The Effects of Food-Related Personality Traits on Tourist Food Consumption Motivations *

Athena H.N. Mak, National Dong Hwa University, TaiwanMargaret Lumbers, University of Surrey, UK

Anita Eves, University of Surrey, UKRichard C.Y. Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan

* This is a draft version of the paper. For the full published version, please visit the Asia Pacific Journal of Journal of Tourism Research website:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2016.1175488

Abstract

This study explores the motivational dimensions underlying food consumption in

tourism, and to examine the effects of two food-related personality traits, namely food

neophobia and variety-seeking, on these motivational dimensions. A tourist food consumption

motivational scale was developed and seven motivational dimensions were identified: novelty

and variety, authentic experience and prestige, interpersonal and culture, price/value and

assurance, health concern, familiarity and eating habit, and sensory and contextual pleasure.

Both food neophobia and variety-seeking were found to have significant effects on various

motivational dimensions. The implications of the findings for practice and future research are

discussed.

Keywords: Tourist food consumption; food-related personality traits; food neophobia; variety-

seeking, tourist’s paradox, sensory-specific satiety.

1. Introduction

Food consumption in the context of international tourism can be seen as the “tourist’s

paradox”, an oscillation between fulfilling the “obligatory” and the “symbolic” facets in the

encounter of food in foreign destinations (Mak, Lumbers, & Eves, 2012a). The “obligatory”

facet reflects the essentiality of food consumption in tourism, and the “symbolic” facet

signifies the symbolic meanings of food consumption to tourists, such as acquiring cultural

capital, exploring local culture and seeking authentic experience. Tourists’ food consumption

experience can also be distinguished into a “contrast” dimension that denotes the motivation to

seek contrast from the tourists’ daily routine, and an “extension” dimension which refers to the

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motivation to seek food experiences that extend the tourists’ daily routine (Quan & Wang,

2004). Furthermore, eating is a unique form of tourist activity that gratifies all five senses,

offering a “pleasure” aspect that can fulfil the experiential part of the tourist experience (Mak

et al., 2013).

Due to its idiosyncrasies, tourist food consumption is well recognised as an indispensable

component of the overall tourist experience (Hjalager & Richards, 2002; Torres, 2002).

Besides, tourist food consumption entails significant implications on destinations. Evidence

from a number of studies suggests that tourists’ interests in and preferences for food in a

destination can play a pivotal role in affecting destination choice (Bessiere, 1998; Cohen &

Avieli, 2004; Hall & Mitchell, 2001; Hall & Sharples, 2003; Long, 2004). Tourist food

consumption expenditure can constitute up to one-third of their total expenditure (Hall &

Sharples, 2003; Telfer & Wall, 2000), representing a considerable proportion of a destination’s

tourism revenue.

Despite its importance, relatively little research effort has been devoted to understanding

the motivational aspects of tourist food consumption. This neglect is largely due to the

conventional view of its role as a “supporting consumer experience” (Quan & Wang, 2004).

However, with the recent escalation in utilising food and gastronomy as a key differentiator in

many destinations, there is a heightened interest in exploring the motivations for food

consumption in tourism. A number of recent studies have explored the motivations underlying

the consumption of local food (e.g., Kim, Eves, & Scarles, 2009) and participation in specific

food festivals (e.g., Chang & Yuan, 2011; Kim, Goh, & Yuan, 2010). While these studies have

recognised the importance of motivations in understanding tourist food consumption

behaviour, their focus was restricted to a particular type of food or festival. Such a restricted

focus may result in the failure to capture the complexity and heterogeneity of food

consumption in tourism, thereby leaving a gap in the holistic understanding of the motivations

underpinning tourist food consumption.

More recent studies have raised that food-related personality traits (FRPTs) may play a

significant role in affecting tourists’ food consumption motivations and behaviours (e.g.,

Chang, Kivela, & Mak, 2010; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Mak et al., 2012b). FRPTs can be

defined as individual characteristics that exert pervasive influence on a broad range of food

choice and consumption behaviours. Two of the most influential FRPTs that can affect tourist

food consumption are food neophobia and variety-seeking. Food neophobia refers to the

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unwillingness to try unfamiliar foods (Pliner & Salvy, 2006). It may deter tourists from

consuming certain local or indigenous cuisines in a destination (Cohen & Avieli, 2004).

Variety-seeking describes the enduring tendency of individuals to seek diversity in their

choices of services or goods (Kahn, 1995). The trait may also significantly correlate with food

consumption in tourism, as tourism per se is a form of change from the daily routine, and thus,

the quest for various foods is one of appealing experiences in tourism. Although the effects of

these two traits on food consumption behaviour in the context of tourism have begun to attract

research attention in the tourism and hospitality literature, empirical evidence is still scarce,

and thus, existing knowledge in this regard remains sketchy.

To fill these research gaps, this study aims to identify the motivational dimensions

underlying food consumption in the context of international tourism and to examine the effects

of two FRPTs, namely food neophobia and variety-seeking, on the motivational dimensions.

To achieve these objectives, Hong Kong was chosen as the site of this investigation. The

selection was based on the following considerations: Hong Kong has long been hailed as a

“Gourmet Paradise” (Yau & Lee, 1996), and the “culinary capital of Asia” (HKTB, 2015b).

There were more than 12,000 restaurants in Hong Kong, providing tourists with a wide range

of cuisine choices from Cantonese, Regional Chinese, Japanese, Southeast Asian, to Western

(HKTB, 2015a). In addition, Kivela and Crotts (2006) found that around 21% of their

respondents indicated food as the main reason for them to travel to Hong Kong. The diversity

of the gastronomic products and tourists’ interest in the food offered by Hong Kong render it a

suitable destination for this study.

The focus of this study includes the consumption of both local and non-local

foods/cuisines, in an attempt to generate a more holistic understanding of the tourist food

consumption phenomenon. In the light of the new global food culture and changing tourism

dining landscape brought about by intensifying globalisation (Mak et al., 2012a), the

motivations underlying the consumption of local and non-local food are both considered

important (Cohen & Avieli, 2004; McKercher, Okumus, & Okumus, 2008). Accordingly, in

this study, food is defined as food/drink that is eaten as a meal purchased from commercial

settings in Hong Kong. It includes dishes, meals and dining experiences of local and non-local

cuisine/food.

2. Literature Review

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2.1. Motivations underlying food consumption in tourism

Motivation has been recognised as a multi-dimensional construct exerting significant

influence on tourist food consumption behaviour (Mak et al., 2012b). A number of studies have

attempted to shed light on the specific motivational factors underlying tourist food

consumption. For example, Fields (2002) adopted the typology of tourist motivators to

elaborate on the interplay between food consumption and tourism. He proposes four

motivational factors of food consumption in tourism: physical, cultural, interpersonal, and

status and prestige. First, food can be a physical motivator as the act of eating is predominately

physical in nature involving sensory perceptions to appreciate the food or tourists’ need for

sustenance. Second, food can also be a cultural motivator because when tourists are

experiencing new local cuisines, they are simultaneously experiencing a new culture. Third,

food might serve as an interpersonal motivator as meals taken on a holiday have a social

function including building new social relations and strengthening social bonds. Finally, local

delicacies can also be a status and prestige motivator, as tourists can build their knowledge of

the local cuisine by eating as the locals do, and exploring new cuisines and food that they or

their friends are not likely to encounter at home. Although Fields’ (2002) proposition is

conceptual and requires further empirical validation, it is valuable in establishing a theoretical

linkage between tourist motivations and tourist food consumption motivations.

More recently, studies are aware of the idiosyncratic nature of food consumption in

tourism, and have started to adopt an interpretivist approach to investigation the motivations

underlying tourist food consumption. For example, Kim et al. (2009) adopted a grounded

theory approach to explore the motivational factors behind local food consumption in tourist

destinations. Nine motivational factors were identified, namely, exciting experience, escape

from routine, health concern, learning knowledge, authentic experience, togetherness, prestige,

sensory appeal, and physical environment. Kim et al.’s findings offered important insights into

the motivations and factors influencing the consumption of local food. Nonetheless, since their

focus was restricted to local food, they have largely adopted a general tourist motivation

framework in explaining tourists’ local food consumption behaviour. This may lead to

overlooking of the “obligatory” and “extension” nature of food consumption in tourism (Mak

et al., 2012a; Quan & Wang, 2004; Richards, 2002).

