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Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment
Natural and Cu ltura l Heritage Divis ion
SPECIES PROFILE
Blue-fronted Amazon Amazona aestiva
February 2016
Photo: Matthew Watts. Image from Wikimedia Commons under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic License.
2/15 Species Profile: Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)
Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment 2016Information in this publication may be reproduced provided that any extracts are acknowledged.
This publication should be cited as: DPIPWE (2016) Species Profile: Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva). Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment. Hobart, Tasmania.
For more information about this Species Profile, please contact:
Wildlife Management Branch Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment Address: GPO Box 44, Hobart, TAS. 7001, Australia. Phone: 1300 386 550 Email: [email protected] Visit: www.dpipwe.tas.gov.au
Disclaimer The information provided in this Species Profile is provided in good faith. The Crown, its officers, employees and agents do not accept liability however arising, including liability for negligence, for any loss resulting from the use of or reliance upon this information and/or reliance on its availability at any time.
3/15 Species Profile: Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)
1. SummaryThe Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva) is a South American parrot found in north-eastern
Brazil, eastern Bolivia, northern Argentina, and southern Paraguay. The species is heavily traded
and is one of the world’s most popular captive parrots, due in part to its colour patterning,
hardiness and its ability to imitate the human voice.
The relationship with other species is complex. The Blue-fronted Amazon is very similar in
appearance to the Yellow-crowned Amazon (A. ochrocephala) and the Yellow-shouldered Amazon
(A. barbadensis). The Blue-fronted Amazon is known to hybridise with the Yellow-headed Amazon
(A. oratrix) and is suspected of hybridising with other Amazona species.
The Blue-fronted Amazon is considered an agricultural pest in some parts of its South American
range for impacting on agriculture, including maize and sunflower crops and causing damage to fruit
crops during winter.
A small introduced population of Blue-fronted Amazons and Yellow-headed Amazons (A. oratrix)
has established in Stuttgart, Germany where they have hybridised. The population was introduced
in 1984 and 46 individuals were reported in 2012. Consumption of Common Ivy, Birch, Oak,
Walnut, Pine, Pear, Apple, Cherry, Plum, Peach, Willow, Maple and Horse Chestnut trees has been
recorded.
Another introduced population has been recorded in southern Florida. The population was first
detected in 1982 with 103 birds counted in 2002.
Modelling based on the species’ native range suggests that northern and north-east Australia has
areas of similar climate which may strongly support introduced populations of Blue-fronted
Amazons. Modelling suggests that Tasmania’s climate is moderately similar (climate match scores
between 0 and 6).
The species is listed as ‘Least Concern’ under the IUCN Red List, and is listed as ‘Species taken to
Suitable for Live Import’ under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. In
Tasmania, the Blue-fronted Amazon is a ‘controlled animal’ under the Nature Conservation Act 2002.
The Vertebrate Pest Committee assessed the Blue-fronted Amazon as a ‘Serious’ threat.
4/15 Species Profile: Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)
2. Introduction
2.1 NAME AND TAXONOMY
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Psittacidae
Genus: Amazona
Species: A. aestiva
Sub-species or variety (if applicable): A. a. aestiva and A. a. xanthopteryx
Common names (including any industry or trade names): Blue-fronted Amazon,
Turquoise-fronted Amazon, Turquoise-fronted Parrot, Blue-fronted Parrot, Yellow-winged
Amazon.
Known hybrids: Hybridises with the Yellow-headed Amazon (A. oratrix) (Martens et al. 2013), and
potential to hybridise with the Yellow-crowned Amazon (A. ochrocephala) (Eberhard & Bermingham
2004). Suspected of hybridising with other Amazona species.
Close relatives: Yellow-crowned Amazon (A. ochrocephala), Yellow-naped Amazon (A.
auropalliata), Yellow-shouldered Amazon (A. barbadensis) and Yellow-headed Amazon (A. oratrix)
(Eberhard & Bermingham 2004; Urantowka et al. 2014).
2.2 DESCRIPTION
Note that there may be substantial variation in coloration, and that the species may have the same
features as the Yellow-crowned Amazon (A. ochrocephala), and the Yellow-shouldered Amazon (A.
barbadensis) (Ribas et al. 2007; Urantowka et al. 2014).
