

kept us earthbound throughout record

ed history, we now have capabilities(intellectual and material ) that areimmeasurably greater than everbefore. These new capabilities openunlimited opportunities for the de¬velopment of human faculties andthe satisfaction of human needs.

A whole galaxy of earth satellites isnow providing global services whichhave already brought vast improve¬ments to communications, weather

prediction, geology and geodetics,navigation and oceanography. Theseand other vital tools for the enhance¬

ment of man's control over his envi¬

ronment are available not only to theadvanced industrial countries that have

developed them, but have had imme¬diate benefits for all countries around

the globe providing developing coun¬tries with tremendous new capabilities

for more rapid economic and socialadvance.

New technologies products, mater¬ials, processes, manufacturing tech¬niques, operating procedures, and newstandards born of space requirements

are being transferred from their

original space application to industry,commerce, education and publichealth, replacing products or practicescurrently in use to provide those whichwill better fill the vast variety of humanneeds'.

But, most important, effective tech¬niques and structures have been deve¬loped for the "forcing" of technologytransfer, and private industry, univer¬sities and governments now have attheir disposal vast computerized databanks of knowledge and data on vir¬tually every field of the physical andsocial sciences, technology and thehumanities.

But an even more important aspectof the Space Revolution is the lastone: techniques for directing massiveprojects undertaken by thousands ofminds in a close-knit, synergistic com¬bination of government, universitiesand industry. Taken together thesetechniques are potentially the mostpowerful management tool in man'shistory, changing the way civil serv¬ants, scientists and managers approachvirtually every task they undertake.

7

2. Spinfrom

c^PACE exploration and de¬

velopment, hardly more than a decadesince the launching of Sputnik I intoearth orbit, have brought immediatebenefits to mankind as a whole to

developing as well as advanced indus¬trial countries with far-reaching impli¬cations for economic progress and theglobal political constellation.

Space satellites have endowed uswith a new dimension of capabilitiesfor coping with the overriding and dif¬ficult tasks of management of theearth's complex ecological system, ofwhich man is but one segment.

They make possible, for the firsttime in human history, global solutionsto global problems. And this has inturn increased the urgency for thedevelopment of new global institutionsand a new global political matrix toassure maximum benefits of these new

capabilities.

Direct telecasts from the moon,

viewed simultaneously by hundreds ofmillions of people around the world,marked a revolution in communications

hardly less spectacular than the firstmoon landing itself. Satellites in earthorbit are now capable of broad-bandtransmission of all types of communi¬cations, including voice, telegraphy,high speed data transmission, facsimileand television.

Voice and telegraphic communica¬tion traffic alone has been expandingso rapidly that international traffic

-Off

space satellitescould not possibly be handled ade¬quately by wireless high frequencyradio facilities or underwater cable

systems. Yet traffic with the many lessdeveloped countries of the world hadnot yet become heavy enough to makemore costly cable systems economi¬cally feasible.

Since communications satellites have

been placed in orbit, however, it hasbecome possible not only to meet allthese requirements, but also to reducetariff rates for communications gener¬ally.

INTELSAT has operated the world¬wide satellite communications systemsince 1965, the first "Early Bird" satel¬lite, with 240 two-way telephone chan¬nels, doubling the capacity of the exist¬ing four trans-Atlantic underwatercables overnight and giving countriesin other areas of the world immediatenew international facilities.

A second satellite, "Atlantic 2", with1,200 channels is now operating overthe mid-Atlantic off the west coast ofAfrica, and "Pacific 1 and 2" over themid-Pacific.

The first Soviet communications

satellite of the "Molniya" class waslaunched April 23, 1965 with a veryhigh elliptical orbit of high apogee toprovide the longest duration of com¬munication within the territory of theSoviet Union. Six Molniya satellites,each of them more powerful, havebeen launched since April 1965 to pro

vide the world's first domestic satellite

communications system.

Joined with a network of 20 earth

stations in the Orbita communications

system, the Molniya I satellites aredesignated mainly for transmission ofTV programmes, newspaper matrices,radio broadcasts and meteorologicalmaps. It is, however, also used fortelegraph and telephone communica¬tion.

At a recent private meeting ofexperts in Talloires, France, the Sovietparticipant, Professor Gennady Zhukovof the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciencesmade it clear that his country wasprepared to co-operate with INTELSATto form a global telecommunicationssystem. Not only is technical compa¬tibility between INTELSAT and Orbitanot difficult to obtain, the random orbit¬

ing of the Soviet Molniya satellites,which adequately cover the northern¬most areas of the northern hemisphere,is complementary to the geostationarysatellites of INTELSAT.

A founding member of INTELSAT,Canada will most likely be the nextcountry to establish its own domesticmultipurpose satellite communicationssystem, capable of handling television,telephone, data and other signals. Forthe Canadian environment the effect

of satellite communications is expectedto be as dramatic as the introduction

of telegraphy and microwave trans¬mission combined, making it possible

8

SIX USES FOR

COMMUNICATIONS

SATELLITES

Today's use of communications satellites forintercontinental link-ups is merely the firststep in a vast revolution in communicationstechnology. Drawings, right, show somestriking capabilities of a developed globalsatellite communications network.

(1) Intercontinental point to point transmissions.(2) Multiple access to communicationssatellites enables many nations to "hook-up"to transmissions, using relatively small andinexpensive earth terminals. (3) Air and seanavigation and traffic control satellite systembrings greater safety to crowded sea andair lanes. (4) Relay satellites round the earthreduce the need for a global network ofspace tracking and data stations. Lunar and<planetary orbiting relays provide continuous <communications service. (5) Community TV 2via satellite to schools and isolated villages, f(6) Direct broadcasts voice and TV to |sets in the home. A

MAPPING

OUR GLOBE

FROM

OUTER SPACE

Satellites have brought hithertounknown precision to the mappingand measuring of the earth. By1967, observations from 41 earthstations, using the 'Pageos" satellitein polar orbit at an altitude of 2,600miles, enabled far distant points on earthto be located with a margin of error of30 feet Introduction of navigation satellitesystems for planes and ships may bringcheaper travel. NASA estimates that a one percent saving in fuel and manpower through improvednavigation would save the shipping industry $150million yearly. Here, Gemini 4 crew, Ed White and JamesMcDivitt use a celestial navigation aid to study locations ofconstellations before their 1965 flight Photo USIS

to provide television, telephone anddata services to remote northern areas

more efficiently than by any othermeans.

To obtain the many early and poten¬tial advantages offered by satellitecommunications, the Canadian govern¬ment decided to create a special cor-poration which would develop, ownand operate the satellites and the cor¬responding ground stations. While thegovernment intends to hold an ade¬quate degree of management controlin the Corporation, ownership isencouraged by any private interestsdesirous of participating in the newventure.

But other large countries such asthe U.S., Brazil, India, Indonesia, Aus¬tralia and Japan are now preparing toestablish their own domestic satellite

communications systems for commer¬cial and educational purposes, operat¬ing in conjunction with the INTELSATworld-wide telecommunications system.And regional groupings of countries inAfrica and Latin America, where great¬er economic integration provides oneof the great hopes for more rapiddevelopment, are currently studyingthe creation of regional communica¬tions satellite systems.

With ground stations in each coun¬try, they will be able to receive and

send programmes over regular world¬wide radio and TV channels, as wellas have greater and more economicalvoice, telegraphic and data transmis¬sion services with the rest of the

world.

It is now technically feasible toexpand space communications systemsto provide direct television broadcast¬ing to receivers in homes and publicbuildings all over the world. The useof such satellites as an educational

tool by an appropriate internationalorganization, could lead to one of thegreatest breakthroughs in mass educa¬tion in history, bringing vast new know¬ledge and information to literally thou¬sands of millions of people at muchreduced cost.

But technology of satellite educa¬tional systems has far outrun plansfor its use. Educational satellites are

likely to be mostly television satellites,and the use of television itself as an

effective instrument of education is

still very much in the developmentstage.

Despite the fact that TV has becomea household necessity in all advancedindustrial countries during the pasttwenty years, it has encounteredserious obstacles as a medium of ins¬

truction. Television education entails

costly installations, implies a great

deal of centralized control over the

educational system, required singu¬larity of purpose and close co-ordina¬tion among various branches ofgovernment concerned, and, equallyimportant, poses serious programmingproblems if the real educational needsof a heterogeneous audience are to bemet. .

Yet, despite these sobering prob¬lems, more than 50 countries makesome use of television for teaching.It is widely used as an audio-visualaid in the U.S., Western Europe andthe Soviet Union and, after their suc¬

cess in Italy with Telescuola, TV edu¬cational programmes have evidenceda remarkable development.

Japan is using TV not only inschools, but also with correspondencestudy the Japan Broadcasting Corpor¬ation's "Citizen's College" to teachyoung people who have been unableto attend secondary school or univer¬sity.

The Republic of Niger is using it inthe first years of school to make upfor an acute teacher shortage. Col¬ombia is using it to teach nearly half amillion primary school children, and isexpanding into secondary school.

And in Brazil, where as many as5 million children cannot find school¬

ing, television education satellite bas-

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

9

SATELLITES (Continued)

Price of a weather station less than $5,000

ed may be the only answer to thatcountry's gigantic needs for improvingand increasing education facilities atall levels.

Undaunted by the problems of edu¬cational telecasts for international

audiences, the Japan BroadcastingCorporation (NHK) is proceeding withplans to provide educational program¬mes for developing countries of South¬east Asia via satellite. As a member

of the Asian Broadcasting Union, NHKis presently developing a multi-pur¬pose, multiple access satellite that canbe utilized by several countries.

Meanwhile, NHK has established alibrary of educational films for use bydeveloping countries of SoutheastAsia. Japanese science programmesare now edited and processed in thevarious languages for shipping asfilms or video tapes, but in the futureprogrammes will be transmitted toother countries via satellites usingautomatic translators or foreign lan¬guage sound tracks.

I

10

N India, an initial study ofa Unesco expert mission shows thata satellite system is not only the mosteconomical means of meeting thatcountry's tremendous needs for nation¬wide telecommunications and educa¬

tional facilities; indeed such a satellite

system offers the only way nationalgoals in in-school and out-of-schooleducation, food production, communitydevelopment, health, and family plan¬ning can be met within a decade.

Using conventional telecommunica¬tions systems, All India Radio does nothope to have more than six main tele¬vision transmitters and 50 smaller relaystations operating by 1981. Thesewould cover not more than 19 per centof the area of the country and 25 percent of the population.

A satellite system, with total initialcapital costs of no more than $50 mil¬lion, would provide people all over thecountry, including those in the mostremote areas, with immediate accessto television. Not only would this havean immediate impact on the major agri¬cultural and social problems of thecountry, but it would also pierce theisolation of individuals and communi¬

ties in rural areas and instil a sense

of participation in a wider national andglobal environment.

Equally important, an Indian satel¬lite-based TV system would stimulateand expand industrial, technologicaland managerial capabilities. Potentialbenefits resulting from the electronicsindustry needed to produce the broad¬casting, relay and receiving equipmentwould in themselves be significant.

Similar benefits will be forthcomingfor African and Central American

countries after the 1971-72 launchingof the Franco-German "Symphony"telecommunications satellite. The sat¬

ellite, two flight models of which willbe launched in geostationary orbit atapproximately 15° longitude, will en¬able the establishment of satellite com¬munications links between countries

where the smaller ground stationsdeveloped for the project will be locat¬ed, particularly the Middle East, Africaand Central America, as well as withthose countries already equipped withINTELSAT-type stations.

The Symphony satellite programmeis expected eventually to provide acomprehensive and permanent meansnot only of interconnecting the mem¬bers of Eurovision more economicallythan the microwave links used at pre¬sent, but also of extending it to otherregions. High on the list of prioritiesfor this system is the development ofregional satellite services, which, co¬ordinated within a global system, willinclude experimental work on the prob¬lems of educational TV.

Balanced regional telecommunica¬tions development, including the shar¬ing of earth stations between countries,will contribute substantially to thedevelopment of TV distribution andbroadcasting which can become a cri¬tically important factor in meeting awide variety of educational needs indeveloped and developing countriesalike.

"Very often, the expenditures bornby the most advanced countries forspace activity are criticized as a luxury,in the face of the pressing needs oflarge sectors of mankind," M. Rodino,Chairman of Italy's Telespazio, toldthe United Nations Conference on the

Exploration and Peaceful Use of OuterSpace in Vienna. "But satellite educa¬tional transmissions would almost ma¬

gically close a circuit through whichmoney spent for the most sophisticat¬ed technology returns manifold bene¬fits to a large number of less privileg¬ed peoples. There can be no moredramatic confirmation of the sometimes

obscured truth that technological pro¬gress assures the progress of allhumankind."

This is even more dramatically evi¬dent in the rapid development ofweather satellites. Until recently itseemed unlikely that meteorologistswould ever have the tools they neededto make relatively long-range weatherforecasts based on worldwide obser¬

vations. The practical difficulties andenormous cost of obtaining suchobservations which of necessity mustbe three-dimensional over the vast

areas of oceans and inaccessible

regions of the globe, seemed insur¬mountable. With the launching ofSputnik I meteorologists for the firsttime saw some hope of achieving theirlong-sought goals.

Satellites are ideally suited to serveas weather observation platforms.Situated high above the atmosphere,with the earth rotating beneath them,satellites can view every area on theglobe, including those that are inac¬cessible to man and those where

weather stations cannot be installed

on a practical basis. While surveyingthe atmosphere with their own camerasand sensors, they can collect data byinterrogation of horizontal soundingballoons, ocean buoys and remoteland-stations, and then communicate

these data to processing centres.