Another study by Chang, Kivela and Mak (2010) has adopted an ethnographic approach

in exploring tourist food motivations. The participant observation technique was combined

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with on-site focus group interviews to examine and compare different Chinese tourists’

(including Mainland Chinese, Hong Kong, and Taiwanese tourists) food consumption

experiences while they were holidaying in Australia. Chinese tourists’ food preferences were

classified into three distinct categories: familiar food (Chinese food), local food (Australian

food), and non-fastidiousness of food selection. The motivational factors for favouring each

preference are illustrated in Figure 1.

* Please insert Figure 1 about here

Chang et al.’s study was a first attempt to generate an in-depth understanding and

comparison of Chinese tourists’ food preferences in a Western context. Their ethnographic

approach allows a revealing juxtaposition of two culturally-distant food cultures, and provides

a model of motivational factors underlying the Chinese tourists’ food preferences from a

comprehensive perspective. Their study uncovered a number of important motivations

underlying preference for local food, for example, the desires to explore local culture, to seek

authentic travel experience, to pursue learning/education opportunity, and to acquire prestige

and status. Another critical aspect of their findings is that other than the prevalent motivations

for seeking local food, there was an abiding need for participants to seek familiar food. As they

state, many of the participants were eager to try local food, however, they also explicitly stated

local food did not match up to the criteria of a “proper meal” in their dietary habits, and thus it

was impossible for them to consume local food at every meal. This suggests that the

participants perceived partaking of local food was perceived as a “peak touristic experience”,

one that could satisfy their symbolic and experiential needs, but not enough to satiate their

physiological needs.

The above-discussed studies have presented the view that motivations underpinning

tourist food consumption can be highly related to tourist motivation, and yet, they also

encompass more generic food choice motivations, such as seeking familiar flavour, core eating

behaviour as identified in Chang et al.’s study (2010). Tourists in general welcome novelty,

however, they concomitantly seek a certain level of familiarity in their food consumption

experiences (Mak et al., 2012a). Thus, an over-reliance of a tourism motivation framework

risks the chances of ignoring the “obligatory” and “extension” aspects of food consumption in

tourism (Mak et al., 2012b).

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Following this, Mak et al. (2013) has adopted an interdisciplinary approach that

incorporates both tourist motivations and food choice motivations to understand the

idiosyncratic nature of tourist food consumption. Drawing on a combined repertory grid

method and generalised Procrustes analysis approach, they proposed a framework with five

conceptual dimensions to reflect the complex and heterogeneous nature of tourism food

consumption, namely, symbolic, obligatory, contrast, extension and pleasure (Figure 2).

* Please insert Figure 2 about here

The “symbolic” dimension signifies the symbolic meanings of food consumption to

tourists, such as seeking authentic experience and prestige. The “obligatory” dimension reflects

the essentiality of food consumption in tourism, and includes factors such as health concern

and the need to seek assurance in price and value. The “contrast” dimension denotes the need

to quest for food experience that contrast from the tourists’ daily routine, whereas the

“extension” dimension refers to the motivation to seek food experience that extend the daily

routine (Quan & Wang, 2004). Finally, the “pleasure” dimension captures the need to seek

sensory, social and contextual pleasures from the food consumption experience (Mak et al.,

2013).

One merit of this framework is its ability to facilitate perceptual mapping of gastronomic

products into supporting consumer experience, peak touristic experience (contrast), peak

touristic experience (symbolic) and “attractionised” experience (Figure 2). Another advantage

of this framework is that the five conceptual dimensions provide a useful structure for

comparison of previous findings. The motivational factors of the studies reviewed are

categorised according to the five dimensions (Table 1).

* Please insert Table 1 about here

As can be seen from Table 1, the five conceptual dimensions capture the motivations

from previous findings well except for Chang et al.’s (2010) study. That is because their study

focused on group tourists and some unique factors were revealed, such as reference group

influence (e.g., the influence of motivation by tour group members), subjective perception

(e.g., the subjective assumption that one type of food is better than the other) and prejudiced

advocacy (e.g., the influence of motivation by tour leader).

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While Mak et al.’s (2013) framework provides useful insight to capture the motivations

underlying tourist food consumption, its development is based on a relatively small scale

sample and further studies are required to examine the motivational dimensions and

substantiate the framework. Accordingly, this study attempts to quantitatively explore the

motivational dimensions by using a large-scale sample.

2.2. Food-related personality traits

Food-related personality traits (FRPTs) have begun to be recognised as important

psychological constructs affecting tourist food consumption (Mak et al., 2012b). FRPTs refer

to individual characteristics that exert pervasive influence on a broad range of food-related

behaviours. Two main traits can be identified from the tourism literature, namely, food

neophobia and variety-seeking.

Food neophobia, or the reluctance to ingest novel foods (Pliner & Salvy, 2006), is at the

heart of the mechanism dictating human food consumption behaviour. Humans, as omnivorous

foragers, have a propensity to try various food sources (neophilic), yet at the same time, are

cautious not to ingest toxic or harmful substances (neophobic). Food neophobia, therefore, is

described as a “natural biological correlate of omnivorous exploratory behaviour” (Köster &

Mojet, 2007, p. 99). According to Pliner and Salvy (2006), food neophobia can be

conceptualised as a personality trait involving a relative preference for familiar over novel

foods. This condition is stable over time and consistent across situations. However, there are

large individual differences in the extent of food neophobia. Pliner and Hobden (1992)

developed the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS), a ten-item instrument, to measure individual

differences in food neophobia. Research shows that when measured with the scale, people who

are more neophobic tend to expect various novel foods to taste worse than the less neophobic,

and thus are generally less willing to taste or choose novel foods (e.g., Pliner & Hobden, 1992;

Tuorila et al., 1998; Tuorila et al., 1994).

In the tourism literature, the food neophobia concept has been adopted to explain the

difference in tourists’ food consumption behaviour. For example, Cohen and Avieli (2004)

contend that local or indigenous cuisines in foreign destinations can be an “impediment” rather

than an “attraction” to many tourists. That is, although tourists may typically be eager or

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willing to engage in “novel” or “unusual” experiences, eating involves the ingestion of

unfamiliar food items, and thus, neophobic tendency might become more prominent. Likewise,

Torres (2002) cited that many studies suggest that tourists in general prefer foods to which they

are accustomed and resist trying local varieties. Kim et al. (2009) suggest that food neophobia

may reduce tourists’ inclination to consume exotic local food on holiday. They found that

tourists who had a predisposition to be neophobic tended to be reluctant to eat exotic food. In

contrast, Chang et al. (2011) observed that the neophilic tendency may prompt some tourists to

seek novel dining experiences when on holiday.

Another FRPT that may affect tourist food consumption is variety-seeking. Variety-

seeking can be defined as the propensity of “individuals to seek diversity in their choices of

services and goods” (Kahn, 1995, p. 139). The food consumption literature suggested that

individuals with a higher variety-seeking (HVS) tendency are more inclined to seek different

kind of foods across various situations (e.g., van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992). van Trijp and

Steenkamp (1992) have developed an 8-item instrument, the VARSEEK scale, to measure this

trait. HVS individuals tend to get bored more quickly with food than lower variety-seeking

(LVS) individuals do, owing to their higher level of “composite need”.

The optimal stimulation level theory provides a basis for understanding the “composite

need” behind the variety-seeking behaviour. As van Trijp (1995) states, individuals tend to

seek additional stimulation by adding variety or novel stimuli when the level of stimulation

falls below the optimum. In contrast, they tend to avoid novel stimuli or variety if the level of

stimulation is above the optimal point. Therefore, customers tend to veer away from an item

consumed during the last occasion. By selecting alternatives that have not been chosen

recently, individuals may achieve optimum stimulation level, as well as prevent boredom and

alleviate attribute satiation (Ratner, Kahn, & Kahneman, 1999; van Trijp, 1995).