As outlined in del Hoyo et al. 1994, Blue-fronted Amazons are typically 37cm in length with mean
weight of 400g. The fore-crown is blue, with the mid-crown, face, chin and throat yellow, blue or
green. The posterior ear-coverts, sides of the neck, the nape and the mantle are green with heavy
black edging that produces a scaled effect. This effect is less pronounced on the wings and
underside. The shoulder and speculum are red, the primary feathers are tipped dark blue, and the
tail is green with a yellowish tip and lateral feathers basally barred with red. The blue and yellow of
the head is reduced in immature members of the species.
No clear differences in the appearance of males and females have been noted, and some
researchers use blood tests to genetically determine gender (e.g. Seixas & Mourao 2002; Berkunsky
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& Reboreda 2009) or laparoscope (Thompson 1995). No seasonal variations in appearance have
been noted, and the species is unlikely to be confused with Australian species.
The Blue-fronted Amazon (A. aestiva) is very similar in appearance to the Yellow-crowned Amazon
(A. ochrocephala) and the Yellow-shouldered Amazon (A. barbadensis) and there is doubt over the
plumage differences used to distinguish the species (Ribas et al. 2007; Urantowka et al. 2014,). The
overlapping range of the Blue-fronted Amazon and the Yellow-crowned Amazon in South America
is shown in Figure 1.
2.3 CONSERVATION AND LEGAL STATUS
The Blue-fronted Amazon is one of the world’s most popular captive parrots, due in part to its
colour patterning, hardiness and its ability to imitate the human voice (Forshaw & Cooper 1989
cited in Seixas & Mourao 2002).
The species is listed as ‘Least Concern’ under the IUCN Red List and the species has an extremely
large range. Although the size of the global population has not been quantified, trends indicate that
the population is declining (BirdLife International 2012). The species is heavily traded, and
progressive destruction of nesting habitat and exploitation may have contributed to a reduction in
population size (Sauad et al. 1991a and Beissinger & Bucher 1992 cited in Seixas & Mourao 2002).
As Psittaciformes, the species is listed in Appendix II to the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Appendix II species are species that are ‘not
necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid
utilization incompatible with their survival’ (CITES 2015).
In Australia, Blue-fronted Amazons are listed as ‘Species taken to Suitable for Live Import’ under
the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and require permit to import under
the Act.
In Tasmania, the Blue-fronted Amazon is a ‘controlled animal’ under the Nature Conservation Act
2002. A permit is required to import this species.
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3. Biology and Ecology
3.1 LIFE HISTORY
Blue-fronted Amazons are monogamous and reach sexual maturity at three or four years old
(Blue-fronted Amazon Project, date unknown). Breeding occurs in Spring and early Summer, with
nesting occurring in tree hollows generally nine metres up (del Hoyo et al. 1994).
In general, parrots tend to have relatively small eggs, long incubation periods and asynchronous
clutches. Hatchlings are featherless with closed eyes and cannot support their heads. They grow
slowly and fledge after a considerable time in the nest (Bucher 1983 cited in Seixas & Mourao
2003).
Little is known about the systematic reproductive characteristics of this species (Forshaw &
Cooper 1989 cited in Seixas & Mourao 2003). The species is not noted for storing sperm. The
species hybridises with the Yellow-headed Amazon A. oratrix (Martens et al. 2013), and is suspected
of hybridising with other Amazona species.
3.2 HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND PREFERENCES
The Blue-fronted Amazon lives in sub-tropical forests and savannahs of central South America
(Berkunsky & Reboreda 2009). Habitat includes Cerrado and Chaco scrub, savannah, flood plains,
grasslands, palm groves, gallery forest, subtropical woodland, areas of old growth with large trees,
and areas of man-made pasture (del Hoyo et al. 1994; Seixas & Mourao 2000; Seixas & Mourao
2003). The site of a restocking program for the species in the Pantanal of Brazil had an average
temperature range of 18o to 30oC (Seixas & Mourao 2000). The upper elevation limit of the species
is 1600 metres (BirdLife International 2012).
All Amazon parrots are secondary cavity nesters (Forshaw 1989 and Ribas et al. 2007 cited in
Berkunsky & Reboreda 2009). Blue-fronted Amazons take advantage of natural or abandoned nest
cavities in mature trees (living and dead); rarely in cliff faces or arboreal termitarium (del Hoyo et
al. 1994).