Two operational weather satellitesystems, the Tiros (TOS) system ofthe United States and the Meteor sys¬tem of the U.S.S.R., have been joinedtogether in a worldwide meteorologicalnetwork called "World Weather

Watch" under the auspices of theWorld Meteorological Organization(WMO). Information gathered by met¬eorological satellites and ground sta¬tions is transmitted by high speedfacilities to the three World Meteoro¬

logical Centres (Moscow, Melbourneand Washington), where CommandData Acquisition Stations process andanalyze the data by computer and dis¬seminate weather forecasts to regionalmeteorological centres.

wITH the advent in 1967 of

automatic picture transmission (APT)from meteorological satellites, coun¬tries throughout the world obtaineddirect access to daily observationsfrom space. With global coverageperformed twice a day from severalviews, the system provides local wea¬thermen with a continuous flow of

pictures of the earth and its atmo¬sphere in both the visible and infra¬red wave lengths (for day and nightcoverage) within less than four minutesafter each individual picture has beentaken by the various satellites.

Daily surveillance of ocean areaspermits early detection of developingstorms, typhoons and hurricanes,determination of their tracks and

estimations of storm development andintensity. This information is passedalong automatically, on a daily basis,to all countries likely to be affected bya particular storm. The likelihood ofa sudden storm hitting an unwarnedand unprepared community is thusdiminishing rapidly and will soon be athing of the past.

Of particular import for developingcountries, direct instantaneous parti¬cipation in meteorological satellite pro¬grammes is relatively easy and takesan investment of only $5,000 or soor even less, if a ground station isbuilt on a "do-it-yourself" basis. Andthe immediate benefits from such

participation are enormous. Advanced

CONTINUED PAGE 12

SPACEBORNE

SURVEYORS

OF EARTH'S

RESOURCES

Earth orbiting satellites have given man a highly sophisticated tool for the survey and managementof his planetary resources to help solve such major problems as water and food supply, mineraland fuel resources, water and air pollution. Data gathered by satellites already helps hydrologiststo identify new water supplies, to locate pollution in lakes and rivers, and generally to improvewater management. Infra-red photography (as in photo above of Quinault River flowing into thePacific at Taholah, State of Washington) reveals the flow patterns of rivers, estuaries and tidalregions, of value In study of silting and shoals. For the oceanographer, the location of fish shoalsin the warm waters of the Gulf Stream is simplified by plotting the daily meanderings of thishuge current, which a satellite can do within minutes. Surveys from space are also being usedfor a host of other purposes, such as prospecting remote areas on earth potentially rich inminerals (limestone deposits, photo below).

r 4 t * r f

12

SATELLITES (Continued)

warnings ot storms and accurate fore¬casts of the beginning and end ofmonsoons can help farmers to deter¬mine more intelligently the best timeto plant, fertilize, spray and harvestcrops, and when to provide protectionfor them. Accurate forecasts can

result in substantial improvements inwater management systems, and allowtransportation to be managed moresafely, more economically and moreefficiently with limited delays anddiversions. They also provide increas¬ing assurance that fishing fleets willnot be caught off guard at sea bysudden storms.

What this means in human and eco¬

nomic terms to a country like Indiadefies calculation by the most advanc¬ed data processing system. Estimatesof the potential benefits from timelyaction based on reliable long-rangeweather predictions of two weeks anda satisfactory briefing of the farmerthrough a nation-wide, satellite TVbroadcast system range as high as$1,600 million annually through preven¬tion of losses in agricultural productionalone not to mention additional bene¬

fits such as improved flood protection,forestry control, transportation andcommunications.

For India, as for other developingcountries, weather satellites coupledwith satellite telecommunications offer

the prospects within the next decadeof controlling hunger and greatlyimproving nutrition through improvedmanagement of farm production andfood distribution.

In addition, space sensoring tech¬niques and multispectral photographyare expected to radically improve agri¬cultural efficiency throughout theworld.. NASA's (U.S. National Aero¬nautics and Space Administration)Office of Space Science and Applica¬tions has gone on record urging thatthe benefits derived from these deve¬

lopment in the U.S. alone warrant thecreation of a new management agencywith representation from NASA and theAgricultural and Commerce Depart¬ments.

In developing countries, the effectiveuse of new satellite technology to takeregular Inventory of food supplies andindicate causes of deficiencies or cropdiseases would mean the difference

between subsistence and starvation,

between stable and unstable govern¬ments.

Satellites can also help increasefood supplies by measuring ice move¬ments, water temperature, and salinityin the oceans. Recording the move¬ment of plankton, which feed thefishes of the sea, could do a lot forthe fishing industry. For where theplankton go the fish go.

Estimates of economic benefits

resulting from operational satellite-surveillance systems to air transport,shipping and coastal engineering ran¬ges into hundreds of millions of dol¬lars annually. By the mid-1970s, theworld's marine and air transport com

panies will be carrying more than threetimes the amount of cargo they werecarrying in 1968, and they will be doingso faster and more efficiently to moredispersed locations around the globe.

In order to accomplish this feat, itwill be necessary to enlarge andimprove ships, aircraft, and, in parti¬cular, support services. Among therequired expanded support services,navigational aids are probably themost important, and here space willplay an important role.

Satellites will constitute a majorelement in a world-wide system mak¬ing it possible for surface ships andaircraft to proceed to their destinationssafely and efficiently, in any part ofthe world. With only four satellitesin polar orbit at any given time, it ispossible to provide exact automaticnavigational position-fixes wheneverthe satellite is interrogated from nearlyany part of the globe or in the air.

Such an exact position determina¬tion for sea-going vessels especiallywhen predetermined lanes in congest¬ed areas are to be used, for transocea¬nic air traffic where It is heavy andincreasing in density, and later for theoperation of manned spacecraftrepresents an important major break¬through for greater transport safety.

Satellites, with their remote-sensingequipment, are also capable of makingimportant contributions to geologicalsurveying and detection of mineral andunderground water resources. Thesetechniques, combining aerial photo¬graphy with electromagnetic, magneticand gravity measuring equipment, havealready led to spectacular discoveriesof large nickel deposits in Manitobaand the base metal find in the Tim-

mins, Ontario, region. The extensionof airborne remote-sensing surveys toearth-orbital space platforms is a stepcurrently projected in NASA program¬mes for an earth-resources satellite.

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thread filaments, this

honeycomb-structuredmaterial has found a wide

range of uses outside the spacefield because of its remarkable

insulating and heat-resistingproperties. Originally producedfor the re-entry heat shieldsof spacecraft, it withstandstemperatures of 5,000 degreescentigrade. Treated to seal inits myriad pockets of air andcut into slabs it becomes a

strong, lightweight structuralmaterial for all types ofbuildings. A perfect Insulator,it increases efficiency of airconditioning. Some of itsother uses: refrigeratorInsulating panels, nose conesfor aircraft and protectivescreens In factories using hightemperature processes (above).

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I|N addition to the direct

programmatic benefits deriving fromthe application of space programmesto earth needs, there is an almost infi¬nite variety of second order "spin-off"returns from man's venture into space.

In a recent appraisal of the impactof the U.S. and Soviet space program¬mes, European space companies con¬cluded that the new technologies deve¬loped through space exploration havebeen of the greatest significance, pro¬foundly affecting the whole of indus¬try particularly in new materials,techniques of metal forming, automa¬tion and ways of obtaining a neworder of miniaturization and reliabilityin complex equipment.

As a result, a noted European finan¬ce minister has somewhat wistfully

estimated that every dollar the U.S.has invested in its space programmein the past ten years is returning fourdollars worth of value today.

If this is true, it is largely becauseNASA recognized from the outset thatthe maximum transfer of space tech¬nology to non-space use shouldbe purposefully and systematicallysought. At least in part with a viewto achieving this goal, NASA soughtwith outstanding success a workingpartnership between universities, in¬dustry and government.

A measure of the application of thispolicy is the fact that 90 per cent ofevery dollar spent by NASA in thefirst decade of operations went to uni¬versities and private industry. At thepeak of the space programme in 1966,

3.

The new

space-age

technology

some 200 universities, 20,000 con¬tracting firms and laboratories and420,000 workers were involved in theprogramme. (NASA's operations weremanned by approximately 32,000 civilemployees).

Contractors have been not just themajor aerospace companies, but alsoelectronics firms, auto manufacturers,rubber companies and, in fact, across-section of modern industry.

While Europe has made a very slowstart in space technology, a large num¬ber of European firms are either NASAprime- or subcontractors and othersare producing components of INTEL¬SAT satellites. Still others are involv¬

ed in ELDO (European Launcher De¬velopment Organization) and ESRO(European Space Research Organiza-

13

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

INTEGRATED CIRCUITRY

AT ONE'S FINGER TIPS

The stringent demands of space technology for eversmaller yet even more reliable equipment havesparked some revolutionary developments in thescience of electronics. Strikingly miniaturizedcircuits have been created for all kinds of electronic

equipment, to the point where thousands of circuitscan be compressed into a case smaller than a coin.Right, an "integrated circuit" placed on a fingertip and magnified several hundred times. In thenewest molecular electronics, circuits are builtup virtually molecule by molecule. Finely focussedelectron beams are used as high precision toolsfor fabricating these microscopic circuits. Suchbreakthroughs in electronics technology havespawned a whole generation of new products fromclocks to calculators the size of a cigar box aswell as faster and large-capacity computers tomeet the information and control needs of science,education, industry, business and government

SPACE-AGE TECHNOLOGY (Continued)

Equipment designed to be

99.999 per cent reliable

14

tion) projects. As a result, newco-operative relationships have devel¬oped between engineers and scien¬tists, between industry and universityor research institutes, and betweenindustry and government.

In France, since its creation in 1962to develop space activities, the Cen¬tre National d'Etudes Spatiales(CNES) has relied almost entirely onthe symbiosis between the CentreNational de la Recherche Scien¬

tifique, university laboratories andprivate industry. Similar patterns haveemerged in the United Kingdom, Fed.Rep. of Germany and Italy.

But experience has shown that evensuch a working partnership betweengovernment, universities and industrydoes not automatically produce "spin¬offs" of new technology into themainstream of society. While to someextent this process is inevitable, itsworkings are slow and uncertain.

Minimum lead time for the transfer of

new knowledge to new applied tech¬nology is usually 10-16 years. But insome cases the conversion is likely totake 30 to 40 years. In addition, thetime it takes to develop new techno¬logy into marketable products andprocesses seems to have lengthened,too, when things are left to their natu

ral course. So much of new techno¬

logy depends on perception andentrepreneurship. It is putting thingstogether that no one had thought ofputting together before, things that,left alone, may lie around a long time.

In his latest book, "The Age of Dis¬continuity", Peter Drucker has summedit up this way. "Perceptions havegreater impact, as a rule, economically,socially and culturally, than have many"new" things or even "new" ideas. . .In an age of rapid change, a techno¬logical strategy is essential for thesuccess and indeed for the survival of

a business and perhaps even an indus¬trial nation. It is necessary to havethought through in advance where toput one's own technological effort."

He goes on to point out that HenryFord never really invented anything.Everything he used was known. Eventhe automobile was not new; there

were many on the market before hebrought out his famous Model T. Andyet Henry Ford was a true innovator.What he contributed were mass pro¬duction, the mass market, and the pro¬fitability of the very cheap.

But the very fact that hardly morethan a decade after the beginning ofspace exploration NASA has cata¬logued more than 2,500 technological

innovations directly attributable to itsprogrammes and that there have beeninnumerable instances of significanttransfers of new technology to theeconomy is testimony to both the vast-ness of new knowledge gathered byspace programmes and the effective¬ness of new techniques to hasten thetransfer process.

In the early 1960s, the beginning ofthe "knowledge explosion era", itwas apparent that the research anddevelopment effort of the space pro¬gramme had the potential to contri¬bute more than any other single fac¬tor to economic growth during thecoming decades. But it was alsoapparent that traditional mechanismswere no longer adequate to do thiswith sufficient dispatch.

James E. Webb, then the Adminis¬trator of NASA, conceived of a Tech¬nological Utilization Programme as anexperimental effort designed to achie¬ve the widest possible use of the tech¬nology and knowledge arising out ofthe NASA programmes.

To provide industry and universitieswith a one-stop source of scientificand technical data, the findings ofresearch and development work spon¬sored or undertaken by the U.S.Department of Defense and the Ato-

i

mic Energy Commission, as well asdata compiled by the ChemicalAbstracts Service, were added to theNASA Scientific and Technical Infor¬mation Data Collection.

This Data Collection, in addition toresearch and development of NASA'sown installations, includes all inven¬tions, discoveries, innovations and im¬proved techniques developed by pri¬vate or public contractors in theirwork for NASA.

Some $5 million a year is now beingspent solely for the identification, eva¬luation, classification, storage and dis¬semination of this information to indus¬

try. But the value of this program¬me is not confined to the accomplish¬ment of this task alone. In addition

to channeling a volume of highlyadvanced technology into the main¬stream of the economy, NASA hasprovided valuable new knowledgeconcerning the involved and difficultprocess of technology transfer itself.

Regional Dissemination Centres(RDCs), operated by six universitiesstrategically located across the UnitedStates, now provide industry with acomputerized knowledge bank contain¬ing about 700,000 reports and whichcontinue to grow at the rate of great¬er than 6,000 per month. Each cen

tre develops and operates a varietyof information and other technical ser¬

vices available to firms in the privatesector which pay fees to partially sup¬port the centre's operation.

The centres, operating within theuniversity institutional framework, areencouraged to contribute towardteaching, research, and service goalsof the university as well as to de¬velop industry relationships. Intensiveefforts are made to identify new pro¬ducts, new processes, new scientificand technological knowledge, and alluseful Innovations in materials,processes, manufacturing techniques,operating procedures, and new stan¬dards born of space requirements.

As a result, industry has come tounderstand much better the dynamicsof technology and to appreciate the im¬portance of anticipating the directionand speed of technological change.Large, medium, and small-sized firmshave begun to adapt their organizationstructure to perform the innovative,entrepreneurial function of developingand harnessing knowledge "energy"to assure technological advance intheir field.

VERY little advanced re¬

search in aerospace is directly appli¬cable in the market place. Productsand processes conceived for extremesin temperatures, pressures and stress,or exceptional qualities in weight, mi¬crominiaturization, reliability and per¬formance frequently are available onlyat a cost prohibitive to the normalcommercial or industrial use. Once a

market is found for a product or pro¬cess, adjustments are necessary tobridge the gap between the needs ofthe market, the state of the art, and theelements of cost.