Another potential explanation for variety-seeking in foods is “sensory-specific satiety”

(SSS) (i.e., the satiation for the sensory properties of a food grows while it is consumed)

(Lähteenmäki & van Trijp, 1995). HVS individuals may get SSS more quickly than LVS

individuals, thereby resulting in a higher propensity for them to seek variety on sensory

attributes in their food consumption. In a series of studies on consumer food choice, Inman

(2001) found that consumers switched more intensively between flavour than brand in 14 out

of the 15 categories of tortilla chips and cake mixes. Their findings imply that consumers are

more likely to seek variety on sensory attributes (e.g., flavour) than non-sensory attributes (e.g.,

brand).

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Research further indicates that variety-seeking behaviour occurs frequently in the case

of hedonic consumption for which diversity among features is a significant consideration

(Ratner et al., 1999). Hedonic products can be referred to as products for which fun, pleasure,

or enjoyment is a primary benefit, and they tend to generate stronger emotional responses

(Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006). Tourism and gastronomy are often regarded as hedonic products,

and thus, can be subject to the influence of variety-seeking behaviour. For example, Quan and

Wang (2004) contend that variety-seeking behaviour can significantly affect food consumption

in tourism. Chang et al.’s (2011) study identified that variety is one of the key attributes

affecting tourist evaluation of their food experiences.

In sum, food neophobia is concerned with the fear of consuming unfamiliar food, and

thus, may influence tourists’ motivations to try new foods. Variety-seeking is concerned with

the tendency to actively search for variety, which may affect tourists’ motivations to seek

varieties in both familiar and unfamiliar food (Lähteenmäki & Arvola, 2001). Although both

traits are recognised as important constructs in explaining the variation in tourist food

consumption motivations, empirical investigation into their relationship is rare and results are

conflicting. For example, in the food consumption literature, Eertmans et al. (2005) explored

the relationship between food neophobia and food choice motives. Their results provide partial

support for the assumption that food neophobia exerts its influence on food choice through the

weighing of motives. However, a more recent study in the tourism literature found no

significant relationship between food neophobia and motivational factors for local food

consumption (Kim, Eves, & Scarles, 2013). The conflicting findings highlight the need for

further research into the precise nature of the links between FRPTs and tourist food

consumption motivations.

2.3. Cultural influence

Culture has long been recognised as a major determinant affecting food consumption.

Culture can be defined as a shared set of characteristics, attitudes, behaviours, and values that

helps groups of people decide what to do and how to go about it (Goodenough, 1971). Culture

“guides” the behaviour of a particular group in all affairs of life and designates the socially

standardised activities of people, including the human “foodways”. Accordingly, culture is a

major determinant affecting the types of substances that a person considers appropriate to eat

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(Atkins & Bowler, 2001; Logue, 1991). It defines how food is coded into “acceptable” or

“unacceptable”, and “good” or “bad” within a particular social group (Mäkelä, 2000).

Due to cultural differences, what is considered as “good” food in one culture might be

considered as “bad” food in another. Furthermore, culture determines which foods and food

qualities are acceptable in terms of their sensory properties (Prescott et al., 2002). This process

is manifested in the existence of culturally specific “flavour principles”. According to Rozin

and Rozin (1981), basic foods, cooking techniques, and flavour principles are three major

factors that differentiate a cuisine, and flavour principles refer to the distinctive seasoning

combinations which characterise many cuisines.

The influences of culture on tourist food consumption have been recognised by a number

of tourism studies. For example, the study by Pizam and Sussmann (1995) revealed that

Japanese, French, and Italian tourists were observed as avoiding local food in the host

destination and always preferring to eat their own cuisine; whereas American tourists were

perceived to have a slight preference for local food in the host destination. Although their

findings were based on the perceptions of a group of British tour-guides instead of being

measured directly from the tourists, it provided preliminary evidence that culture may have a

significant effect on tourist food consumption. In Sheldon and Fox’s (1988) study concerning

the role of food service in vacation choice, Japanese tourists were also found to be less willing

to try new cuisines as compared with American and Canadian tourists visiting Hawaii. In a

study on the connection between tourism and agriculture in Yucatan, Torres (2002) concluded

that discernible differences in food consumption and preferences existed among tourists of

different nationalities and tourist-types. She found that while there was considerable demand

for Mexican food, tropical fruits, and organic foods among all tourists in the sample, demand

appeared to be greater among non-American and “off-beat” tourists.

Despite the preliminary evidence presented above, relatively little is known about to

what extent and in what specific aspects culture has impacted food consumption in tourism.

Until recently, a number of tourism studies have shed more light on the topic. For example, Tse

and Crotts (2005) proposed a link between tourist culinary choice and their national culture.

Their findings indicated that respondents from low “uncertainty avoidance index” countries

(i.e., where people are generally less risk averse) (Hofstede, 2001), had patronised a greater

number and diversity of culinary offerings in Hong Kong compared with respondents from

high “uncertainty avoidance index” countries. This presents an interesting proposition that

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national culture, in particular the risk-aversion domain, may exert significant collective

influence on tourist food consumption.

On the other hand, Chang et al. (2010) found that tourists’ culturally-specific “core

eating behaviour” may be a crucial factor affecting their food preferences on holiday. Tourists

are generally more willing to accept changes in “secondary” foods (i.e., foods eaten widely and

often, but not daily, in a culture) and “peripheral” foods (i.e., foods eaten sporadically in a

culture) on holiday, yet tend to remain steadfast to “core” foods (i.e., staples that are consumed

almost daily in a culture). This supports the core and peripheral foods model in the food

consumption literature (Kittler & Sucher, 2004) which suggests that core foods are closely

associated with a culture and may face the biggest resistance to be changed or modified. In

addition, Chang et al. (2011) further found that tourists’ own food culture may exert a great

deal of influence on their perceptions and evaluation of foreign food, particularly in terms of

flavour and cooking method. Their findings highlighted the importance of understanding the

“cultural distance” (McKercher & Chow, 2001) and culturally-specific “flavour principles”

(Rozin & Rozin, 1981) between tourists’ native food culture and the host food culture in

affecting tourist food consumption.

Since the main objective of this study was to examine the effects of FRPTs on tourists’

food consumption motivations, cultural influence was indirectly explored through the two

FRPTSs (i.e., food neophobia and variety-seeking). It was achieved by delimiting the sample to

British and Taiwanese tourists. The rationale is twofold: first, limiting to two nationalities in

the sample could significantly minimise the “problems of comparability” (Scheuch, 1993). For

example, response style bias such as “extreme response style” would be difficult to detect if the

sample is made up of too many cultural subgroups (Oberski, 2012). Second, British tourists

should have a larger “cultural distance” compared with Taiwanese tourists in terms of

experiencing the food culture in Hong Kong. Accordingly, the selection of these two culturally

dissimilar groups allowed the comparison of FRPTs among the sample.

3. Methodology

3.1. Questionnaire development

A questionnaire was developed which comprised of five sections. The first section

included screening questions to identify eligible respondents. The second section contained

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questions about respondents’ trip characteristics. The third section consisted of Pliner and

Hobden (1992)’s ten-item Food Neophobia Scale (FNS) and van Trijp and Steenkamp (1992)’s

eight-item Variety-Seeking Tendency Scale (VARSEEK) to measure respondents’ food

neophobia and variety-seeking respectively. The fourth section contained the tourist food

consumption motivation scale (TFCMS). The final section inquired about respondents’ socio-

demographic characteristics.