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3.3 NATURAL GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
The Blue-fronted Amazon is relatively widespread and occurs in north-eastern Brazil, eastern
Bolivia, northern Argentina, and southern Paraguay (Seixas & Mourao 2002). Detail of the species’
distribution is provided in Figure 1. The species has an extremely large range estimated at
4 220 000 km2 (BirdLife International 2012).
Figure 1. Distribution of Blue-fronted Amazon in South America (from Ribas et al. 2007).
The distribution of the Blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva) is outlined in black and shows the
two subspecies A. a. aestiva and A. a. xanthopteryx. The overlapping distribution of the closely-
related Yellow-crowned Amazon (Amazona ochrochephala) is shown in grey.
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3.4 INTRODUCED GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
A small population of Blue-fronted Amazons and Yellow-headed Amazons (A. oratrix) have
hybridised and established following introduction in Stuttgart, Germany (see Figure 2). The
population was introduced in 1984 and 46 individuals were reported in 2012 (Martens et al. 2013).
An introduced population of Blue-fronted Amazons has been recorded in southern Florida. The
population was first detected in 1982 with 103 birds counted in 2002 (Butler 2002). The range of
this feral population, current status, and cause of establishment, is unknown.
Menchetti & Mori (2014) state that: “Small- to medium-sized, widely distributed species (e.g.,
Agapornis spp., Amazona spp., Aratinga spp., Myiopsitta monachus, Psittacula spp.) are the most adept
at establishing non-native populations, because they are (i) more traded than others, (ii) commonly
sold at relatively low prices, (iii) highly synanthropic and (iv) adapted to live in a variety of
environmental conditions, i.e. latitude and habitat types.”
Figure 2. Feeding range of the Blue-fronted Amazon within Stuttgart, Germany (from
Martens et al. 2013). The feeding range is shown in dark grey, while the city is indicated in the light
grey colour. The roost site is located in Bad Cannstatt.
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3.5 POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION IN TASMANIA
Using modelling by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, a climate comparison
between the species’ distribution in South America and Stuttgart, Germany (Ribas et al. 2007;
Martens et al. 2013) and potential Australian distribution is shown in Figure 3. The introduced
Florida population has not been included in the modelling due to uncertainty in the range of that
population.
Modelling suggests that northern and north-east Australia has areas of similar climate which may
strongly support introduced populations of Blue-fronted Amazons. Modelling suggests that
Tasmania’s east coast is moderately similar, with climate match scores between 0 and 6.
Figure 3. Climate comparison between the natural range of A. aestiva and Australia, where 10 is a
‘perfect’ climate match and 0 having a dissimilar climate. Tasmania shows a match between 0 and 6.
3.6 DIET AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR
Blue-fronted Amazons are herbivorous generalists that feed on the fruit, flowers and seeds of a
range of plants, including fruits of Melia, Aspidosperma, Prosopis, Schinopsis and Ziziphus, and seeds of
Citrus, Anadenanthera, Bulnesia and Cercidium. Fruits of cactus and palm seeds may be eaten, along
with flowers of Erythrina and Morus (del Hoyo et al. 1994). Consumption of Common Ivy, Birch,
Oak, Walnut, Pine, Pear, Apple, Cherry, Plum, Peach, Willow, Maple and Horse Chestnut trees
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(among other species) has been recorded following introduction in Stuttgart, Germany (Martens et
al. 2013).
A captive breeding program fed young individuals crushed fruit and vegetables mixed with corn
meal, and later provided whole fruit and vegetables and seeds and grains as the birds grew older
(Seixas & Mourao 2000).
The species may interact with agriculture, and is noted by del Hoyo et al. 1994 for despoiling maize
and sunflower crops, and causing some damage to fruit (especially citrus) crops during winter.
Individuals may have a range of 1ha-1,600ha (Seixas & Mourao 2000).
3.7 SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND GROUPINGS
The species is not known for territorial or aggressive behaviour, and is readily kept as a domestic
pet. Amazons are recognised for their intelligence and ability to sing and mimic the human voice,
with some trained individuals having a vocabulary of over a hundred words (Thompson 1995).
In the wild, Blue-fronted Amazons tend to fly alone, in pairs, or in small groups. When released,
captive-bred individuals tended to fly in groups and roost together (Seixas & Mourao 2000).