Clearly, while the Apollo and otherspace programmes have succeededin forcing "invention by the clock",the full impact of these programmedinnovations will not be felt on industryuntil the mid-1970s and even the1980s.

It still takes time and money forlarge aerospace' companies to findnew applications even for in-housetechnologies. And then thousands ofcompanies must ask the computerswhich store the vast reservoir of

NASA and other data the rightquestions.

Still, if the individual technologytransfers which have bridged the gapbetween space programmes and earth-bound applications are not enough tobring a man out of his chair, col¬lectively they become monumental.

Least apparent, but considered mostimportant by industrial engineers, isthe impetus space programmes havegiven to the technology of perfection.Manrating of thousands of systemsand millions of parts has forced newstandards of excellence into the in

dustrial system. Modern industry hadalready achieved a high order ef¬ficiency, cost consciousness and highsensitivity to the needs of the market.Now it has developed a capability forprecision and flawlessness.

The Apollo Saturn space vehicle,with more than 5.6 million parts, push¬ed the necessity for reliability farbeyond anything previously achieved

even with the high standards of qua¬lity imposed by jet-age commercialaviation.

If a level of 99.9 per cent perfectionwere assured, it would mean that onepart in a thousand might fail. Thiswould mean that on each flight some¬thing like 5,600 parts would be defec¬tive resulting in almost certain catas¬trophe.

To assure accident-free manned

space flight, manufacturers wererequired to design equipment to be99.999 per cent reliable or just asclose to zero-defects as is humanlypossible.

It was this kind of perfection thatprompted Astronaut John Glenn toquip, when asked how he felt beforehis first flight: "How would you feel ifyou were strapped in a machine whichhas thousands of components and eachone was built by the lowest bidder?"

While cost considerations preventmany techniques used to obtain theperfection John Glenn knew had beenachieved in his spacecraft from beingdirectly applied to the manufacture ofconsumer products, they do have wideand immediate applications in medi¬cine, precision instruments and otherlaboratory and industrial equipmentwhich in turn improve prevention andcare of disease and improvements Inproduction.

Almost without exception, everyindustryin the U.S., the U.S.S.R.,Europe and Japan that has beenexposed to the almost maddeningdemands for the light weight, micro¬miniaturization, and the unrelentingreliability of the space programme hasprofited from the sweat that wasinvolved.

As one top American engineeringofficial recently put it: "Every partici¬pating company in the space effort hasbeen forced through a new and veryfine sieve of quality control and relia¬bility. It is inevitable that product bet¬terment would be the result . . . Maybea new material, some new trick in

fabrication. Maybe some new ap¬proach in production that consciouslyor unconsciously the company appliesto other products."

Space contractors have developedmany entirely new products and man¬agement techniques that have creptover from the space side of theiroperations to the commercial side.

Spin-offs In biomedicine, new mater- ^ »-ials, power generation and computer 1 ¿Jtechnology, have brought major chan-ges to industry, commerce and mostimportant to the quality of human life.

4.

Benefits

to

medicine

IB

IN 1959 a new term, "bio-

astronautics," came into popular usageto describe all studies related to livingorganisms in space. It has to encom¬pass every discipline and technologythat contributes to the study of livingphenomena.

To sustain a man in space, a smallartificial world had to be created an

environment containing at least a mini¬mum supply of everything required tomaintain health, mental alertness, and

physical fitnessincluding breathableatmosphere, a near optimum diet, exer¬cise in an extremely restricted environ¬ment, and a synergistic programme ofactivities that will also allow a sleepcycle permitting alertness and healthto be maintained.

This opened an entire virtually unex¬plored field of medicine. Everythingthat influences the adult had to be

studied from both the traditional

aspects and the new view of operatingin space with weightlessness as theprincipal unknown.

The focus of bioastronautics on the

healthy adult initially, test pilots whoare assumed to be among the finestphysical specimens to be found in alarge population was a historic depar¬ture from the past studies of medicinethat have concentrated on pathologicalprocesses found in adults who wereeither ill or showing early signs ofillness.

Bioastronautics has also been con¬

cerned primarily with relatively youngmen as opposed to medical studies inthe past which tended to concentrateon older people.

At the outset of the space pro¬gramme it was found that little wasknown about the physical parametersof the normal healthy adult. Duringthe past ten years, a vast amount ofdata has been obtained, enabling us

to know what the mental and physicalperformance of a healthy human shouldbe under a given set of circumstancesin any one of several different envi¬ronments.

These base-line data are alreadyhaving, and will continue to have, agreat impact on the emerging field ofpreventive or predictive medicine.

To determine the physical parame¬ters of astronauts or cosmonauts, and

to monitor these parameters duringspace flights, a variety of physiologicalinstrumentation has been developedthat has great potential in clinical medi¬cine, both for the individual physicianand throughout the complex of clinicsand hospitals.

Many of these devices have gonethrough clinical trials and are begin¬ning to find their way into generalmedical practice, providing the mostdramatic benefits of space life scien¬ces for humans in their mundane

struggle for existence and also fordevelopment.

Many biomedical innovations thatare now finding clinical applicationshave been serendipitous, and in someinstances developed from space needsoutside the broad area of bioastronau¬

tics. Serendipity items range fromtiny motors now being used in kidneydialysis machines and heart pumps toprosthetic organ implants that promiseto outlive the patients receiving theirlife-extending surgery.

Perhaps the most significant of theseserendipitous life-science contributionsto clinical medicine is in the difficult-

to-define area of advanced computerdevelopment and related programmingtechniques, especially mathematicalmodels to simulate the life processes.

Biologists and medical scientists cannow handle a vast amount of physiolo-

CONTINUED PAGE 18

The handicapped man, above,is dialing a phone number,but he is doing so in anextraordinary way by thevoluntary movements of his eyes!Like the woman below, he is

wearing a pair of special"glasses" which are in effectan infra-red switch that enables

a person who cannot usehis hands or feet to use his

eyes to switch and control avariety of functions. The devicecan operate and steer a motorizedwheel chair, turn the pagesof a book, switch stations ona TV or radio set, alter a

thermostat setting, or turn alamp on or off. The eye switchwas developed in the U.S.as an aid to astronauts when

high acceleration forces preventthem from using theirarms or legs.

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There is already a long list of practicalbenefits to medicine from space research

and particularly the new field ofbioastronautics. Many hospitals arenew using automated systems first usedfor astronauts in flight to monitor heartbeats, blood pressure and other bodyfunctions. Many devices have beenadapted as aids for handicapped persons(some are shown on these pages).A NASA device has been designed tofamiliarize astronauts with the problems

of walking on the moon where weightis only one-sixth of that on earth Asystem of slings enables a man towaik, run or jump under conditionssimulating gravity on the lunar surface.Left, the same device is now in use

in the rehabilitation of persons who havedifficulty in learning to walk withcrutches or even to sit up in a wheelchair. It also aids those learning to

walk with artificial legs. The slingsrori.jro the ^hyf=ical work Inad on apatient during rehabiliation and canoe adjusted for any degree ofsupport required.

Astronautics helps the handicapped

"Laser cane" (right) emits light beams to detectobstacles, allowing blind user to scan the areaahead of him. It is one of several such devices

produced by bionics", a new science combiningbiology and electronics to develop apparatuses thatcan supplement the functions of the human organism.

This eight-legged "walking chair", or "moon walker" (below), givesnew freedom of movement to disabled children, including thosewho have lost a leg or are paraplegic. It can easily traversea field or sandy beach, step over obstacles and onto a curb. It iscontrolled by a lever which can be adjusted for operation by hand,Hot. or even by the chin. The idea came from the design of theLunar Tic", an unmanned, radio-directed instrument carrier for

exploring the moon's surface. Here, a handicapped boy confidentlycrosses the road in his walking chair.

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17

BENEFITS TO MEDICINE (Continued)

Dialing a phone number with the eyes

18

gical data from experiments and havesome understanding of how they inter¬relate in living systems. Bioastronau¬tics programming techniques will even¬tually allow biomedical research tobecome far more of an exact science

than it has been in the past.

But much of the transfer of medical

technology from the space programmehas been spinned by the new approachto systematic technology applicationsto non-space uses. An outstandingexample of this process involves theadaptation of design principles in thespace helmet worn by the Geminiastronauts.

The University of Wisconsin MedicalCenter is in the final stages of adapt¬ing the helmet to use in deliveringbreathable medication for child care.

Current practice is to place the childwith a respiratory ailment in a hospitaltent and fill the tent with medicated

vapours. Use of the helmet respiro-meter in place of the tent enables theailing child to have considerable mobi¬lity and yet breathe the healingvapours without exposing his wholebody to them.

Similarly, a switch actuated only byvoluntary movement of the eyes hasfound immediate applications for useby the handicapped. Developed forNASA by an Alabama company as apotential aid to astronauts in situa¬tions where high G-forces might makethem unable to move their arms or

legs, by mounting light sources at eachside of a pair of eye-glasses, this mostingenious device bounces a light intothe wearer's eyes detecting the differ¬ence between the reflection from thewhites and from the darker pupils.

When the pupil of an eye movesacross the path of the light beam, thereduced reflection activates an electric

switch. Properly relayed, the "sightswitch" can be put to a variety of usesto assist a patient who cannot movehis hands or legs.

Among these uses: remote opera¬tion of a machine to turn the pages ofa book; to switch on or off a hospitalcall board, room lights, a thermostat,a television set, a radio, etc. The sightswitch has already been experimen¬tally adapted to a motorized wheel¬chair enabling a paraplegic to controlit with only his eyes.

Space programmes have been par¬ticularly prolific producers of new auto¬mated patient monitoring systems.One NASA contractor produced forbiomedical experiments at the AmesResearch Center a telemetry unitdesigned to monitor the electrocardio¬grams of astronauts while they per¬formed various duties.

The unit consisted of a small, bat¬

tery-operated transmitter with electro¬des to be pasted to the chest and aportable FM receiver. Heart signalstransmitted to the receiver were ampli

fied to be read visually on a polygraphor oscilloscope.

Now a slightly modified wirelesstelemetering system is being used ina New York hospital in the intensive-care cardiac monitoring unit. The sys¬tem is excellent for monitoring a heartpatient, and permits the patient tomove freely within 100 feet of thereceiver while his EKG is being con¬stantly read.

ONITORING of the effects

of weightlessness and other uniqueenvironmental aspects of mannedspace flights has caused substantialimprovements to be made in electrodesused to measure heart and brain func¬

tion. Almost every one of these elec¬trode advances has been swiftly trans¬ferred to general clinical practice.

Spray-on electrodes using electri¬cally conducive cement developedthrough the co-operative efforts ofNASA and Spacelabs, Inc., in VanNuys, California, for applying electro¬cardiogram electrodes quickly to pilotsjust before their training flights canbe sprayed on the skin by a spray gunor aerosol process in less than halfa minute.

In turn, the NASA Biomedical Appli¬cations Team at the Midwest Research

Institute in Kansas City has transferredthe technique at the University ofKansas Medical Center, where spray-on electrodes have been tested for a

wide variety of applications. The suc¬cess of this transfer can be credited

largely to the amount of attention thatNASA has given to this innovation.

But, most important, innovations ofthis kind have become an international

process, as was demonstrated recentlyby the work of Dr. W. Ross Adey,Director of the Space Biology Labor¬atory at the Brain Research Instituteof the University of California, in therefinement of a novel electroencepha¬logram (EEC) system.

Soviet scientists originally conceivedthe idea of placing sponge-type EECelectrodes in the cosmonauts' helmetsso that the electrode contact could be

made simply by putting the helmet onwithout any special scalp attachmentor removal of any hair.

Dr. Aday was aware of the Sovietconcept and developed a similar spon¬ge-type electrode system mounted ina covering similar to a bathing cap orlight helmet that requires only theremoval of oil from the skin and hair

surface. Transfer of his sponge elec¬trode cap, or helmet, was made directlyby Dr. Adey himself at the Universityof California Brain Research Institute,

where the system has been used withschizophrenic children and in obtainingnew data on the state of the brain

during sleepwalking.

The sponge EEG helmet system, isdoubly unique, involving an indirecttechnology transfer benefit from theSoviet space programme and the directtransfer of the system to non-spaceuse by the scientist who developed itin the first place.

Electrodes are relatively inexpensiveand are in a different category from

CONTINUED PAGE 23

COLOUR PAGES

OPPOSITE: . The moon is potentially agreat laboratory for a host of experimentsand observations essentially impossibleto perform on earth. To realize thispotential it has been proposed that aninternational laboratory be established onits surface, where scientists fromdifferent countries would work together.These photos show two phases of an"earthrise" viewed across the lunar

horizon. On left, the glowing half orbof earth photographed on May 22,1969 by U.S. astronauts Thomas P.Stafford, John W. Young and Eugene A.

Cernan, as they orbited the moon in Apollo 10. Right, photo taken by Soviet spacecraftZond 7, orbiting the moon at an altitude of 2,000 kms., on August 11, 1969.

Photos NASA-Hasselblad and APN

CENTRE PAGES: On this map, a panoramic presentation of the conquest of space,vehicles and trajectories of the principal space missions accomplished since 1957intermingle around the earth. They range from Sputnik 1, the first space satellitelaunched on October 4, 1957, to Apollo 11 which returned to earth on July 24, 1969,after landing the first men on the moon. Trajectories are identified as follows:Manned spacecraft: U.S., orange, U.S.S.R. green; Unmanned satellites and probes:U.S., yellow, U.S.S.R., blue; Unmanned satellites and probes launched by U.K.,Canada, France and Italy, red. The original map, prepared and published byEditions Hallwag, Berne (Switzerland), measures 112 by 84 cms. It presents overleafdetails of over 200 space missions and numerous explanatory drawings and photosof space vehicles. It can be ordered through booksellers (Price Sw. Fr. 6.80).