Tourist Food Consumption Motivation Scale (TFCMS). A scale to measure the

motivations underlying tourist food consumption was developed based on the findings of the

study by Mak et al. (2013), which employed the repertory grid method (RGM) developed by

Kelly (1955). The sample consisted of 29 RGM participants, of whom 17 were female. The

largest age group was between 18 and 24 (31.0%), followed by 25–34 (27.6%). The largest

nationality group was Taiwanese (48.3%), followed by British (20.7%). Over half of the

participants (55.2%) were first time tourists to Hong Kong, and over a quarter (27.6%) had

visited Hong Kong 3–4 times. The majority of the participants were single (58.6%), followed

by nearly a quarter who were married and had children (24.1%).

A total of 50 motivational factors were elicited from the RGM. Content analysis was

carried out independently by two researchers to allocate the factors into appropriate categories.

The classification process was guided by the literature review. When disagreements occurred,

the classification was discussed until agreement was reached. The final classification was then

reviewed by another two independent researchers to ensure that the constructs were correctly

classified. The 50 motivational factors were eventually classified into 14 categories: authentic

experience, prestige, cultural knowledge, health concern, assurance, convenience, price/value,

novelty, variety, familiarity, eating habit, sensory pleasure, social pleasure, and contextual

pleasure. These categories formed the basis of the draft TFCMS in this study. The items were

randomly ordered to avoid order-effect bias (Perreault, 1975), and were assessed with a 7-point

Likert scale with response categories ranging from 1 = not important at all to 7 = extremely

important. The refinement of items in the draft scale will be described in the Pre-test and Pilot

Test section.

Food Neophobia Scale. Food neophobia was measured by the Food Neophobia Scale

(FNS) developed by Pliner and Hobden (1992). The FNS is a unidimensional psychometric

scale consisting of ten items (Table 2), with reliability ranging typically from 0.8 to 0.9

(Ritchey et al., 2003). The items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale with response

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categories ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. The FNS has five

negatively worded items to reduce the potential effects of response pattern bias. These

negatively worded items were recoded before analysis.

* Please insert Table 2 about here

Variety-seeking Tendency Scale. Variety-seeking was measured by the Variety-Seeking

Tendency Scale (VARSEEK) developed by van Trijp and Steenkamp (1992). The VARSEEK

scale contains 8 items (Table 3), with a reported reliability coefficient of 0.90. Following the

original scale, the items were measured on a 5-point Likert scale with response categories

ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, as described by van Trijp and

Steenkamp (1992). The VARSEEK has one negatively-worded item to reduce the potential

effects of response pattern bias. The item was recoded before analysis.

* Please insert Table 3 about here

Pre-test and Pilot Test. A pre-test was conducted with eight hospitality/tourism

professors and researchers with various nationalities to ensure content validity and clarity of

the questionnaire. Pre-test respondents were asked to complete the whole questionnaire, and

also to provide any comment they had with regard to the items, as well as the overall design,

content, wording, and response options of the questionnaire. Items in the TFCMS that were

perceived too similar were merged, which resulted in an abridged 34-item scale. After the pre-

test, a pilot test of the questionnaire was conducted with international tourists in Hong Kong.

Pilot respondents were recruited through random interception at major tourist attractions. A

total of 170 responses were collected, of which 163 were valid responses. The data collected

were analysed using the PASW Statistics (v.18). Factor analysis results of the pilot data

identified three cross-loading items: “to dine in restaurants that are recommended by my

friends”, “to enjoy meals that would not take up too much of my travel time”, and “to indulge

myself in tasty foods”. These cross-loading items were subsequently removed (Pallant, 2007)

and the final scale consisted of 31 items.

3.2. Data collection

A purposive sampling technique was used to recruit respondents. Tourists were

intercepted at random at major tourist attraction areas in Hong Kong, such as Tsim Sha Tsui,

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Wan Chai, and Central District (HKTB, 2010). The following inclusion criteria were used to

identify eligible respondents: (1) above 18 years of age, (2) stayed a minimum of two nights in

Hong Kong at the time of the interception, (3) had food consumption experiences in

commercial settings during their stay. Criteria 2 and 3 ensured that the respondents had

adequate food consumption experience to reflect upon their motivations.

As previously explained, the sample was delimited to British and Taiwanese tourists.

About 1,000 British and Taiwanese tourists were approached, and a total of 456 responses were

obtained. The response rate was approximately 45%, which was high compared to studies

involving questionnaire survey in tourism settings (e.g., Gilbert & Wong, 2003; Sheldon &

Fox, 1988).

4. Findings and Discussions

4.1. Socio-demographic profile of the respondents

The socio-demographic characteristics of the 447 respondents are summarised in Table

4. The sample consisted of a slightly higher proportion of Taiwanese respondents (55.3%) than

British respondents (44.7%). This was partly attributed to Taiwanese tourists being the second

largest inbound market in Hong Kong. According to the latest statistics by Hong Kong

Tourism Board (HKTB, 2011), Hong Kong received a total of 724,600 Taiwanese overnight

(in contrast to same-day-in-town) visitors as compared to 421,600 British in 2010.

* Please insert Table 4 about here

Over half of the respondents were female (58.2%). The largest age group was 25-34

(29.1%), followed by a fairly equal distribution of respondents in age groups 18-24 (22.6%),

35-44 (19.0%) and 45-54 (18.6%). Nearly half of the respondents were married or in a

partnership and had children (46.1%), followed by 38.3% who were single. The results were

largely in line with the characteristics of an average overnight visitor to Hong Kong in 2009

who was female (55% of the total share), aged between 26-35 (29%) and married (68%)

(HKTB, 2010). The average length of stay was 4.69 nights (SD=2.26), which was higher than

the average length of stay (3.6 nights) recorded for all overnight visitors in 2010 (HKTB,

2011).

4.2. Exploratory factor analysis results

14

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to explore the underlying dimensions

of the motivational items. The motivational items were factor analysed using principal

component analysis with orthogonal varimax rotation. Based on Kaiser’s criterion, or the

eigenvalue rule, only factors with an eigenvalue of 1.0 or more were retained for further

analysis (Pallant, 2007). A cut-off point for factor loadings was set at 0.40 in the interpretation

of the final rotated factor pattern (Stevens, 2002). Seven factors generated from the EFA were

named: (1) Novelty and Variety, (2) Authentic Experience and Prestige, (3) Interpersonal and

Culture, (4) Price/value and Assurance, (5) Health Concern, (6) Familiarity and Eating Habit,

and (7) Sensory and Contextual Pleasure. The seven factors altogether accounted for 71.38%

of the cumulative variance (Table 5).

* Please insert Table 5 about here

Factor 1 Novelty and Variety contained six items, such as “to try out foods I have never

tried before” and “to sample a wide variety of foods/cuisines in HK.” The factor had a grand

mean of 5.01, which corroborates previous findings that the desire to seek novelty and variety

is a significant motivator in food consumption experiences when travelling (Chang et al.,

2011). Factor 2 Authentic Experience and Prestige included six items, such as: “to sample

authentic local foods” and “to dine in famous restaurants in HK.” The factor had a grand mean

of 5.21, which is the third highest among the seven factors. The desire to seek “authentic

experience” has been recognised as an important motivator guiding tourist food consumption

(Chang et al., 2010). Fields (2002, p.40) also pointed out that experiencing famous and

distinctive food in a destination can satisfy prestige-related motivations, for the subsequent

sharing of the experience impresses people back home. The present finding corroborates that

authentic experience and prestige are crucial factors in influencing food consumption in

tourism. The result further suggests that the motivation to seek authentic experience can be

closely related to prestige among those sampled.

Factor 3 Interpersonal and Culture contained four items, including “to have an enjoyable

meal with my travel companions” and “to increase my knowledge about the local culture

through my dining experiences.” It had a grand mean of 5.01. Food consumption in tourism is

recognised to be influenced by interpersonal/social (e.g., building social relations) and cultural

motivators (e.g., explore local culture) (Chang et al., 2010; Fields, 2002). The present finding

substantiates the importance of interpersonal and cultural motivations, and provides

preliminary evidence that the two aspects may be highly correlated. Factor 4 Price/value and

15

Assurance had six items, such as: “to dine in restaurants that are reasonably priced”, “to dine in

restaurants that provide good service” and “To dine in restaurants with high hygiene

standards.” The factor had a grand mean of 5.56, which was the second highest among all

factors. This suggests that the motivation to seek good value, as well as a sense of assurance (in

terms of service quality and hygiene standard) was particularly important to the respondents.