3.8 NATURAL PREDATORS AND DISEASE
Blue-fronted Amazons have a variety of predators, including Spectacled Owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata)
and Toco Toucan (Ramphastos toco), and they are vulnerable to attacks from dogs (Seixas &
Mourao 2000; Seixas & Mourao 2002).
In Tasmania, potential predators include the Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), Spotted-tailed
Quoll (Dasyurus maculatus), and large raptors such as the Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax fleayi)
and White-Bellied Sea-eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster). The species is likely to be predated on by
domestic dogs and cats.
In their natural environment, Blue-fronted Amazons are vulnerable to bot-fly (Pilornis sp. larvae,
Diptera: Muscidae) in the nestling stage (Seixas & Mourao 2003), and ticks and mallophaga (lice) are
frequently found in nests (Marini et al. 1996 cited in Seixas & Mourao 2003).
The species may carry Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (Huff et al. 1988) which a common and
potentially deadly disease of parrots and found in Australia (Department of Environment and
Heritage 2005). Avian polyomavirus, mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, and avian salmonellosis
have also been recorded in the species (Philadelpho et al. 2015; Hoop 2002; Marietto-Goncalves et
al. 2010; respectively).
The species may also carry avian chlamydiosis which may transfer to humans (‘psittacosis’)
(NASPHV 2010; Kaleta & Taday 2003).
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3.9 THREAT TO HUMAN SAFETY
The species is unlikely to cause physically injury, although some unsubstantiated reports suggest the
species can be ‘nippy’, particularly mature males. The species is unlikely to cause injury requiring
hospitalisation.
The species may carry avian chlamydiosis (called ‘psittacosis’ in humans) (NASPHV 2010).
3.10 HISTORY AS A PEST
The Blue-fronted Amazon is considered an agricultural pest in some parts of South America
(Navarro et al. 1991). It is recognised for impacting in agriculture, including maize and sunflower
crops, and causing some damage to fruit (especially citrus) crops during winter (del Hoyo et al.
1994). The pest status of this species is thought to have contributed to the Government’s high
export quotas, although research into actual impacts of the species on citrus trees found that
damage was very minor and not economically important (Navarro et al. 1991).
The species is not known to cause modification or major habitat changes, and has not been noted
for spreading rapidly following release in new environments.
3.11 POTENTIAL IMPACT IN TASMANIA
If established, the Blue-fronted Amazon could potentially compete with native species for tree
hollows. This includes threatened Tasmanian species, such as the Swift Parrot (endangered),
Orange-Bellied Parrot (endangered), and Forty-Spotted Pardalote (endangered), and non-
threatened native species such as Musk Lorikeet and Blue-winged Parrot.
The species has attributes that suggest it may impact on the timber and agricultural industry within
Tasmania, including trees, vegetables, fruit, cereal grains and flowers.
The species may also contribute to the spread of Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease.
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4. Risk Assessment
4.1 PREVIOUS RISK ASSESSMENTS
In a previous risk assessment, the Vertebrate Pest Committee assessed the Blue-fronted Amazon
as a ‘Serious’ threat (VPC 2007).
The species is included on the Department of Environment’s 2007 Inventory of Exotic (non-native)
Bird Species known to be in Australia and is classified as ‘high interest’ based on pest and disease risk
and the potential for illegal trade in the species (DoE 2007).
The Western Australian Department of Agriculture assessed the Blue-fronted Amazon as
representing too high a risk. The species is prohibited and listed as ‘no entry, eradicate in the wild,
and no keeping’ in Western Australia (DoA 2004).
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5. ReferencesBerkunsky, I. and Reboreda, J. C. (2009). Nest-site fidelity and captivity reoccupation by Blue-
fronted Parrots Amazona aestiva in the dry Chaco of Argentina. Ibis 151: 145-150.
BirdLife International (2012). Amazona aestiva. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2012.
<www.iucnredlist.org>. Accessed 14 December 2015.
Blue-fronted Amazon Project (date unknown). <https://bluefrontedamazonproject.wordpress.com>
Accessed 4 February 2016.
Butler, C.J. (2005). Feral Parrots in the Continental United States and United Kingdom: Past,
Present, and Future. Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 19(2): 142-149.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (2015).
Appendices I, II and III. <https://www.cites.org/eng>. Accessed 4 February 2016.
Eberhard, J.R. and Bermingham, E. (2004). Phylogeny and biogeography of the Amazona ochrocephala
(Aves: Psittacidae) complex. The Auk 121(2): 318-332.