Photo © Hallwag, Berne

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BENEFITS TO MEDICINE (Continued from page 18)

COLOUR PHOTOS

OPPOSITE

Here we see a few of the vast

possibilities of observation fromspace for surveying and managingour earth's resources. Pictures were

taken by spacecraft (includingGemini and Apollo missions) andNASA aeronautical survey missions,for the NASA Earth Resources SurveyProgramme. The flights tested thepotentialities of spaceborne camerasand remote-sensing devices forglobal studies of earth's resources.NASA hopes to launch a specialearth resources technologysatellite by the end of 1971. Itcould survey crops and waterresources, track icebergs and watchfor forest fires.

TOP LEFT: Infra-red photo of citrusorchard in the Lower Rio

Grande Valley, Texas, shows insectdamaged trees as dark colour andhealthy trees bright red. Damagedforest trees in Oregon appear blue-coloured in photo BOTTOM LEFT,healthy ones as red or pink. Infra¬red photography picks out dead anddiseased trees more clearly thanstandard colour shots. Such

detection permits prompt use ofspraying and measures to limit spreadof infestation. From space photosit is possible to identify crops andestimate their state of maturity. Aneventual operational survey satellitesystem could report regularly oncrop growth and at harvest timepredict the yields in various parts ofthe world, thus simplifyingmanagement of global food supplies.

TOP RIGHT: Like a blot of India ink

on a blue and white mosaic is

how this large lake and valleyappear in a satellite photo taken125 miles above the earth. Pattern

of red dots, bottom end of lake,marks field and orchard vegetation.Specialists see the key to moreefficient exploitation of resources insmall-scale photo image mapping ofearth's features from space. Byconventional aerial means this would

require more than a million photosjust for the U.S.A. By satellite, only400 pictures would do the job better.

BOTTOM RIGHT: From space, camerassee more than man can on the

ground and sensors can detect morefacts. Earth objects reveal tosensitive instruments spectral"signatures" as distinctive asfingerprints. Different colours inthis infra-red shot of a glacier areaindicate geological, hydrological andglaciological patterns. Geological mapsare already being corrected andmade more useful both scientificallyand commercially from colour photosof the earth taken from spacecraft.

Photos NASA

a system that might cost hundreds ofthousands of dollars. Overall budgettradeoff considerations are not entailed

in their purchase, as they are withsystems such as, for example, theautomated blood pressure cuff.

Developed by the Air ResearchManufacturing Company to measurethe blood pressure of the astronautsduring all phases of the Mercury andGemini orbital missions, the automatedcuff can be said to have passed itsinitial clinical tests in 1961. But itwas first installed in an intensive carecentre in Bethesda at the National

Institutes of Health only in 1968.

The reasons for this seven yeardelay in an improved process thatwould have been a contributing factorin saving many lives are typical of thepattern that has prevailed in trans¬ferring relatively expensive bioastro¬nautics systems tö the needs of clinicalmedicine.

Even hospitals and clinics have theirpriorities, and have to put their scarceresources into systems with thegreatest lifesaving value instead ofthose that would simply refine ameasurement that could be obtained

manually. And, if the medical pro¬fession manifested no great rush totry the new technique, the researchcompany was so busy in other lifescience activities that there was no

internal need to find new markets

quickly for this system.

In other cases, however, systemsrejected by the space programme afterthe Research and Development stage,have found immediate terrestrial appli¬cations. Such was the fate of a

walking machine developed by theSpace General Division of AerojetGeneral to serve as an unmanned,radio-directed instrument carrier for

exploring the Moon's surface.

When the decision to go ahead withthe manned Apollo mission was madethe prototype of this machine, calledthe Lunar-Tic, was relegated to limbountil Dr. Richard Brennaman, a NASAtechnology utilization officer, wasinformed of its existence.

With a grant from the Department ofHealth, Education and Welfare, theUniversity of California contracted withSpace General to build an eight-leggedversion of their Lunar-Tic to be usedby crippled children. The new systemperformed according to expectation,was able to navigate terrain that wouldstop an ordinary wheelchair, and couldeven climb a flight of stairs. Acrippled child can control it bymanipulating an upright stick that canbe modified with a chin cup to servequadriplegic children who cannotmove either their arms or legs.

Among the numerous other bio¬medical developments by the aero¬space industry as a result of researchand development for the Apolloprogramme, here are some of the mostsignificant:

A "Telamedic" device which

relays electrocardiogram data by

telephone, and designed for immediateelectrocardiogram checks on post-coronary patients in the home, nursinghome, hospital or physician's office,has been developed by United AircraftCorporation's Hamilton Standard Divi¬sion. The battery-powered systemincludes a transmitter and receiver,each about the size of a bedside alarm

clock. No special equipment , Isneeded for the telephone.

Using technology developed inresearch on small radioisotopic systemsto convert nuclear energy to electricpower, Aerojet is making a conceptualdesign study of a system to powerartificial heart devices of the future.

The Aerojet system would be of a sizethat would permit implanting in theabdominal cavity and, connected to theheart, would supply power withoutinterruption over years of operation.

Laser technology developed ori¬ginally for space use is being adaptedfor delicate and precise use In medi¬cine. Martin Marietta Corp. has beenworking since 1962 with medicalresearch teams throughout the U.S. tofind new ways to use lasers in "knife-less surgery" and as diagnostic tools.

Lasers are already being used inseveral countries with outstanding suc¬cess in eye surgery, and are beingevaluated in dermatology, organ repair,amputation, and microbiological stud¬ies. Laser surgery has two greatadvantages which argue for its imme¬diate use: it is painless, and in manycases it is practically bloodless.

A cross-spectral analysis compu¬ter programme created by Rocketdyne,a division of North American Rockwell

Corp., for use in solving a variety ofrocket engine vibration, ignition andcombustion problems has been foundapplicable to medical research andbrain studies. In-depth studies of theheart are presently being performed inAustralia using this cross-spectral ana¬lysis concept. The technique may alsobe used by medical science in thediagnosis of a wide variety of humanabnormalities and diseases.

A space industry spin-off withobvious potential is the automatedpatient monitor developed by theBoeing Company. The device is aboutthe size of a package of cigarettes andcan be strapped to the patient's armor leg. It will report on six physiolo¬gical conditions three for the heart,two for temperature and one for bloodpressure. The battery-powered moni¬tor is divided into two subsystems, onefor the patient and one for a centralcontrol station. Radio links the two.Tiny wires extend to skin-surface sen¬sors. No needles or implanted probesare used.

Upon command from the centralcontrol station information on the

patient is printed out on the same strip-charts that physicians use, or dis¬played on an oscilloscope. The controlstation operator will have selectionswitches one for each patient, enabl¬ing her to dial specific patients on the

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

23

BENEFITS TO MEDICINE (Continued)

circuit. Key to development of thesystem has been the advancement inmicro-circuitry and data transmissionand handling techniques needed forthe Apollo/Saturn V programme.

At the peak of the Saturn V pro¬gramme the Boeing Company hired ablind computer programmer. While hecould generate his own programmes,there was no way he could monitorand evaluate the data produced bythem. Braille printers were not avail¬able on the commercial market.

Boeing realized it had to develop atechnique that would convert theCOBOL computer language charactersinto Braille on a computer.

The firm's engineers came up witha system that converts print imagetapefiles, consisting of 120 charactersa second, into six-dot Braille cells that

can easily be read by the blind pro¬grammer. The technique was turnedover to the Baylor School of Medicinefor further exploitation.

24

Through these and many other trans¬fers the public is already benefitingfrom a myriad of clinical uses of spacemedicine, among which are majorbreakthroughs in the alleviation ofhuman suffering and the extension ofhuman life. Bioastronautic and other

space innovations offer important solu¬tions to the mounting clinical problemsof crowded hospitals and other placeswhere people seek needed and pre¬ventive medical treatment.

But the great potential of bioastro¬nautics technology transfer lies in theyears ahead. A dynamic space pro¬gramme during the 1970s and 1980scombined with a well funded tech¬

nology transfer programme can beexpected to provide transfer optionsof benefit to almost every branch ofmedicine and biological research. ButImagination and understanding combin¬ed with good planning are likely to beequally as important as the level oftechnology transfer funding.

Photo usis

Techniques developed for building biologically sterile spacecraftto explore the planets are being applied in the design of hospitaloperating and recovery rooms. In industry, too, men and womenwho build components for communications systems (photo above)now work under conditions that often rival hospital operating roomsin cleanliness. A single speck of dust, visible only through a microscope,could affect the operation of many of the delicate instruments of modemelectronics technology. A constant war is therefore waged on dust,and technicians work in sealed-off work areas and wear speciallint-free clothing, thus helping to increase the reliability and lifeof sensitive equipment. An air curtain recently developed to keepspacecraft free from dust during assembly in the factory is nowbeing used in testing antibiotics. The air curtain insulates thetest bench and substantially reduces the number of test failuresthat can be attributed to dust-borne organisms.

^

5. The

IF the immediate spin-offs

from bio-astronautics have been morenumerous and more dramatic than

others, the development of new ma¬terials for space promises to have themost far-reaching economic conse¬quences for the future. One leadingspace scientist has called the newspace materials "the greatest singleadvance that has been made in the last

three thousand years" and, judgingfrom the facts already In, his enthu¬siasm seems only slightly exaggerated.

A new "composite material" madefrom tiny boron crystal fibres imbed¬ded in a plastic resin is twice as strongand two and a half times as stiff as

aluminum, yet weighs 25 per cent lessand should eventually be considerablyless expensive.

Transparent materials, strong assteel, now provide an entirely newconcept of their use as a structuralpart of buildings or vehicles, replac¬ing normal glass insertions into thebuilding or product. Alternatively,transparent materials flexible enoughto be folded, yet strong enough towithstand the rigours of prolongedspace expedition housing, made of acomposite of silicone, ethylene-propy¬lene, polyisoprene and polyurethane,can be adapted wherever necessaryto maintain a difference in pressurebetween the interior and exterior ofstructures.

One highly versatile by-productof space technology is a newmaterial known as reinforced plasticmortar, discovered and developedin the U.S.A. during glass fibrerocket case research and

production. It is now widely usedto make pipes for water, sewer,irrigation and drainage systems.It is light (left, pipe beingtransported by helicopter), highlyresistant, non-corrosive, virtuallyunbreakable, and is suitable formaking thin-walled pipes whichthus have a maximum flow capacity.With its simple, low-costmanufacturing process and theuniversal availability of its basicraw materials, it can be producedalmost anywhere in the world.Its light weight and high strengthpermit its use in servicing remoteareas where delivery was hithertoimpossible, and it will thus be ofgreat use to developing countries.

new space-agematerials

In Switzerland, the Société Con-traves has adapted a techniquedeveloped for space application toproduce a new sandwich-materialmade of aluminium and plastic foamnow being used in Europe to manufac¬ture walls for pre-fabricated housesas well as extremely resistant andextra light skis.

But, more important than any onematerial or the whole galaxy of newmaterials spawned by the rigorousrequirements of space, is the newmaterials concept itself. The designengineer is now free to concern him¬self primarily with the function orshape of his product or structuresimply assuming that the manufacturercan provide the right materials withthe correct properties.

Composite materials can be design¬ed starting not from a particularsubstance but from a specific micro-structure of atoms and molecules to

produce an entirely new material withspecific and totally new properties.Others such as fibre-reinforced ma¬

terials, alloys and laminates are beingproduced from new combinations ofsubstances.

This shift of concern from materials

ready-made by nature to man-madematerials designed for specific pur¬poses and with specific qualities hasbeen accompanied by a more imagin¬ative use of the wide spectrum ofelements found in nature. Of the 90

elements known to man, until recentlyall except about 20 were chemicalcuriosities, and only a very few wereconsidered to be metals.

All basic materials in use in the first

half of our century steel, nonferrousmetals, glass, concrete, timber, cera¬mics had existed for four or five

thousand years. Only rubber and alu¬minium could be claimed as innovations

of the industrial revolution, before the

advent of plastics, one of the first"spin-offs" from the discovery of radia¬tion. Now almost all elements, exceptgaseous ones, are being used in someform for their metallic qualities.

Titanium is an outstanding exampleof the development through the impe¬tus of aerospace programmes of ma¬terials already existing in nature forapplications at higher temperatures,under higher stress and under expos¬ure of radiation. The creation of a

whole titanium technology, includingsheet rollings, forging and joining, res¬ponded to the urgent need for a light,strong, stiff, high temperature struc¬tural material for air and spacecraft.

Similarly, germanium and siliciumhave become main constituents of

space electronic componentry; andzirconium is important for constructionof the nuclear rocket engines thatwill power manned flights to Mars andother planets. All four are now increas¬ingly used in consumer and industrialapplications in the civilian sector.

Aerospace Industries have alsospurred the development of a multi¬tude of highly sensitive, ultra-thinmetal alloys such as new magneticsteels and the titanium foils 60-mil-

lionths of an inch thick for particledetection in satellites.

Demands for new materials have

impelled the development of new tech¬nologies for materials-working, withthe same zero-defects standards appli¬ed to producing the faultless materialsneeded for space applications.

Since precision machine shops werenot equipped to handle this work, awhole new industry had to be develop¬ed. It was the watch industry whichcame closest to having the right tech¬nology and seized the opportunity thatemerged with the advent of newmaterials and the requirements forthem in space.

The Precision Metals Division of

Hamilton Watch Co., with its fullyintegrated thin metals production, wasthe logical place for the developmentof photochemical processing on a massproduction scale. In a $500,000 dust-free, vapour-and humidity-controlledplant, Hamilton processes more than60 pure metals and alloys, includingits own proprietary alloys.

This new facility, expected to be aprototype of others to follow, is attract¬ing the attention of everyone fromcomputer manufacturers to auto¬makers.

Similar breakthroughs have resultedfrom space research and development,in processing techniques such as elec-troforming for the production of stress-free parts, the improvement of electro¬des for nickel-cadmium batteries, toolsand dies, and artificial limbs.