Factor 5 Health Concern consisted of three items, such as “to have foods that help me to

maintain a healthy weight” and “to enjoy foods that are good for my health.” The factor had a

grand mean of 5.00. A few studies have identified health as one of the significant motivators in

food consumption in tourism (Chang, 2014; Kim et al., 2009). The present finding indicates

that respondents’ health concern included aspects related to health improvement, weight

maintenance, and apprehension about harmful or “inappropriate” food ingredients. Factor 6

Familiarity and Eating Habit contained three items, including “to dine in chain restaurants that

I have been to” and “to have foods that match with my usual eating habit.” Although this factor

had the lowest grand mean of 4.68, it was of more than average importance for the respondents.

This lends support to the “tourist’s paradox” concept which suggests that while novelty is

welcomed, tourists generally seek a certain level of familiarity in their food consumption

experiences (Chang et al., 2010; Chang, 2014; Mak et al., 2012a).

Factor 7 Sensory and Contextual Pleasure consisted of three items, such as “to try out

foods that are presented attractively” and “to dine in restaurants with a pleasant atmosphere.”

This factor represented the desire to seek sensory and contextual pleasure in food consumption

experiences in tourism and it had the highest grand mean of 5.67. While sensory pleasure

associated with food consumption experiences in tourism has largely been overlooked

(Valentine, 1999), its significance has been increasingly recognised in recent years (Fields,

2002; Kim et al., 2009; Kivela & Crotts, 2006). The present finding validates the importance of

sensory pleasure, and further suggests that contextual pleasure (e.g., pleasant atmosphere) can

be another crucial motivating factor affecting tourist food consumption.

The seven motivational dimensions identified corroborate the five conceptual dimensions

proposed by Mak et al. (2013). The Authentic Experience and Prestige, Interpersonal and

Culture factors denote the respondents’ desire to seek “symbolic” meanings in their food

consumption. The Health Concern and Price/Value and Assurance factors reflect the

“obligatory” needs of the respondents. The Novelty and Variety factor reveals respondents’

quest for “contrast”, whereas the Familiarity and Eating Habit factor connote their needs for

16

“extension” in their food experience. The Sensory and Contextual Pleasure factor confirms

respondents’ needs to seek “pleasures” associated with food consumption.

4.3. Reliability and validity

The reliability of the scale was evaluated by Cronbach’s alpha, which reflects the level of

mean inter-item correlations weighted by variance (Field, 2005). The alpha values of the seven

motivational factors were all higher than 0.7 (Table 5). The high alpha values suggest a good

level of internal scale consistency in all factors (Hair et al., 2002). Fornell and Larcker (1981)

suggest that convergent validity is demonstrated when each of the item associated with one

construct has a factor loading exceeding 0.50. The factor loadings of the items in each of the

seven factors all exceeded 0.50 (Table 5), thus supporting convergent validity. In order to

assess discriminant validity, correlation coefficients among the seven factors were examined by

Pearson correlation analysis (Table 6). Although there were significant correlations between

some factors, their correlations were only moderate and were considered acceptable according

to Hair et al. (2002). Thus, discriminant validity was established.

* Please insert Table 6 about here

4.4. FNS and VARSEEK results

Respondents’ level of food neophobia was obtained by summing the scores of the 10-

item FNS (Pliner & Hobden, 1992). The mean score for the sample was 37.33 (ranged from 15

to 63, SD 8.37). This suggests a relatively higher level of food neophobia among the sample as

compared with those reported in other studies, for example, Hobden and Pliner (1995) (two

separate Canadian student samples, means=32.4 & 31.4), Koivisto and Sjödén (1996) (Swedish

sample, mean=29.25), Arvola et al. (1999) (Finnish sample, mean=25.5), Meiselman et al.

(1999) (UK undergraduate student sample, mean=29.51), Eertmans et al. (2005) (Belgian

undergraduate student sample, mean=32.64). So far, no studies were found to have adopted the

10-item FNS on Asian samples. The reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) was 0.826,

suggesting a good level of internal consistency of the items in the FNS (Hair et al., 2002).

17

Respondents’ variety-seeking was obtained by summing the scores of the 8-item

VARSEEK Tendency Scale (van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992). The mean score for the sample

was 25.59 (ranged from 10 to 39, SD 5.92). This suggests a relatively lower level of variety-

seeking among the sample as compared with those reported in other studies, for example,

Lahteenmaki and van Trijp (1995) (Finnish student sample, mean=29.2), Meiselman et al.

(1999) (UK undergraduate student sample, mean=29.45), and Marshell and Bell (2004) (UK

undergraduate student sample, mean=29.33). Similarly, no studies were found to have adopted

the VARSEEK on Asian samples so far. The reliability coefficient was 0.87, indicating a good

level of internal consistency of the items in the VARSEEK (Hair et al., 2002).

4.5. Analysis of response style between nationalities

In order to check if there were any differences in response style between the British and

Taiwanese samples in the FNS, the steps described by Harzing (2006) were followed. First, the

proportion of extreme response style (ERS) was computed. This was calculated by dividing the

number of items in the FNS that received an extreme response (i.e., 1 or 7 for the 7-point FNS)

by the total number of items in the scale (i.e., 10). Then, the proportion of middle response

style (MRS) was calculated by dividing the number of items in the FNS that received a middle

response (i.e., 4 for the 7-point FNS) by the total number of items in the scale. The proportions

of ERS and MRS between the British and Taiwanese samples were then compared by means of

independent t-tests. No significant difference was observed between the British and the

Taiwanese samples in ERS (t = -0.62, p = 0.54) and MRS (t = 0.21, p = 0.83).

Similar procedures were performed on the VARSEEK to check response style. The

proportion of ERS was calculated by dividing the number of items in the VARSEEK that

received an extreme response (i.e., 1 or 5 for the 5-point VARSEEK) by the total number of

items in the scale (i.e., 8). MRS was computed by dividing the number of items in the scale that

received a middle response (i.e., 3 for the 5-point VARSEEK) by the total number of items in

the VARSEEK. No significant difference was found between the two samples in MRS (t = -

1.37, p = 0.17). However, the British sample has a higher proportion of ERS than the

Taiwanese sample (t = 2.59, p = 0.01). Further t-test analysis revealed that this differential

pattern was due to a higher proportion of ERS by the British sample in three items – item 2

“when preparing foods or snacks, I like to try out new recipes” (t = 2.41, p = 0.02), item 3 “I

think it is fun to try out food items one is not familiar with” (t = 2.54, p = 0.01), and item 6

“items on the menu that I am unfamiliar with make me curious” (t = 2.70, p = 0.01). Taking 18

into consideration that a higher ERS by the British sample was found in 3 out of 8 items in the

VARSEEK, and not in the FNS, the response style difference was not considered systematic.

Accordingly, there was no indication that the two nationality groups had the tendency to rate

items as consistently higher or lower than the other group did.

4.6. Comparison of FNS and VARSEEK between British and Taiwanese Respondents

Based on Pliner and Hobden (1992), respondents were divided into three groups using

the 33rd and 66th percentile FNS points as cut-off points. The 33rd and the 66th percentile

points were 33 and 40 respectively. Accordingly, respondents who scored between 15 and 33

were classified as “neophilics”, those between 34 and 39 as “average”, and those between 40

and 63 as “neophobics”. Table 7 presents the frequency and percentage of respondents in each

category.

* Please insert Table 7 about here

Similarly, respondents were also classified into three groups based on their VARSEEK

scores using the 33rd and 66th percentile as cut-off points, as described by van Trijp and

Steenkamp (1992). The 33rd and the 66th percentile scores were 24 and 29 respectively.

Hence, respondents with VARSEEK score between 10 and 24 were classified as “low” variety

seekers, those scored between 25 and 28 as “medium” variety seekers, and those scored

between 29 and 39 as “high” variety seekers.