Department of Agriculture (DoA) (2004). Importing and keeping introduced mammals, birds, reptiles
and amphibians in Western Australia. State of Western Australia.
Department of Environment (2007). 2007 Inventory of Exotic (non-native) Bird Species known to be in
Australia. Australian Government. <www.environment.gov.au>
Department of Environment and Heritage (2005). Threat Abatement Plan for Beak and Feather
Disease Affecting Endangered Psittacine Species. Australian Government. ISBN 0 642 549117.
Hoop, K.R. (2002). Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection in a Canary (Serinus canaria L.) and a Blue-
Fronted Amazon Parrot (Amazona amazona aestiva). Avian Diseases 46(2): 502-504.
del Hoyo J., Elliott A. and Sargatal J. eds. (1994). Handbook of Birds of the World. Lynx Edicons,
Barcelona.
Huff, D.G., Schmidt, R.E. and Fudge, A.M. (1988). Psittacine Beak and Feather Syndrome in a Blue-
Fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva). AAV Today 2: 84-86
Kaleta, E.F. and Taday E.M.A. (2003). Avian host range of Chlamydophila spp. based on isolation,
antigen detection and serology. Avian Pathology 32(5): 435-462.
Marietto-Goncalves, G.A., Almeida, S.M., Lima, E.T., Okamoto, A.S., Pinczowski, P. and Filho, R.L.A.
(2010). Isolation of Salmonella enterica Serovar Enteritidis in Blue-Fronted Amazon Parrot
(Amazona aestiva). Avian Diseases 54: 151-155.
Martens, J., Hoppe, D. and Woog, F. (2013). Diet and Feeding Behaviour of Naturalised Amazon
Parrots in a European City. Ardea 101(1): 71-76.
Menchetti, M. and Mori, E. (2014). Worldwide impact of alien parrots (Aves Psittaciformes) on
native biodiversity and environment: a review. Ethology Ecology & Evolution 26: 172–194.
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National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians (NASPHV) (2010). Compendium of
Measures To Control Chlamydophila psittaci Infection Among Humans (Psittacosis) and Pet
Birds (Avian Chlamydiosis). <www.nasphv.org> Accessed 11 February 2016.
Navarro, J.L., Martella, M.B. and Chediack, A. (1991). Analysis of Blue-fronted Amazon damage to a
citrus orchard in Tucuman, Argentina. Agriscientia VIII: 75-78.
Philadelpho, N.A., Guimarães, M.B. and Ferreira, A.J.P. (2015). A Case Report of Avian
Polyomavirus Infection in a Blue Fronted Parrot (Amazona aestiva) Associated with Anemia.
Case Reports in Veterinary Medicine, Article ID 350794. doi:10.1155/2015/350794.
Ribas, C.C., Tavares, E.S., Yoshihara, C., and Miyaki, C.Y. (2007). Phylogeny and biogeography of
Yellow-headed and Blue-fronted Parrots (Amazona ochrocephala and Amazona aestiva) with
special reference to the South American taxa. Ibis doi: 10.1111/j.1474-919x.2007.00681.x.
Seixas, G.H.F. and Mourao, G.M. (2000). Assessment of restocking blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona
aestiva) in the Pantanal of Brazil. Ararajuba 8: 73-78.
Seixas, G.H.F. and Mourao, G.M. (2002). Nesting success and hatching survival of the Blue-fronted
Amazon (Amazona aestiva) in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Journal of Field
Ornithology 73(4): 399-409.
Seixas, G.H.F. and Mourao, G.M. (2003). Growth of nestlings of the Blue-fronted Amazon
(Amazona aestiva) raised in the wild or in captivity. Ornitologia Neotropical 14: 295-305.
Thompson, D.R. (1995). Breeding Amazons in Captivity. Afa WATCHBIRD 22(3): 13-17.
Urantowka, A.D., Mackiewicz, P. and Strzala, T. (2014). Phylogeny of Amazona barbadensis and the
Yellow-headed Amazon Complex (Aves: Psittacidae): A New Look at South American
Parrot Evolution. PLoS ONE 9(5): doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0097228.
Vertebrate Pest Committee. (2007). Vertebrate Pest Committee list of exotic vertebrate animals in
Australia, July 2007. <www.feral.org.au>.
15/15 Pest Risk Assessment: [Common name] [Scientific name]
NATURAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE
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