BUT space exploration also

required bigness, especially in rocketconstruction. "Build us a new kind of

rocket motor case. Make it big. Makeit strong. Make it light." That's thekind of counterpoint NASA gives to itsrequirements for the smallest, thinnestprecision componentry. Using a uni¬que, computer-controlled filament-wind¬ing machine and 34 million miles offibreglass filaments, B.F. Goodrich,whose name was once a synonym forrubber tyres, produced a 50-footassembly as strong as a steel case ofcomparable size, but 30-50% lighter.

With the shift from concern with

substance to concern with structure,

woven fabrics developed for spaceusage are being applied in a widevariety of products and structures.Heat-shedding fabric-based buildingsprovide new comfort in torrid, tropicalheat. Defying the Arctic cold, wovenfabric buildings hug the Alaskan land¬scape. Outside, it is a bitter 65 de¬grees below zero; inside, it is a balmy,

constant 72 degrees above. IjrThe fabric is just one of many new 2.0

products of the three-dimensional (3-D)weaving business that has been devel¬oped using new yarns, looms and

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

26

Mountaineer's

dream blanket

Mountaineer (above) is snug and warminside his full sized blanket made of

aluminized plastic so compact it can beheld in the hand (right) or slipped intothe pocket. Initially produced in theU.S. for superinsulation in space, theplastic material is now being soldcommercially. It has unique heatreflecting properties and is flexible,waterproof and windproof. Though only1 /2000th of an inch thick it issurprisingly strong, and blankets madeof it are now used for emergency rescueor similar purposes since they are robustenough even to serve as stretchers,windbreaks or water containers.

SPACE-AGE MATERIALS (Continued)

weaving techniques to produce honey-combed-structured re-entry heatshields for Apollo spacecraft andradome housings for space-age radartracking stations.

A full range of strong, lightweight,Insulating structural fabrics is now inthe process of being developed foruse in refrigerated boxcars, air-cargocontainers, buildings, boat decks,sports cars, and greaseless bearings.

Made of graphite- or carbon-yarn-reinforced artificial resins, these new

composite materials offer higher stiff¬ness-to-density ratios than those rein¬forced by boron fibres, and hold outto users the lure of significantly lowercosts. Special epoxy resins, develop¬ed by Switzerland's CIBA for the U.S.space programme, are used as adhes-ives and fillers in conjunction withhoneycombs and tapes in buildingconstruction, refrigeration, ships andautomobiles. Non-inflammable solid

epoxy structural or decorative elementsare increasingly used where fireproofmaterials are required.

Nothing demonstrates more drama¬tically the international dimensions ofspace age Innovation than these newmaterials. Swiss epoxy resins rein¬forced by carbon filaments developedby British industry for aerospace appli¬cations (particularly as metal-basedcomposites used in Rolls-Royce jetengines) were combined to produce thecritical Apollo heat shields. Now, asa result of space applications, thesematerials are replacing metal and con¬crete in a wide range of constructionapplications and manufactured pro¬ducts that will soon be commonplacethroughout the world.

Meanwhile, a Westinghouse ElectricCorp. research programme on high-temperature plastics has produced anew family of copolymers that haveoutstanding strength at temperaturesup to 650 degrees Fahrenheit. Rein¬forced with glass cloth and pressedinto laminates, the materials at thesetemperatures are stronger than air¬craft aluminum and compare favourablywith stainless steel and titanium alloys.

Used as adhesives, the new mater¬ials bond together sheets of titaniumand stainless steel with hot strengthsin excess of 1,000 pounds per squareInch. Besides use as structural mem¬

bers of aircraft and heat shields, thesenew plastics have found applicationsas electric motor windings, printedelectronic circuits and other electrical

and electronic elements.

BUT these, and the many

other new materials that have been

developed for space and other uses,are only the beginning. We now liveon the boundary between the Iron Ageand a New Materials Age in which wewill become more and more dependenton a growing variety of materials.These materials are increasingly inter¬changeable, with each potentially com¬peting for use with all others.

Not only does this "materials revo¬lution" free the designer, the engineerand the architect from his ancient ser¬

vitude to a relatively few materials,but it will make countries less and less

dependent on natural resources, sincethe same material requirements can besatisfied from almost any natural re¬source, organic or inorganic.

This will not only result In sweeping,rapid and disturbing changes in theindustrial sector, but may radicallyalter the pattern of economic relationsbetween the industrial and develop¬ing nations of the world.

Knowledge, rather than specific na¬tural resources, is becoming the de¬terminant component in technologicaladvance. Without it all else is useless.

And, while both materials and energycontinue to be important, each indiv¬idual source of both materials and

energy will be confronted with a gra¬dual shift from a sellers' to a buyers'market.

6.

WHILE space programmes

have yet to produce an advance inpower generation technology as revo¬lutionary as the atomic power develop¬ment during World War II, they havebrought about major Improvements Inexisting systems which promise tohave far-reaching effects for remotearea power generation, the automotiveindustry, deep ocean technology,communications, home and commercial

power sources and air pollution.

Fuel cells, developed under NASAsponsorship to assure life support inthe sealed environment of spacecraft,have a wide variety of applications forimproving man's living conditions onearth as well as for supporting life inthe ocean depths. Of most immediateinterest to the general public areexperiments now under way for theiruse in powering electric automobiles.

One American company (Allis Chal¬mers) has already demonstrated afarm tractor and an electric passen¬ger car powered by fuel cells usinghydrocarbons and air. The advent of

the fuel-cell powered automobile onlya matter of time is expected to makea major contribution to an economicelimination of air pollution.

United Aircraft Corp., which devel¬oped the fuel cell power plants forProject Apollo, is putting this techno¬logy to work to produce a marketablegas-powered fuel cell, which promisesto have far-reaching import for homeand commercial building power supply.

The goal of the project, known asTARGET (Team to Advance Researchfor Gas Energy Transformation) is a"comfort package" for homes, apart¬ments and businesses which will be

better than any of the methods pres¬ently used for environmental control.

The package will provide control ofindoor temperatures and humiditywhile generating electrical power forother needs. Experimental prototypesare being tested for seven modelinstallations: light industry, a multi-unit shopping arcade, a high-riseapartment building, a hotel, a suburbangarden apartment complex, a largereal estate development and a singleresidence.

New space-agepower sources

These fuel cell powerplants, highlyefficient devices for producing elec¬trical power directly from fuel by che¬mical reaction, will provide control ofindoor temperatures and humiditywhile generating power for otherneeds. Since they are smokeless, thefuel cells have the added advantage ofsharply reducing air pollution.

While other major U.S. corporations,including General Electric, Monsantoand Union Carbide dropped work onfuel cells when their governmentdevelopment grants were cut off,Britain's Energy Conversion Ltd. (ECL)believes it has built fuel cells that

will be suitable for a wide variety ofground applications as well as in

space and océanographie exploration.

Just eight years ago three Britishcompanies and the National Research

Organization formed ECL to developa commercial power plant for space,industrial and eventually domesticmarkets for packaged power.

In 1966, ECL's work got a majorboost from the 800-strong fuel cellresearch team of Pratt and Whitney inthe U.S., which licensed patentsto develop fuel cells for the

U.S. space programmes. Some $132million of NASA funds went to Pratt

and Whitney to finance this develop¬ment, and in the meantime a free inter¬

change of information has continuedwith ECL.

In the meantime, Sweden's largemanufacturer of power generationequipment, has patented its ownfuel cell which it believes now to be

ready for space and civilian applica¬tions after nearly a decade of devel¬opment work.-

Concurrently, small, compact andrugged nuclear-powered electric gen¬erators are also being developed forterrestrial and undersea commercial

applications as an outgrowth of thework on SNAP (Systems for NuclearAuxiliary Power) generators for NASAand the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis¬sion.

The most immediate uses of thisradio-isotopic generator, which comesin a variety of power outputs from 3to 50 watts, are in communications

relay stations, pipelines and Instal¬lations in remote areas where uninter¬

rupted long life is required and main¬tenance or resupply are difficult, costlyor downright impossible.

One such 50-watt generator, havingno moving parts, is currently operatinga wellhead control system on an un¬dersea well in the Gulf of Mexico.

Another powers navigation devices.

The French firm Alcatel has devel¬

oped isotopic batteries supplying apower of 0.1 to 20 watts which are

now being used for underwater re¬search, oceanography and oil-drillingoperations.

DEVELOPING countries of

the world may soon have availablemobile, compact, high-output powerfacilities which can be installed quicklyas the result of the development of aself-contained power source conceivedfor possible space applications. Thispower package can Increase the nor¬mal output of a gas turbine as much as66 per cent by capturing the wasteheat of a gas turbine.

Solar cells, the main source of elec¬

tric power on about half of the space¬craft launched during the first decadeof the Space Age, have now beenrefined for use in certain Industrial and

communications applications. In devel¬oping countries located in desert or

tropical areas, this innovation in powergeneration has the widest applications.

Rigid, déployable solar array pro¬duced for spacecraft is a primarypower source presently being adapt¬ed for areas of the world endowed

with virtually unlimited supplies ofsolar energy.

Specific uses to which these im¬

proved array systems might be putinclude hospital and laboratory powersupply, petroleum and water pumpingsystems, telephone systems. Japanesetransistor radio manufacturers have

succeeded in devising a small solarpower pack which can be attached to 0"T

the outside of the radio, to replace ¿,1conventional battery sources.

The development of flexible thin

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

POWER SOURCES (Continued)

film solar arrays for use in high powersystems in a convenient roll-up typeof construction promises to provide acheap, highly mobile source of powerwith wide applications in both tropicaland desert areas.

. The space programme, demandingminiature power sources with highenergy density and reliability, hasalso produced major improvements innickel-cadmium batteries which have

led to better products for the consu¬mer market. Compact hearing-aid bat¬teries are now available that operateat a cost of about one per cent ofthose previously in use.

Nickel-cadmium batteries are also

used to operate a 24-ounce television

camera not much bigger than a largepacket of cigarettes, used initially tophotograph the separation of Saturn V

rocket stages in flight for engineeringinformation. These cameras are nowon sale worldwide in a commercial

version for monitoring industrial pro¬cesses. In France solar cells for spa¬cecraft developed by RadiotechniqueCompany have now been incorporatedinto a commercial portable cinemacamera to recharge its battery whilein use.

Specifically designed nickel-cad¬mium batteries are now being design¬ed for electrical automobiles used in

city and commuter driving; nickel-cadmium battery operated cars willhave a range of about 200 miles beforerecharging is necessary.

Nickel-cadmium batteries have a

high charge capacity, are capable ofoperating for tens of thousands of

recharge cycles and have a good over¬charge capacity all qualities requiredfor automotive use. But they have thedisadvantage of limited power output.

Work now underway to perfectsilver-cadmium and silver-zinc cells for

space and deep submergence marinevehicles is expected to provide abreakthrough which will give the elec¬tric automobile power for higherspeeds and longer single-chargeoperation.

A new, versatile atomic battery thatconverts heat from a radioactive iso¬tope directly into electrical power hasopened broad, new horizons for bat¬tery applications. The tiny ISOMITE(Isotope Miniature Thermionic Elec¬tric) battery, developed by the McDon¬nell Douglas Corp., is a compactsource of lowlevel electrical power inthe microwatt to milliwatt range supply¬ing up to 100 times as much energy aschemical batteries of the same weight.

Developed for spacecraft systems,other long-life applications of thistype of battery include cardiac pacersimplanted in heart patients, underseaequipment and remote s'ite powersupply.

Also under development in theU.S.A. is the Betacel atomic batterywhich produces electric current direct¬ly from low-level nuclear radiationwithout the use of heat. Betacel bat¬

teries, made of thin semi-conductingwafers sandwiching layers of Prome¬thium 147 or other radioactive isotopes,can be produced in a wide range ofcurrent-voltage ratings by "stacking"of wafers.

Inherently smaller than Isomite bat¬teries, Betacel offers greater efficiencyat lower power-output levels, makingit ideal for small instrument packages,biomedical telemetry and prosthetic

devices, wrist watches, remote-siteinstrumentation, computer -circuitstandby power, as well as self-power¬ed devices on spacecraft.

A small team at Harwell, Britain'sAtomic Energy Research Establish¬ment, has spent some £400,000 mostlyin the past four or five years, develop¬ing a family of isotope batteries de¬signed specifically for situations wherethe cost of maintaining any alternativepowerpack is unavoidably high. TheSoviet Union has already supplied achain of meteorological stations withnuclear batteries, and the British have

powered an offshore navigational lightat Dungeness in this way for over twoyears.

A promising further development inpower generation for microelectronic

equipment is taking place at GeneralElectric's Valley Force Space Techno¬logy Center, where bio-scientists work¬ing under a NASA contract have suc¬

cessfully demonstrated that usableelectric power can be drawn fromliving animals. This means that in the

future such life-saving devices as theHeart Pacer may be powered withoutany batteries at all. And the day maynot be far off when transmitters im-

panted in the human body and power¬ed by the body's own electricity willtelemeter back to a doctor's office acontinuous report on a patient's health.

PREVIOUS SPIN-OFF

This issue is devoted to the "spin-off" achievements of space research onearth itself. It does not dwell on the purely scientific benefits of the spaceendeavour to astronomy, physics, astrophysics, etc., which have been dealtwith in previous issues. Some of these articles are listed below.

Nov. '57: Challenge of the spaceship (A. Clarke).Nov. '57: A Soviet scientist looks at Sputnik (K. Staniukovich).April '60: What shall we gain by the conquest of space? (V. Fesenkov).Nov. '61 : Rays from outer space (A. Gusev).May '66: Special issue on space and international co-operation. Space: a

gigantic laboratory (A. Blagonravov). Efforts of space research(A. Frutkin). European space science (P. Auger). Science in space(K. Feoktistov). Lunar International Laboratory (B. Friedman).

Oct. '66: Unmanned vehicles for the new study of planetology (W. Pickering).March '69: Communications on the moon (G. Phélizon).