The chi-square test was used to further compare the British and Taiwanese samples in

terms of the FNS and VARSEEK categories. Test results (Table 7) indicate that there was a

higher percentage of “neophobics” in the British sample (n=85, 42.5%), whereas there was a

relatively higher proportion of “neophilics” in the Taiwanese sample (n=90, 36.4%). There

were also a higher number of British respondents being classified as “low variety-seeking”

(LVS) (n=93, 46.5%), and a higher percentage of Taiwanese respondents who were categorised

as “high variety-seeking” (HVS) (n=89, 36.0%).

4.7. Multiple regression analysis results

Standard multiple regression was used to test the relationship among food neophobia and

variety-seeking and the motivational factors. Standard multiple regression can be used to assess 19

the relationship between one dependent variable and multiple independent variables by

entering all the independent variables into the model at the same time (Pallant, 2007). It also

enables the calculation of how much unique variance in the dependent variable each of the

independent variable explained. Considering that no studies have yet investigated the effects of

food neophobia and variety-seeking on tourist food consumption motivations, it is more

appropriate to use multiple regression analysis instead of confirmatory methods, such as

structural equation modelling. The results of the regression analysis are summarised in Table 8.

Figure 3 provides a visualization of the regression results.

* Please insert Table 8 about here

* Please insert Figure 3 about here

Based on the results, FNS was found to have significantly explained variance for four

factors: Novelty and Variety, Interpersonal and Culture, Health Concern and Familiarity and

Eating Habit. Although the potential influence of the food neophobia trait has been recognised

in the tourism literature (Chang et al., 2010; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim et al., 2009),

empirical evidence is relatively scarce. The findings of this study add further evidence that

food neophobia can be a significant trait influencing various motivational dimensions of

tourists’ food consumption.

FNS was found to have a negative influence over the Novelty and Variety factor. The

results were in line with expectations from the food consumption literature that individuals who

are more neophobic tend to expect various novel foods to taste worse, and are generally less

willing to taste or choose novel foods (Pliner & Hobden, 1992; Tuorila et al., 1998). In

contrast, FNS exerted positive influence over the Health Concern and Familiarity and Eating

Habit factors. A rather surprising result is that respondents who were more neophobic would

still be motivated by the Interpersonal and Culture factor. This suggests that the “symbolic”

significance (Mak et al., 2012a) of the Interpersonal and Culture factor may outweigh the

effect of food neophobia.

The other trait, VARSEEK, was found to have significantly explained variance for four

factors: Novelty and Variety, Authentic Experience and Prestige, Interpersonal and Culture

and Sensory and Contextual Pleasure. Similar to food neophobia, variety-seeking has been

largely overlooked in the tourism literature. The current findings confirmed its influence over

20

the “contrast” (e.g., Novelty and Variety), “symbolic” (e.g., Authentic Experience and Prestige,

Interpersonal and Culture), and “pleasure” (e.g., Sensory and Contextual Pleasure) facets of

tourist food consumption.

The results were consistent with the expectations from the food consumption literature

that high variety-seeking (HVS) individuals tend to seek different kind of foods across various

situations (van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992). This is because HVS individuals tend to get bored

more quickly with food than do low variety-seeking (LVS) individuals. HVS individuals have

a so-called “composite need”, which can best be satisfied by means of consumption of a

portfolio of food products (van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992). Such propensity may explain the

positive influence of HVS on the Novelty and Variety and Authentic Experience and Prestige

factors. Furthermore, given that “sensory-specific satiety” (SSS) may trigger a higher level of

variety-seeking (Lähteenmäki & van Trijp, 1995), HVS tourists may get SSS more quickly

than LVS tourists. As such, HVS tourists are more likely to be motivated by the Sensory and

Contextual Pleasure factor.

5. Implications and Conclusion

This exploratory study has attempted to contribute to a more expansive understanding of

the underlying dimensions of tourist food consumption motivations and the effects of FRPTs

on these dimensions. Seven motivational dimensions were identified: novelty and variety,

authentic experience and prestige, interpersonal and culture, price/value and assurance, health

concern, familiarity and eating habit, and sensory and contextual pleasure. Both food

neophobia and variety-seeking were found to have significant effects on various motivational

dimensions, suggesting that specific FRPTs are critical in understanding a variety of tourist

food consumption motivations.

A number of practical implications for hospitality businesses and destination marketers

can be drawn from the findings. First, taking into account that Sensory and Contextual

Pleasure was regarded as the most important motivational dimension by the sample (grand

mean = 5.67), the “pleasure” aspect of tourist food consumption should be adequately

emphasised and communicated to the target market. Most significantly, tourists are not just

motivated by the sensory attributes of food; they are also motivated by the pleasure derived

from the dining context. In this light, tourism and hospitality marketers may devote efforts to

21

highlighting or enhancing the sensory pleasure of the food consumption experience (e.g., taste

and presentation), as well as the contextual pleasure (e.g., dining atmosphere) of the

gastronomic experience in their promotion mix. Evidence from the food consumption literature

suggests that contextual pleasure can also be derived from social facilitation and physical

variables (e.g., table settings) of the consumption situation (García-Segovia, Harrington, &

Seo, 2015; Meiselman, 1996).

Second, the results show that Price/value and Assurance was the second most important

motivational dimension (grand mean = 5.56). This reveals tourists’ need to seek “assurance” in

their dining experience, particularly in terms of price, food taste and quality of restaurant.

Tourism and hospitality marketers may need to ensure that a quality assurance mechanism is in

place to address this “assurance” need. For example, the Hong Kong Tourism Board has

introduced a quality assurance system called “Quality Tourism Services” (QTS). Restaurants

have to pass the QTS accreditation scheme before they can be listed in the QTS directory

(Okumus, Okumus, & McKercher, 2007). Similarly, Visit Scotland, Scotland’s National

Tourism Organisation, has implemented “Taste Our Best” quality assurance scheme to ensure

that tourists can enjoy quality ingredients of Scottish provenance and the freshest seasonal

produce (Visit Scotland, 2015).

Third, the desire to seek Authentic Experience was found to be closely associated with

Prestige motives, and they formed the third most important Authentic Experience and Prestige

dimension (grand mean = 5.21). While respondents were motivated to sample authentic local

food, they also desired to dine in famous restaurants and to try out well-known food/dishes in

the destination. In this sense, the desire to seek authentic as well as famous/well-known dining

experiences is analogous to visiting a famous “attraction” in a destination, an “attractionised

experience” as proposed by Mak et al. (2013). Tourism and hospitality marketers may

capitalise on this association and “attractionise” their gastronomic offerings by combining the

authentic elements of gastronomic products with prestigious or famous settings. For example,

the 58 Tour Eiffel Restaurant combines authentic Parisian cuisine with the iconic landmark of

Paris – the Eiffel Tower (Paris Info, 2015a). Similarly, the Sky Dining on the Singapore Flyer

combines fine dining and magnificent skyline views in a spacious capsule atop Asia’s largest

giant observation wheel (Singapore Flyer, 2015).

Fourth, although food neophobic tourists may be reluctant in trying out local

gastronomic products, they would be motivated by the Health Concern and Familiarity and

22

Eating Habit factors. Tourism and hospitality marketers may provide specialist dietary and

nutrition information as well as highlight the health benefits of their gastronomic products

(Chang, 2014). Interestingly, neophobic tourists would also be motivated by the Interpersonal

and Culture factor, implying implies that the “symbolic” significance (Mak et al., 2012a) of the

Interpersonal and Culture factor may attenuate the effect of food neophobia. Accordingly,

efforts can be directed to accentuate the culinary heritage and interpersonal aspects of the

gastronomic experience to appeal to neophobic tourists’ needs. For example, Hong Kong

Tourism Board has devoted a special web page to explain the culinary heritage of the “walled-

village food”, a cuisine listed as part of the city’s intangible cultural heritage (HKTB, 2015c).

Walled-village food is a unique type of cuisine eaten by Hong Kong’s early inhabitants who

lived in walled-villages. The most notable walled-village dish is called “poon choi”, (literally

“big bowl feast”). “Poon choi” usually include a huge amount of ingredients, including pork,

beef, chicken, lamb, duck, abalone and seafood, etc., which are layered in a large bowl and

eaten communally. This unique gastronomic experience thus has the potential to fulfil to

tourists’ Interpersonal and Culture needs.

Finally, high variety-seeking respondents were found to have significantly higher

propensity to be motivated by Novelty and Variety, Authentic Experience and Prestige,

Interpersonal and Culture and Sensory and Contextual Pleasure factors. Tourism and

hospitality marketers may highlight these motivational factors in their gastronomic offerings to

appeal to high VS tourists. A prominent example is the promotional effort by Paris Convention

and Visitors Bureau in their official website (Paris Info, 2015b). A vast array of local and

international cuisines is portrayed, ranging from gastronomic restaurants, foreign specialities,

tea rooms and ice-cream sellers, to cooking schools, appealing to high VS tourists’ needs for

Novelty and Variety and Authentic Experience and Prestige. Specially, they promote “a meal in

an unusual setting,” which features meals “at a communal table.” Communal table (also known

as communal dining) refers to diners sharing a table, and sometimes, food and drinks, and

conversation with other unknown diners. Communal dining offers an opportunity for tourists to

socialise with locals or other tourists. In other words, it provides an authentic and convivial

dining experience to high VS tourists, fulfilling their Authentic Experience and Prestige as well

as Interpersonal and Culture needs.

The findings of this study may be used to guide future research endeavours in several

ways. First, the TFCMS and the seven motivational dimensions identified provide an important

foundation for future research in this area. However, the study sample was obtained through a

23

purposive sampling method, primarily focused on British and Taiwanese tourists, which may

limit the generalisability of findings to other populations. Future research may consider using

confirmatory methods (e.g., structural equation modelling) to validate the TFCMS with other

cultures.

Second, the results indicate that Sensory and Contextual Pleasure was the most

important motivational factor. The pleasures associated with food consumption are rarely

explored in the tourism and hospitality literature (Mak et al., 2013). Valentine (1999) points

out that much of the tourism literature has ignored the “bodily pleasure” to be derived from

eating, the present findings provide evidence to support the significance of “sensory pleasure”

in food consumption in tourism. Most significantly, the findings suggest that “contextual

pleasure” can be equally important. This corroborates previous evidence in the food

consumption literature about the importance of contextual elements in food consumption.

Future research efforts towards understanding the significance of sensory and context pleasure

would be worthwhile.

Third, this study is believed to be the first to provide empirical evidence on the effects of

two FRPTs (i.e., food neophobia and variety-seeking) on tourist food consumption

motivations. The findings indicate that FRPTs can be useful predictors of tourist food

consumption motivations. Further research may consider examining other FRPTs (e.g., food

involvement) to expand our understanding on their effects on tourist food consumption

behaviour. The findings reveal that more neophobic respondents would still be motivated by

the Interpersonal and Culture factor. This indicates that the “symbolic” significance (Mak et

al., 2012a) of the Interpersonal and Culture factor may outweigh the effect of food neophobia.

As such, future research efforts can be directed toward understanding the symbolic values of

tourist food consumption.

Last but not least, food consumption in tourism ought to be understood as a complex and

heterogeneous phenomenon. To fully capture the idiosyncratic nature of tourist food

consumption behaviour, it is necessary to transcend the tourist motivation framework and

incorporate perspectives from other disciplines, such as the food consumption literature. Future

research efforts in the field may be enhanced by adopting such an interdisciplinary approach.

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Food Preference

Core Eating Behavior

Familiar Flavor

Appetizing Assurance

Group Harmony

Prejudiced Advocacy

Compromise in Supporting Experience

Explore Local Culture

Subjective Perception

Authentic Travel Experience

Learning/Education

Opportunity

Prestige and Status

Reference Group Influence

Non-fastidiousness of Food Selection

Local FoodFamiliar Food

Figure 1. Motivational Factors of Food in Tourism

(Source: Chang, Kivela and Mak, 2010)

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Figure 2. A Conceptual Framework for Food Consumption in Tourism (Source: Mak et al., 2013)

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Figure 3. Influence of FNS and VARSEEK on Tourist Food Consumption Motivations

(n=447, *p < .05, **p < .01, showing only the significant regression results)

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Table 1. Classification of Motivational Factors Underlying Tourist Food Consumption

Author(s) 1. Symbolic 2. Obligatory 3. Contrast 4. Extension 5. Pleasure 6. OthersFields (2002)(Conceptual study)

- Cultural - Status &

prestige

- Physical - Interpersonal

Kim et al. (2009)(Qualitative, grounded theory approach, motivations for consuming local food)

- Learning knowledge

- Authentic experience

- Prestige

- Health concern

- Exciting experience

- Escape from routine

- Sensory appeal

- Physical environment

- TogethernessChang et al. (2010) (Qualitative, ethnographic approach, motivations for consuming local and non-local food)

- Explore local culture

- Authentic travel experience

- Learning/ education opportunity

- Prestige & status

- Compromise in supporting experience

- Core eating behaviour

- Familiar flavour

- Appetizing assurance

- Group harmony

- Reference group influence (by tour group members)

- Subjective perception

- Prejudiced advocacy (by tour leader)

Mak et al. (2013)(Qualitative & quantitative, repertory grid method & generalised Procrustes analysis approach, motivations for consuming local and non-local food)

- Authentic experience

- Prestige- Cultural

knowledge

- Health concern

- Assurance- Convenience- Price &

value

- Novelty- Variety

- Familiarity- Eating habit

- Sensory pleasure

- Social pleasure

- Contextual pleasure

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Table 2. Items in the Food Neophobia Scale

Food Neophobia Scale1. I am constantly sampling new and different foods. (R)2. I don’t trust new foods.3. If I don’t know what is in a food, I won’t try it.4. I like food from different countries. (R)5. Ethnic food looks too weird to eat.6. At dinner parties, I will try a new food. (R)7. I am afraid to eat things I have never had before.8. I am very particular about the foods I will eat.9. I will eat almost anything. (R)10. I like to try new ethnic restaurants. (R)

(R) = negatively-worded items(Source: Pliner and Hobden, 1992)

Table 3. Items in the VARSEEK Scale

VARSEEK Scale 1. When I eat out, I like to try the most unusual items, even if I am not sure I would like them.2. When preparing foods or snacks, I like to try out new recipes.3. I think it is fun to try out food items one is not familiar with.4. I am eager to know what kind of foods people from other countries eat.5. I like to eat exotic foods.6. Items on the menu that I am unfamiliar with make me curious.7. I prefer to eat food products I am used to. (R)8. I am curious about food products that I am not familiar with.