NASA's broad range of aerospace research activities has led tomany practical applications in unexpected fields. NASA's LangleyResearch Centre in Virginia recently found that on water-coveredsurfaces tyres do not touch the ground but skim along on a cushionof water. Discovery of this "hydroplaning" effect has hadimmediate applications for automobile safety. U.S. governmentagencies and the automobile industry are now experimenting withgrooved highways, road textures, new tyre treads and Improvedbreaking systems to avoid skidding and loss of control on wet roads.The fuel cell that provided electrical power for Gemini and Apollospacecraft has already been used experimentally to run farmtractors and electric passenger cars, and may be the forerunnerof power for pollution-free automobiles of tomorrow.

7. Space-age electronicsand pocket computers

THE key to man's conquest

or space is the computer. The assi¬milation of scientific data for everystage of a space flight, the design andproduction of virtually every componentof a spacecraft, the precision controlof the spacecraft in flight, and thestorage, classification and retrieval ofdata received from each space mis¬sion have produced tremendous ad¬vances in computer technology. Thestringent weight and volume require¬ments of spacecraft have led todevelopment of striking miniaturizedcomputer circuits which in a short timewill find their way into commerciallyavailable equipment.

Computers have been scaled downto the point where thousands of cir¬cuits can be compressed into a casesmaller than a thumbnail. Similar low-

cost computers soon will be incor¬porated into control systems for air¬planes, motor vehicles, industrial ma¬chinery, and construction and miningequipment.

Space age computer software dev¬eloped for the wide gamut of opera¬tions involved in the Apollo program¬me have been adapted for use withcomputers in air traffic control, indus¬trial process control, engineeringdesign, automation of hospital servicesand sophisticated medical diagnosis.

Computer data processing techniquesand programmes developed by spaceprojects have permitted airlines toprovide instant flight information andreservations systems, insurance com¬panies to improve their accounting andinvestment services and other firms to

handle transactions involving morethan 20 million items per day.

The applications of computerizednumerical control and digital logic tothe machine tool, a direct result ofaerospace research, received its greatimpetus from the metal machining re¬quirements of the space programme.Parts are complex. Zero-defects stand¬ards are absolute. Production lots

are small. Design changes are fre¬quent. A system which assured theautomatic control of machinery bymeans of programmed instructionsstored on punched cards or tapereplacing the operator, jigs and manualcontrols was essential to meetingthese rigid standards and rigorousconditions.

"The marriage of numerical control,the digital computer and machine toolsis one of the stunning technologicalinnovations of our time, ranking withnuclear power and space flight itselfas a third great development of ourgeneration," the American industrialistWillard F. Rockwell, Jr., contends. Not

only will 80 per cent of all machinedparts be produced by numerical con¬trol, with tremendous improvements inproductivity which means lower costsas well as greater reliability, but thecomputer is enabling management tomake sounder decisions on the basis

of faster, more accurate and morecomplete information.

While the aerospace Industry is stillby far the largest user of numericallycontrolled tools, numerical control

applications are being broadened toa multitude of other uses beyond thecutting of metal. These uses includematerial handling, assembly, welding,fabrication, inspection, quality control,computer graphics and drafting ma¬chines and plotters. Systems conceptsof numerical control cut right across acompany's activities with an irresis¬tible logic all of their own.

They jolt and stimulate and chal¬lenge every member of the corporateteam from the worker to top manage¬ment. They free the worker from thedrudgery of assembly-line routine,and the engineer can turn to morecreative pursuits. They blur the dis¬tinction between design and manufac¬turing, interlocking both Into a singlecomputerized process. They becomean integral part of computerizedmanagement information systems.

And all this adds up to a new indus-

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

29

SPACE-AGE ELECTRONICS (Continued)

Cartridge programmes for every TV set

trial revolution, with productivity boost¬ed by a ratio of four or five to onewherever numerical controls and data

logic are properly used.To make certain that innovations in

computer software technology devel¬oped in space projects become avail¬able to all who can use it, the Com¬

puter Software Management and In¬formation Center (COSMIC) was setup by NASA and is run under contractby the University of Georgia.

COSMIC operates as the centralclearinghouse and dissemination outletfor computer programmes and relatedinformation developed by NASA itselfas well as by its 20,000 contractors.The centre receives, evaluates andchecks out the software adding to itsinventory those programmes which areoperational and of potential value in awide range of applications.

Over 14,000 requests for softwarefrom industry, commerce and univer¬sities have been filled by COSMICwith substantial savings to the user.Since the development costs are allborn by NASA, it is estimated that theaverage purchaser of a programmefrom COSMIC saves from 50 to 90 percent of the cost of developing a sim¬ilar programme. More than 400 com¬plete programmes and documentationpackages are available for sale "offthe shelf" and new items are regu¬larly being added to the inventory.

I

30

F computer technology isthe key to man's conquest of space,the computer itself owes its rapid de¬velopment to space requirements. Tobegin at the beginning, if aerospacetechnology had remained shackled tothe vacuum tube, there would have

been not the slightest hope of landingon the moon or probing the planets inthis century. Even efforts to explorethe near reaches of space just outsidethe atmosphere would have been ser¬iously handicapped because of thesize, weight and power consumptionof avionic equipment.

The development of the transistorand its solid-state offspring the inte¬grated circuit made it possible tobuild digital computers no bigger thana shoebox and reliable enough tomake possible exacting interplanetaryspace flights. But it was first thetransistor, and now microminiature

integrated circuits, that made possiblethe development of successive gene¬rations of computers faster and withgreater capacity to meet the informa¬tion and control needs of science,education, industry, business andgovernment. Thus, in France the Labo¬ratoire Central de Télécommunications

has developed a tiny computer withintegrated circuits no bigger than aportable typewriter using space elec¬tronic technology.

Yet the transistorized computer wasbut the beginning of a total revolutionof the electronics industry throughoutthe world, providing the underpinningsfor economic miracles such as that

of Japan. Now, following on the heelsof the ubiquitous Japanese-madetransistor radio, a whole new genera¬tion of electronic products from clocksto computers using advanced micro¬electronic devices called "metal oxide

semiconductor/large-scale integratedarrays" (or more simply MOS/LSIdevices) are pouring off Japaneseproduction lines.

Developed by North American Rock¬well's Autonetics Division, MOS/LSIdevices are about the size of this

capital "O", twice the thickness of asheet of writing paper, and containmore than a thousand circuit elements.

None of the vital space systems couldfunction without the electronic sensing,calculating and controlling "braincentres" using these devices.

But neither could the revolutionarydesk-top calculators now being pro¬duced by Japan's Hazakawa ElectricCompany, using Autonetic MOS/LSIdevices. Approximately the size of acigar box, the new calculator weighsjust three pounds, operates instan¬taneously, without noise, and featuresa lighted display of eight digits. Andthis promises to be just the beginningof a Lilliputian invasion that willeventually affect the lives of meneverywhere.

Another technological breakthroughin space age electronics promises torevolutionize education and home

entertainment. In addition to books,libraries of the future will contain

Electronic Video Recordings (EVR)cartridges that can be played over anyordinary television receiver. Devel¬oped originally for high resolution'photo reconnaissance of the moon EVRwill soon be produced and marketedworldwide by "The EVR Partnership"in London a consortium of ColumbiaBroadcasting System (US), ImperialChemical Industries (UK) and CIBA(Switzerland) as a low-cost means ofplaying sound motion pictures of highquality as and when the user chooses.

It's like recording tapes with thevery important difference that sighthas been added to sound, the soundtrack being carried on magnetic stripsbuilt into the edges of black and whiteor colour film. For the public, it meansmovies at home. For students, audio¬visual learning at home.

For doctors, too busy to keep upwith the ever-Increasing flow of med¬ical literature, it means convenient

audio-visual briefings on new develop¬ments in the medical field preparedand distributed by pharmaceuticalcompanies for easy viewing at homeafter office hours. For television, it

means competition. And for socio-philosophers like Marshall McLuhan, itis the end of the Gutenberg era andan affirmation of the "picture civiliza¬tion". Slowly, under the impulse ofspace technology, civilization seems tobe bypassing the written word.

AiS this happens, a new

industry is developing on a globalscale. In the U.S., Kodak has devel¬oped a new process for the duplicationof films which produces four times asmany copies in any given time thanprevious methods, and at half of theprice. CBS has set up a plant forhigh-speed duplication and will developthe EVR market for films. In licence

agreements with CBS, Motorola willmanufacture EVR players and theNew York Times will develop educat¬ional EVR cartridges.

Outside the United States, llfordwill manufacture fine grain 8.75 mmfilm for copy prints and highspeed printing equipment of its owndesign to provide copies for fastdelivery at low cost. The Rank Organi¬zation will manufacture and distribute

teleplayers, and plans to package theRank Film Library in .EVR cartridges.Quantity production Is scheduled tobegin by the summer of 1970, justthree years after Its first use in lunarreconnaissance.

Add to all these spectacular develop¬ments affecting whole industries thecrop of new science-based companiesshooting up in North America, Europeand Japan dedicated specifically, if notexclusively, to the conversion of aero¬space technology to "down-to-earth"civilian applications.

Spar Aerospace Products Ltd. ofToronto, Canada, is typical of thebreed. In addition to its space eng¬ineering work in support of the Cana¬dian Alouette/ISIS programme andplanning for the Canadian domesticcommunications satellite system, Sparmanufactures STEM (Storable TubularExtendible Member) for Canadian, U.S.and European space programmes.

But STEM devices are also excellentexamples of the many "unglamorous"products developed specifically tomeet satellite requirements that arenow finding a wide variety of uses inearthbound applications. Essentially,the STEM principle is a means ofcoiling-up and storing long, rigid rodsor booms. In the ground environ¬ment, uses range from vehicular shipantennas, mobile elevating masts fortelevision cameras, lights or antennaarrays to surveyor's tripod legs andtent poles. The ability to coil-uplengths of relatively rigid tube into asmall volume, and re-deploy it againhas a range of uses limited only byone's imagination.

8.

The 'SystemsApproach'Applying the space

team method to major

problems on earth

Awhole new generation of

industries has grown up with specialexpertise in blending science andtechnology with advanced managementconcepts.

An entirely new school of managers,one that practices the "systemsapproach", is emerging. The "sys¬tems approach" applied to the manag¬erial task has helped to transform prac¬tice from a fractionalized mode of

operation to a highly integrated one.

Relying heavily on computerizedinformation systems, the main concernof this school is the increasingcomplexity of industrial and govern¬ment operations. The emphasis ison techniques for organizing andmanaging the large-scale undertaking,whether it be industry, govern¬ment or ad hoc projects of gargantuanproportions. It is a total rejection ofthe thesis which holds that all that

is big is evil.

Implicitly it challenges Lord Acton'sdictum that all power corrupts, andcomes down solidly on the side ofLord Radcliffe (and Lenin) who heldthat "power Is good or evil accordingto the vision that it serves."

It accepts the realities of moderneconomic life, which clearly indicatethe necessity for global solutions toglobal problems. Piecemeal actionsprovide no solutions for the pressingproblems of our age, nor little hopefor harnessing technology to theservice of mankind.

On the contrary, a new Welt¬anschauung in industry and govern¬ment is necessary to perceive problemsand opportunities in their real dimen¬sions. The pragmatic approachcrossing the bridges when one gets tothem, solving problems as theyarise has no place in the space agewhere the dimensions of undertakingsand the stakes are simply too greatfor mankind to be able to afford the

luxury of a heroic reliance on ingenuityto carry us through come what may.

In the Apollo programme, forexample, every aspect, from the launchpad design to the water recoverysystem including men, environmentand equipment is part of a system.All the elements must tie together andcontribute in a' specific way to theultimate objective. Systems analysisis the means of making sure that theydo that nothing is overlooked or outof place. That everything is performedto at least 99.999 per cent perfection.

If this combination of overview andattention to detail has been made

possible by the computer, it also stemsfrom a new perception of man and hisenvironment as a result of space agediscoveries. We now are acutelyaware of almost limitless opportunitiesfor man to mould and use his environ¬ment that extends in a continuum fromthe ocean floors, through the oceansand the atmosphere on into space.

The oceans, air and space longthought of separately are today

viewed as inseparable media forhuman activity. The new technologybeing developed for this activityembraces and feeds on the entire array

of human knowledge, the physical andsocial sciences as well as thehumanities.

Using systems engineering appliedwith large-scale organized effort, theexperience of the Apollo programmedramatically demonstrated that it Ispossible to meet new needs or effectdesired results on an almost fixed

time schedule, despite a myriad ofunknown factors and imponderables ina totally unexplored sphere of action.And all this despite a decentralizationof effort never before attained In a

single, crash programme.

The spectacular results obtained inthe Apollo project led former NASAAdministrator James E. Webb to

confidently proclaim that "We . . . havethe ability, in this concept of large-scale, organized effort and ourexperience with it, to organize our¬selves, our knowledge and ourresources to accomplish almost anytask we may set for ourselves. But,"he went on to qualify, "this form ofeffort has its own requirements aclear relationship to fundamentals anda sustained support over extendedperiods are two of the most important."

Operating on this general thesis, aU.S. firm (N. Amer. Rockwell) recentlyassigned its aerospace team to applythe systems analysis technique in athorough study of the textile industry.They analyzed textile processing,textile machinery and trends in fibres,new and old, with a view finally todetermine where technology andcapital can best advance in the textileindustry.

All this was a huge undertaking.The first phase alone, the systemsstudy, took months. But before it wasover the task force had already drawnup a proposal for the design ofcomputer control of eleven differenttextile machines, to enable them tomonitor their own performance andmake corrective adjustments tomaintain optimum performance. Thepreliminary designs were made, andmanagement authorized the manu¬facture of prototypes of two of thesemachines. If they are successful, thecompany will extend the application toother textile machinery.

There is a new and rising trendthroughout the world to use thetechnological resources of the largeelectric-electronic-aerospace corpora¬tions to find solutions to such publicproblems as poor housing, congestedmass transportation in industrializedcountries as well as infant transporta¬tion systems of developing nations, airpollution, stream pollution, crimecontrol and inadequate health, educa¬tion and welfare.

Sweden's Professor Carl-Gören i\aHeden carries this principle to its j Iultimate when he advocates consider¬

ing the earth as a space ship as aclosed ecological system. "We would

CONTINUED PAGE 38

BEYOND

BABELToday, whether we like it or not, we arelaying the foundation of the first global society

Tby Arthur C. Clarke

HERE is no longer anyneed to argue that the communicationssatellite Is ultimately going to have aprofound effect upon society; theevents of the last ten years haveestablished this beyond question.Nevertheless, it is possible that evennow we have only the faintest under¬standing of its ultimate impact uponour world.

There are those who have arguedthat communications satellites (here¬after referred to as "comsats")represent only an extension of existingcommunications devices, and that

society can therefore absorb themwithout too great an upheaval.

I am reminded rather strongly of thefrequent assertions, by elderly generalsimmediately after August 1945, thatnothing had really changed in warfarebecause the device which destroyedHiroshima was "just another bomb".

Some inventions represent a kindof technological quantum jump whichcauses a major restructuring of society.In our century, the automobile isperhaps the most notable example ofthis. It is characteristic of such

inventions that even when they arealready in existence, it is a considerabletime before anyone appreciates thechanges they will bring. To demon¬strate this, I would like to quote twoexamples one genuine, one slightlyfictitious.

For the first I am indebted to the

Honorable Anthony Wedgewood Benn,now U.K. Minister of Technology, whopassed it on to me when he wasPostmaster General.

Soon after Mr. Edison had invented

the electric light, there was an alarmingdecline In the Stock Exchange quota-

32

ARTHUR C. CLARKE, British sciencewriter and former chairman of the British

Interplanetary Society, was awarded theUnesco Kalinga Prize for the Populariz¬ation of Science in 1962. He has been

a regular contributor in the past to the"Unesco Courier". This article is takenfrom an address he delivered to an

international space communications confe¬rence at Unesco, Paris, last December.

tions for the gas companies. AParliamentary Commission was there¬fore called in England, which heardexpert witnesses on the subject; I feelconfident that many of these assuredthe gas manufacturers that nothingfurther would be heard of this impracti¬cal device.

One of the witnesses called was the

chief engineer of the Post Office,Sir William Preece an able man who

in later years was to back Marconiin his early wireless experiments.Somebody asked Sir William if he hadany comments to make on the latestAmerican invention the telephone.To this, the chief engineer of the PostOffice made the remarkable reply:"No Sir. The Americans have need

of the telephone but we do not. Wehave plenty of messenger boys."

The second exemple is due to myfriend, Jean d'Arcy, Director of Radioand Visual Information Services Divi¬

sion of the United Nations. He

has reported to me the delibera¬tions of a slightly earlier scientificcommittee, set up in the Middle Agesto discuss whether it was worth

developing Mr. Gutenberg's printingpress. After lengthy deliberations,this committee decided not to allocate

further funds. The printing press,it was agreed, was a clever idea, butit could have no large-scale applica¬tion. There would never be any bigdemand for books for the simplereason that only a microscopic fractionof the population could read.

If any one thinks that I am labouringthe obvious, I would like him to askhimself, in all honesty, whether hewould have dared to predict theultimate impact of the printing pressand the telephone when they wereinvented. I believe that in the longrun the impact of the communicationsatellite will be even more spectacular.Moreover, the run may not be as longas we think.

The human mind tends to extrapo¬late in a linear manner, whereas pro¬gress is exponential. The exponentialcurve rises slowly at first and thenclimbs rapidly, until eventually it cutsacross the straight-line slope and goes

soaring beyond it. Unfortunately, itIs never possible to predict whetherthe crossover point will be five, tenor twenty years ahead.

" However, I believe that everythingI am about to discuss will be tech¬

nically possible well before the endof this century. The rate of progresswill be limited by economic andpolitical factors, not technologicalones. When a new invention has a

sufficiently great public appeal, theworld insists on having it. Look at thespeed with which the ' transistorrevolution occurred. Yet what we

now see on the technological horizonare devices with far greater potential,and human appeal, even than theubiquitous transistor radio.

It must also be remembered that our

ideas concerning the future of spacetechnology are still limited by thepresent primitive state of the art.All of today's launch vehicles areexpendable, single-shot devices whichcan perform only one mission andare then discarded. It has been

"recognized for many years that spaceexploration, and space exploitation,will be practical only when the samelaunch vehicle can be flown over and

over again, like conventional aircraft.The development of the reusablelaunch vehicle the so-called "spaceshuttle" will be the most urgentproblem of the space engineers inthe 1970s.

It is confidently believed that suchvehicles will be operating by the endof the decade, the end of the 1970s.When they do, their impact uponastronautics will be comparable to thatof the famous DC-3 upon aeronautics.The cost of putting payloads andmen into space will decrease fromthousands, to hundreds, and then totens of dollars per pound. This willmake possible the development ofmultipurpose manned space-stations,as well as the deployment ofvery large and complex unmannedsatellites which it would be quiteimpractical to launch (from Earth) ina single vehicle.

It must also be remembered that

comsats are only one of a very large

CONTINUED PAGE 34

o

DIME-SIZED ATOMIC BATTERY. Two sizes of a miniature atomic battery are compared above to a pairof tweezers. Batteries may be smaller than an old English farthing or U.S. dime to produce microwattsof power or the size of several stacked coins to produce milliwatts of power (a microwatt is one-millionthof a watt). An electric watch can be powered by 10 microwatts, a hearing aid by 1,000 microwatts.Batteries produce electric current directly from low-level nuclear radiation and have a lifetime of up tofive years. Other batteries of similar size exist which convert heat from radioactive isotopes directlyinto electricity, providing 100 times as much energy as chemical batteries of equal weight Developedfor use in space, all these batteries are finding application as power sources for biomedical telemetry,cardiac pacemakers and undersea uses. Below, a tiny sensor and radio transmitter developed for spacemissions but now used to monitor electrocardiograms and the condition of patients with respiratoryailments. Radio starts buzzing loudly if complications occur. A TV camera, used to film the separationof Saturn V rocket stages, and no bigger than a packet of cigarettes, is now on sale in a commercialversion for monitoring industrial processes.

33

BEYOND BABEL (Continued)

The wise King Canute and the rising tide

range of applications satellites; theymay not even be the most important.The Earth Resources satellites will

enormously advance our knowledge ofthis planet's capabilities, and the waysin which we may exploit them. Thetime Is going to come when farmers,fishermen, public utility companies,departments of agriculture and for¬estry, etc. will find it impossible toImagine how they ever operated inthe days before they had space-bornesensors continually scanning theplanet.

The economic value of meteorolo¬

gical satellites and their potential forthe saving of life has already beendemonstrated. Another most impor¬tant use of satellites, which has notyet begun, but which will have aneconomic value of thousands of mil¬

lions of dollars a year, Is their use forair-traffic control. It appears possible,that the only real solution to theproblem of air congestion, and themounting risk of collisions, may bethrough navigational satellites whichcan track every aircraft In the sky.

I

34

N dealing with telecommu¬nications problems it is convenientand often indeed essential to divide

the subject according to the type oftransmission and equipment used.Thus we talk about radios, telephones,television sets, data networks, fac¬simile systems, etc., as though theywere all quite separate things.

But this of course is a completelyartificial distinction; to the communica¬tions satellite which simply handlestrains of electric impulses they areall the same. For the purposes ofthis discussion I am therefore lookingat the subject from a different pointof view, which may give a betteroverall picture. I am lumping all tele¬communications devices together andam considering their total impact uponfour basic units in turn. Those units

are the Home, the City, the State, andthe World.

Note that I start with the home, notthe family, as the basic human unit.Many people do not live in familygroups, but everybody lives in a home.Indeed, in certain societies today thefamily itself is becoming somewhatnebulous around the edges, and amongsome younger groups Is being replacedby the tribe of which more anon.But the home will always be with us.

There was once a time when homesdid not have windows. It is difficultfor those of us who do not live in

caves or tents to Imagine such a stateof affairs. Yet within a single genera¬tion the home in the more developedcountries has acquired a new windowof incredible magical power the TV

set. What once seemed one of the

most expensive luxuries became, inwhat Is historically a twinkling of aneye, one of the basic necessities oflife.

The television antenna swayingprecariously above the slum-dweller'sshack ¡s a true sign of our times.What the book was to a tiny minorityin earlier ages, the television set hasnow come to be for all the world.

It is true that, all too often, it Is nomore than a drug like its poorerrelative, the transistor radio seenpressed to the ears of the blank-faced noise-addicts one sees walkingentranced through the city streets.But, of course, it is infinitely more thanthis, as was so well-expressed byProfessor Buckminster Fuller when he

remarked that ours Is the first genera¬tion to be reared by three parents.

All future generations will be rearedby three parents. As René Maheu, Di¬rector-General of Unesco, remarkedrecently, this may be one of the realreasons for the generation gap. Wenow have a discontinuity in humanhistory. For the first time there is ageneration that knows more than itsparents, and television is at least partlyresponsible for this state of affairs.

Anything we can imagine In the wayof educational TV and radio can be

done. As I have already remarked,the limitations are not technical, buteconomic and political. As foreconomic limitations, the cost of atruly global satellite educationalsystem, broadcasting into all countries,would be quite trivial compared withthe long-term benefits It could bring.

Let me indulge In a little fantasy.Some of the studies of educational

comsat broadcasts let us call them

EDSATS to developing countriesindicate that the cost of the hardware

may be of the order of $1 per pupilper year.

I suppose there are about a thousandmillion children of school age on thisplanet, but the number of people, whorequire education must be much higherthan this, perhaps two thousand mil¬lion. As I am only concerned withestablishing orders of magnitude, theprecise figures don't matter. But thepoint is that, for the cost of a fewthousand million dollars a year afew per cent of the monies spent onarmaments one could provide aglobal EDSAT system which could dragthis whole planet out of ignorance.

Such a project would seem ideallysuited for Unesco supervision, becausethere are great areas of basic educa¬tion In which there are po serious

disagreements.

The beauty of television, of course,is that to a considerable extent it

transcends the language problem. Iwould like to see the development, by

the Walt Disney studios or somesimilar organization, of visual edu¬cational programmes which do notdepend on language, but only uponsight, plus sound effects. I feelcertain that a great deal can be donein this direction, and it is essentialthat such research be initiated as soon

as possible, because it may take muchlonger to develop appropriate pro¬grammes than the equipment to trans¬mit and receive them.

Even the addition of language, ofcourse, does not pose too great aproblem, since this requires only afraction of the band-width of the vision

signal. And sooner or later we mustachieve a world in which every humanbeing can communicate directly withevery other, because all men willspeak, or at least understand, a hand¬ful of basic languages. The childrenof the future are going to learn severallanguages from that third parent in thecorner of the living-room.

Perhaps looking further ahead, atime is going to come when anystudent or scholar anywhere on earthwill be able to tune in to a

course in any subject that interestshim, at any level of difficulty hedesires. Thousands of educational

programmes will be broadcast simul¬taneously on different frequencies, sothat any individual will be able toproceed at his own rate, and at hisown convenience, through the subjectof his choice.

T,HIS could result in an

enormous increase in the efficiency ofthe educational process. Today, everystudent is geared to a relativelyinflexible curriculum. He has to attend

classes at fixed times, which very oftenmay not be convenient. The openingup of the electromagnetic spectrummade possible by comsats willrepresent as great a boon to scholarsand students as did the advent of the

printing press itself.

The great challenge of the decadeto come is freedom from hunger. Yetstarvation of the mind will one day beregarded as an evil no less greatthan starvation of the body. All mendeserve to be educated to the limit

of their capabilities. If this opportunityis denied them, basic human rightsare violated.

This is why the forthcoming experi¬mental use of direct broadcast EDSATS

in India in 1972 is of such interest and

importance. We should wish it everysuccess, for even if it is only aprimitive prototype, it may herald theglobal educational system of the future.

It is obvious that one of the results

of the developments we have beendiscussing will be a breakdown of the

barrier between home and school, or

home and university for in a sensethe whole world may become oneacademy of learning. But this is onlyone aspect of an even wider revolutionbecause results of the new communica¬

tions devices will also break down

the barrier between home and placeof work.

During the next decade we willsee coming into the home a gener¬al purpose communications consolecomprising TV screen, camera, micro¬phone, computer keyboard and hard-copy readout device. Through this,anyone will be able to be in touchwith any other person similarlyequipped. As a result, for an ever-increasing number of people in fact,virtually everyone of the executivelevel and above almost all travel for

business will become unnecessary.

Recently, a limited number of theexecutives of the WestinghouseCorporation In the United States whowere provided with primitive forerun¬ners of this device, promptly found thattheir traveling decreased by 20 percent.

This,' I am convinced, Is how we aregoing to solve the traffic problemand thus, indirectly, the problem of airpollution. More and more, the sloganof the future will be, "Don't Commute

Communicate." Moreover, this de¬velopment will make possible andeven accelerate another fundamental

trend of the future.

It usually takes a genius to see theobvious, and once again I am indebtedto Professor Buckminster Fuller for

the following ideas. One of the mostimportant consequences of today'sspace research will be the develop¬ment of life-support, and above all,food1 regeneration systems for long-duration voyages and for the establish¬ment of bases on the Moon and

planets. It is going to cost thousandsof millions of dollars to develop thesetechniques, but when they are per¬fected they will be available toeveryone.

This means that we will be able toestablish self-contained communities

quite independent of agriculture, any¬where on this planet that we wish;perhaps one day even individual homesmay become autonomous closedecological systems producing all theirfood and other basic requirementsindefinitely.

This development, coupled with thecommunications explosion, means atotal change in the structure of society.But because of the inertia of human

institutions, and the gigantic capitalinvestments involved, it may take acentury or more for the trend to cometo its inevitable conclusion. That

conclusion is the death of the city.