(R) = negatively-worded item(Source: van Trijp and Steenkamp, 1992)

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Table 4. Socio-demographic Profile of the Survey Respondents

Socio-demographic Characteristics

Total Frequency

(n=447)Percentage British

(n=200)Taiwanese

(n=247)

GenderMale 187 41.8% 95 (47.5%) 92 (37.2%)Female 260 58.2% 105 (52.5%) 155 (62.8%)

Age18-24 101 22.6% 24 (12.0%) 77 (31.2%)25-34 130 29.1% 57 (28.5%) 73 (29.6%)35-44 85 19.0% 42 (21.0%) 43 (17.4%)45-54 83 18.6% 50 (25.0%) 33 (13.4%)55-64 36 8.1% 17 (8.5%) 19 (7.7%)65 or above 12 2.7% 10 (5.0%) 2 (0.8%)

Marital StatusSingle 171 38.3% 46 (23.0%) 125 (50.6%)Single with children 7 1.6% 2 (1.0%) 5 (2.0%)Married/partnership without children 63 14.1% 34 (17.0%) 29 (11.7%)

Married/partnership with children 206 46.1% 118 (59.0%) 88 (35.6%)

Educational levelElementary/secondary 38 8.5% 19 (9.5%) 19 (7.7%)High school 89 19.9% 37 (18.5%) 52 (21.1%)Vocational/college 94 21.0% 47 (23.5%) 47 (19.0%)Undergraduate degree 187 41.8% 88 (44.0%) 99 (40.1%)Postgraduate degree 39 8.7% 9 (4.5%) 30 (12.1%)

Personal Monthly Income *£500 or below 100 22.4% 42 (21.0%) 58 (23.5%)£501-1,000 40 8.9% 6 (3.0%) 34 (13.8%)£1,001-2,000 118 26.4% 62 (31.0%) 56 (22.7%)£2,001-3,000 94 21.0% 45 (22.5%) 49 (19.8%)£3,001-4,000 44 9.8% 21 (10.5%) 23 (9.3%)£4,001-5,000 38 8.5% 20 (10.0%) 18 (7.3%)£5,001 or above 13 2.9% 4 (2.0%) 9 (3.6%)

First time/repeat visit First time visitor 279 62.4% 159 (79.5%) 120 (48.6%)Repeat visitor 168 37.6% 41 (20.5%) 127 (51.4%)

* Note: Income categories for Taiwanese respondents have been converted to British pound for further comparison.

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Table 5. Results of the Exploratory Factor Analysis

Factors and Items FactorLoading Mean S.D. Grand

MeanEigen-Value

Cronbach’s

Variance Explained

Factor 1 – Novelty & Variety 5.01 7.67 0.931 24.74%To sample a wide variety of foods/cuisines in HK.

0.860 5.02 1.523

To try out foods I have never tried before. 0.857 4.94 1.526

To be adventurous in trying out various foods in HK.

0.853 4.92 1.524

To try foods that are novel to me. 0.843 4.99 1.407

To enjoy a good selection of both local and international foods in HK.

0.831 5.11 1.474

To tell friends about my dining experiences in HK.

0.636 5.09 1.433

Factor 2 – Authentic Experience & Prestige 5.21 6.52 0.904 21.03%To sample authentic local foods. 0.840 5.28 1

.245To try foods that are only available in HK. 0.819 5.34 1

.328To dine in famous restaurants in HK. 0.815 5.19 1

.325To dine in restaurants with an authentic local ambience.

0.775 5.19 1.144

To dine in restaurants that are recommended by the media (e.g., travel guidebooks, Internet, TV).

0.741 5.09 1.307

To try the well-known foods/dishes in HK. 0.680 5.17 1.084

Factor 3 – Interpersonal & Culture 5.01 2.58 0.842 8.30%To have an enjoyable meal with my travel companions.

0.868 5.45 1.244

To have foods that my travel companions like. 0.855 5.38 1.207

To increase my knowledge about the local culture through my dining experiences.

0.501 4.66 1.505

To learn about local food traditions and culture. 0.500 4.53 1.570

Factor 4 – Price/value & Assurance 5.56 1.74 0.782 5.62%To dine in restaurants that are reasonably priced.

0.737 5.48 1.186

To dine in restaurants that offer good value of money.

0.720 5.55 1.178

To dine in restaurants that provide good service.

0.682 5.60 1.008

To dine in restaurants that are tourist-friendly (e.g., with English menu, English-speaking staff).

0.614 5.44 0.911

To dine in restaurants with high hygiene standards.

0.542 5.69 0.886

To have foods that are prepared hygienically. 0.542 5.59 0.913

Factor 5 – Health Concern 5.00 1.37 0.712 4.41%To have foods that help me to maintain a healthy weight.

0.878 5.31 1.067

To enjoy foods that are good for my health. 0.817 5.22 1.024

To enquire about the ingredients in local foods before trying them.

0.502 4.47 1.495

Factor 6 – Familiarity & Eating Habit 4.68 1.16 0.798 3.74%To dine in chain restaurants that I have been to. 0.814 4.44 1

.356To enjoy foods that I am familiar with. 0.788 4.67 1

.140

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To have foods that match with my usual eating habit.

0.669 4.92 1.198

Factor 7 – Sensory & Contextual Pleasure 5.67 1.10 0.803 3.55%To try out foods that are presented attractively. 0.867 5.58 1

.127To dine in restaurants with a pleasant atmosphere.

0.863 5.64 1.169

To enjoy foods that are delicious. 0.535 5.78 0.919

Total variance explained 71.38%Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.869Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi –Square 10581.78 (df =561, Sig.=0.000)

Table 6. Inter-correlations among the Seven Motivational Factors

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 6 Factor 7

Factor 1 Novelty & Variety 1Factor 2 Authentic Exp. & Prestige 0.443** 1Factor 3 Interpersonal & Culture -0.211** 0.324** 1Factor 4 Price/value & Assurance 0.322** 0.315** 0.145** 1Factor 5 Health Concern -0.231** 0.165** 0.473** 0.303** 1Factor 6 Familiarity & Eating Habit -0.341** 0.067 0.473** 0.197** 0.420** 1Factor 7 Sensory & Contextual Pleasure 0.405** 0.431** 0.255** 0.366** 0.134** 0.074 1

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 7. FNS and VARSEEK Categories between British and Taiwanese Respondents

FNS Category Total(n=447)

British(n=200)

Taiwanese (n=247)

2

(Sig.)Neophilics (score 15-33) 152 (34.0%) 62 (31.0%) 90 (36.4%)

2= 7.68(p=0.021*)Average (score 34-39) 136 (30.4%) 53 (26.5%) 83 (33.6%)

Neophobics (score 40-63) 159 (35.6%) 85 (42.5%) 74 (30.0%)

VARSEEK Category Total(n=447)

British(n=200)

Taiwanese (n=247)

2

(Sig.)Low VS (score 10-24) 172 (38.5%) 93 (46.5%) 79 (32.0%)

2= 10.25(p=0.006*)Medium VS (score 25-28) 125 (28.0%) 46 (23.0%) 79 (32.0%)

High VS (score 29-39) 150 (33.6%) 61 (30.5%) 89 (36.0%)

* VS = variety-seeking

Table 8. Summary of Regression Analysis Results

Factor VariableUnstandardised

Regression Coefficient (B)

Standard Error

Standardised Regression

Coefficient (ß)t Sig.

Factor 1 – Novelty & Variety FNS -0.397 0.045 -0.426** -8.830 0.000R2 = 0.583, F(2,444) = 309.95**, p<0.001 VARSEEK 0.507 0.064 0.385** 7.974 0.000Factor 2 – Authentic Exp. & Prestige FNS -0.043 0.050 -0.058 -0.858 0.391R2 = 0.171, F(2,444) = 45.76**, p<0.001 VARSEEK 0.380 0.070 0.367** 5.392 0.000Factor 3 – Interpersonal & Culture FNS 0.167 0.040 0.304** 4.169 0.000R2 = 0.043, F(2,444) = 10.07**, p<0.001 VARSEEK 0.122 0.057 0.158* 2.162 0.031

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Factor 4 – Price/value & Assurance FNS -0.027 0.037 -0.052 -0.712 0.477R2 = 0.027, F(2,444) = 6.16**, p=0.002 VARSEEK 0.086 0.053 0.120 1.634 0.103Factor 5 – Health Concern FNS 0.092 0.025 0.266** 3.702 0.000R2 = 0.075, F(2,444) = 18.08**, p<0.001 VARSEEK -0.005 0.035 -0.011 -0.154 0.921Factor 6 – Familiarity & Eating Habit FNS 0.139 0.026 0.373** 5.447 0.000R2 = 1.57, F(2,444) = 41.47**, p<0.001 VARSEEK -0.016 0.036 -0.030 -0.432 0.666Factor 7 – Sensory & Contextual Pleasure FNS -0.015 0.023 -0.046 -0.649 0.517R2 = 0.101, F(2,444) = 24.99**, p<0.001 VARSEEK 0.130 0.033 0.281** 3.973 0.000

n=447; *p < .05, **p < .01.

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