We all know that our cities areobsolete, and much effort is now

going into patching them up so thatthey work after some fashion, likethirty-year-old automobiles held toge¬ther with string and wire. But we

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

WORLD

TV CLASSES

FROM

SPACE

The cost of the equipment for a truly global satelliteeducational system broadcasting radio and TVprogrammes to all countries has been estimated atabout $1 per pupil per year. Such a system couldeventually be developed to allow thousands ofprogrammes to be broadcast simultaneously on differentfrequencies so that any individual could select thesubject and level of his choice. T.V. educationalbroadcasts via communications satellite are to beginin India in 1972, and the results may show whetherthis method offers a real solution to the educational

problems of the developing countries. A globalcommunications satellite system may also open upvast possibilities for the new idea of "lifelongeducation". Photo shows two Malagasy techniciansat work on the antenna of a satellite tracking stationin Tananarive (Madagascar). Built by a Madagascarfirm for NASA, the station is manned by 120 Malagasytechnicians with U.S. help. In addition to trackingsatellites in orbit, it picks up data recorded byweather and astronomical observation satellites.

35

World weather watch

around the clock

The development of a morning's weather hourby hour (left) recorded by a satellite passing overthe Pacific on January 24, 1967. Right, photosequence of day-to-day weather changes overthe Pacific. Satellite meteorological observationshave sparked a revolution in the art of weatherforecasting. More accurate predictions havebrought incalculable benefits, from the savingof lives and property to the protection offood crops. Even more fantastic prospectswill be opened up once reliable long-range globalforecasts of two weeks or more become a

reality. The potential saving of such forecaststo India's agriculture, for example, would beat least $1,600 million a year and to U.S.agriculture $2,500 million. In 1961, timely warningof the approach of Hurricane "Carla" in theU.S. by the weather satellite Tiros 3 enabledover 350,000 persons to flee from the pathof the storm. Warnings have had similarbeneficial effects in many countries. Spaceobservations now bring greater navigational safetyto ships and aircraft. Pilots on transoceanicflights leaving New York now receive weatherphotos of their route transmitted automaticallyfrom weather satellites. Today, U.S.S.R. andU.S.A. weather satellite systems are combinedin a worldwide meteorological network under theauspices of the World Meteorological Organization.

Photos NASA

1057 AM 11 43 AM

Pacific weather, hour by hour

36

BEYOND BABEL (Continued)

must recognize that in the age that iscoming the city except for certainlimited applications is no longernecessary.

The nightmare of overcrowding andtraffic jams which we now endure isgoing to get worse, perhaps for ourlifetimes. But beyond that ¡s a visionof a world in which man is once againwhat he should be a fairly rare ani¬mal, though in instant communicationwith all other members of his species.Marshall McLuhan has coined the

evocative phrase "the global village"to describe the coming society. I hope"the global village" does not reallymean a global suburb, covering theplanet from pole to pole.

Luckily, there will be far more spacein the world of the future, because theland liberated at the end of the

agricultural age now coming to aclose after ten thousand years willbecome available for living purposes.I trust that much of it will be allowed

to revert to wilderness, and that

through this new wilderness willwander the electronic nomads of the

centuries ahead.

It Is perfectly obvious that thecommunications revolution will have

the most profound influence upon thatfairly recent invention, the nation-state.I am fond of reminding Americanaudiences that their country wascreated only a century ago by twoinventions. Before those inventions

existed it was impossible to have aUnited States of America. Afterwards,it was impossible not to have it.

Those inventions, of course, werethe railroad and the electric telegraph.U.S.S.R., China in fact all modern

states could not possibly existwithout them. Whether we like it or

not and certainly many people won'tlike it we are seeing the next stepin this process. History is repeatingitself one turn higher on the spiral.What the railroad and the telegraphdid to continental areas a hundred

years ago, the jet plane and thecommunications satellite will soon be

doing to the whole world.

Despite the rise of nationalism andthe surprising resurgence of minoritypolitical and linguistic groups, thisprocess may already have gone furtherthan Is generally imagined. We see,

particularly among the young, cultsand movements which transcend all

geographical borders. The so-called"jet set" is perhaps the most obviousexample of this transnational culture,but that involves only a small minority.

In Europe at least, the Volkswagenand Vespa sets are far more numerousand perhaps far more significant.The young Germans, Frenchmen, andItalians are already linked together bya common communications network,

and are impatient with the naive andsimple-minded nationalism of theirparents which has brought so muchmisery to the world.

What we are now doing whetherwe like it or not indeed whether we

wish to or not is laying the foundationof the first global society. Whetherthe final planetary authority will be ananalogue of the federal systems nowexisting in the U.S. or the U.S.S.R.I do not know. I suspect that, withoutany deliberate planning, such organiza¬tions as the world meteorological andearth resources satellite system, andthe world communications satellite

system (of which INTELSAT is theprecursor) will eventually transcend

13 January 1967 14 January 1967 15 January 1967

Pacific weather, day by day

their individual components. At sometime during the next century they willdiscover, to their great surprise, thatthey are really running the world.

There are many who will regardthese possibilities with alarm ordistaste, and may even attempt toprevent their fulfilment. I wouldremind them of the story of the wiseEnglish king, Canute, who had histhrone set upon the sea-shore so hecould demonstrate to his foolish

courtiers that even the king could notcommand the incoming tide.

The wave of the future Is now risingbefore us. Let us not attempt to holdit back. Wisdom lies in recognizingthe inevitable and co-operating withit. In the world that Is coming, thegreat powers are not great enough.

Let us look at our whole world as

we have already done through theeyes of our moon-bound cameras.I have made it obvious that it will be

essentially one world though I am notfoolish or optimistic enough to imaginethat it will be free from violence andeven war. But more and more it will

be recognized that all terrestrial vio

lence is the concern of the police andof no one else.

And there is another factor whichwill accelerate the unification of the

world. Within another lifetime, thiswill not be the only world, and thatfact will have profound psychologicalimpact upon all humanity. We haveseen in the annus mirabilis of 1969

the imprint of man's first footstep onthe Moon. Before the end of this

century, we will experience the onlyother event of comparable significancein the foreseeable future.

Before I tell you what it is, askyourselves what you would havethought of the Moon landing, thirtyyears ago. Well, before anotherthirty have passed, we will see itsinevitable successor the birth of the

first human child on another world, and

the beginning of the real colonizationof space. When there are men whodo not look on Earth as home, thenthe men of Earth will find themselves

drawing closer together.

In countless ways this process hasalready begun. The vast outpouringof pride, transcending all frontiers,during the flight of Apollo 11 was an

outstanding indication of this process.

Whether or not one takes it literally,the myth of the Tower of Babel has anextraordinary relevance for our age.Before that time, according to the bookof Genesis (and indeed according tosome anthropologists) the human racespoke with a single tongue.

That time may never come again, butthe time will come, and through theimpact of comsats, when there will betwo or three world languages which allmen will share. Far higher than themisguided architects of the Tower ofBabel ever could have imagined36,000 kilometres above the equator

the rocket and communications

engineers are about to undo the cursethat was then inflicted upon ourancestors.

So let me end by quoting therelevant passage from the 11th chapterof Genesis, which I think could be amotto for our hopes of the future:

And the Lord said: Behold they areone people and they have all onelanguage, and this is only the beginn¬ing of what they will do, and nothingthat they propose to do now will beimpossible for them.

37

THE 'SYSTEMS APPROACH' (Continued from page 31)

then not only arrange for organichousehold sewage and industrial wasteto be processed separately, but wewould also regard photosynthesis asmore precious for balancing ourgaseous environment than for provid¬ing food," he contends.

"If we then start to consider dome-

structures for agriculture in order toprovide the elevated carbon-dioxideconcentrations probably needed formaximal biological productivity, and forsimplifying the control of insect pests,we enter an overlap area with a wholerange of planetary base problems.Many of the solutions which must beconsidered by the engineers chargedwith providing a constant environmentfor extended manned flights or inmoon or planetary bases are in facthighly relevant to the scientists andengineers concerned with (these) lessglamorous projects . . ."

A

38

lDVOCATES of the sys¬tems approach are tackling thesepressing social problems with a firmconviction that we have the technical

tools to free society of many of itsburdens and to carry It to new levelsof achievement. Recent projects inwhich aerospace companies contractedto apply to public problems what theyhad learned in space is long andimpressive:

A recent AVCO Corp. programmewhich had its origin In a Basic PlanetaryTransportation Model developed forlunar space problems, involves systemsanalysis for national water resourcesin the U.S. The programme calls fora thorough evaluation of watertechnology, benefits and costs of waterprogrammes, and assessment of stateand regional policies, plants andprogrammes.

An American company, employingaerospace systems engineering tech¬niques, conducted a waste manage¬ment study for California with projects25 years ahead. Control and manage¬ment of solid, liquid and gaseouswastes generated by the State's rapidlyexpanding population was assessed.Subsequently, an intensive systematicstudy was carried out of solid wastein Fresno County, an area typical ofmany other rapidly growing urban-agricultural complexes throughout theUnited States. Some nine months

before scheduled completion of thestudy, environmental conditions in thecountry were measurably improved byadoption of recommendations in apreliminary report.

California has applied aerospacesystems analysis techniques to thesolution of important social problems.

In 1965, the American space firmAerojet performed a systems analysisstudy of the problems of crime anddelinquency In the State. Results of

the six-months effort demonstrated the

practicality of using aerospace tech¬niques to gain new insight into crimeprevention and control procedures.Of particular significance was thesimulation of the criminal justicesystem on a computer.

This mathematical model enabled

systems engineers to determine howwell the system functioned and howchanges would affect its functioning.Information was obtained on the

operation of a criminal justice systemthat would require years to achieve inactual practice.

Work is proceeding with the govern¬ment of Venezuela on plans to providea management support programmefor the Ministry of Public Works.A contract study has also recentlybeen completed for the government ofChile on national air transportation,with proposals for short, medium andlong-term development of both presentdomestic and future international

routes.

An important aspect of the study isevaluation of the systems approach asa means of analyzing the socio¬economic needs of less developedcountries. Even some of the mostfervent advocates of extended use of

the systems management approachhave serious apprehensions.

Prior to the Space Age few industrieswere organized for innovation. Mostfirms were created and managed touse some existing technology to manu¬facture and market products for whichthere existed a recognizable demand.And by the very nature of theirobjectives and organization, they werenot equipped or properly motivatedto come up with anything truly new.

This static organizational provisionfor innovation was found inadequatefor the rapid and radical pace oftechnological change required byspace programmes and for the efficienttransfer of new space technology tocommercial uses.

Multi-functional teams involvingscientists, production engineers, sys¬tems analysts and marketing spe¬cialists, cutting across existinq organi¬zational structures, working on an adhoc project team basis, were found toenlist and deploy creative energiesmuch more effectively than compart¬mentalized endeavour.

This relationship is not only moreflexible but it has no institutional

motives other than the task itself,which means both that the selection

of personnel for team membership islikely to be more commensurate withthe job to be done and that the resultsof team action are much less likelyto be determined by considerationsforeign to the task at hand.

One of the really significant achieve¬ments of the strains, traumas andendless experimentation of the first

decade of space exploration has beenthis use of ad hoc team structures to

direct the massive endeavours ofhundreds of thousands of minds in a

close-knit, synergistic combination ofgovernment, university and industryto tackle complex, large-scale pro¬jects.

In the United 'States, the ApolloProject has spawned an intimate, newsymbiosis of private and publicinstitutions, leaving each to performthe tasks it knows and can do best

in co-operative effort that enhances theabilities of both participating govern¬mental and private organizations.

Quite deliberately NASA confinedits role to an integrating and directingone, acting as a central fund ofexperience and a point of transferthrough which painfully acquiredknowledge in managing and develop¬ing complicated systems gets fromone contracting company to another.

This new interdependence of govern¬ment, industry and the universities isnot primarily physical. On thecontrary, its strength and successdepends greatly on the preservationof the intrinsic, independent characterof each party.

L1ARGE universities such as

the Massachusetts Institute of Techno¬

logy, the California Institute of Techno¬logy, Harvard and Columbia havebecome the most prolific breeders ofprivate, science-based businesses inwhich professors emerge as leaders ofindustry. And, at the same time,governments are increasingly inclinedto use industrial forms of organizationto run everything from post offices topension plans.

The late Adlai Stevenson saw the

true import of this new pluralism whenhe stressed that if we are to realize

the great promise held out by our newscientific and technological capabilities,so greatly magnified by the ventureinto space, two things are necessary:"The first Is to recognize that in ourmodern highly productive marketeconomy, stability and growth dependupon a partnership between manage¬ment, labour and government. Thesecond is an end to the quarrel bet¬ween public and private purposes."

If what NASA and industry havelearned about management in spaceprogrammes has contributed to theseobjectives leading to better ways oforganizing ourselves to do the bigthings we have to do to putting agreater degree of rationality Into man'srelationships with his global environ¬ment then in the conquest of spacewe will have made our most signifi¬cant investment in human progresshowever infinite are the broad horizonsof the still known universe.

Just published by Unesco

Study abroad XVIIIEtudes à l'étrangerEstudios en el extranjero

1970-1971

1971-1972

International scholarships and coursesBourses et cours internationaux

Becas y cursos internacionales

Unesco

Composite : English-French-Spanish

660 pages

$6.00 36/-stg.(£1.80) 24 F.

Study AbroadVol. XVIII, 1970/1971, 1971/1972

Unesco's international students' guide to

opportunities for study abroad during the

academic years 1970-1971 and 1971-1972.

Lists scholarships, fellowships and

international courses offered by

129 countries and territories, covering

almost every field of study.

Gives easy-to-use information on: who can

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is the award, how and where to apply.

Where to renew your subscriptionand order other Unesco publications

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7

EARS FOR SATELLITES

These two 40-foot-diameter parabolic antenna are used toreceive, amplify and transmit messages through a satellitecommunications network. Easily transportable,they can be reassembled in 48 hours.Photo Henry W. McAllister, New York - Hughes Aircraft Company

Ik."! -

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