Special Political and Decolonisation Committee1).pdf3 SPECPOL London International Model United...

Special Political and

Decolonisation Committee London International Model United Nations

21st Session | 2020

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SPECPOL

London International Model United Nations 2020

Table of Contents

Letters from the Directors 5

Introduction to SPECPOL: 7

TOPIC A: The Issue of Small Island States and Rising Sea

Levels 9

Introduction 9

Definitions 14

Timeline 15

Discussion of the Problem 17

Conclusion 23

Questions a Resolution should answer 23

Bibliography 25

TOPIC B: Review of UN Peacekeeping operations 28

Introduction 29

Definitions: Peace terms 35

Timeline of Events 38

Discussion of the Problem 41

Conclusion 48

Questions a Resolution should answer 49

Bibliography 51

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Distinguished Delegates,

I would like to warmly welcome you all to LIMUN 2020, and to this

year’s SPECPOL committee. Our topics this year, dealing with the Issue of

Small Island States and Rising Sea Levels and the Review of UN

Peacekeeping operations, have been designed to be inclusive of beginner

and intermediate delegates; whether this is your first conference or your

umpteenth, we directors have designed debates which are accessible as

well as engaging, and most definitely challenging for all delegates. We

credit all delegates attending LIMUN this year with the distinct intellectual

ability to take on extremely complex issues and to reach perceptive and

inventive resolutions through diplomacy, discussion and compromise. We

are very much looking forward to chairing a committee which we are sure

will rise to this challenge.

SPECPOL has been a staple committee simulated by LIMUN for numerous

years. The body itself, better known within the remit of the UN as the United

Nations General Assembly Fourth Committee or as C4, is one of the six

main committees of the UN General Assembly. Initially, C4 dealt with issues

surrounding trusteeship and decolonisation. In 1994, as the last trust

nation gained its independence, C4 was merged with what was then the

INTRODUCTION LETTER

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seventh main committee of the UNGA, the Special Political Committee. In

this way, the SPECPOL we know today was born. Since then, SPECPOL has

been responsible for a number of Special Political missions, as well as a

broad range of complex issues. In our simulation of the committee, we have

chosen to address topics which are staples to SPECPOL agenda.

This year’s edition of LIMUN comes at an important time. Over the

past few years, the fundamental nature of foreign policy has changed, as

compromise, discussion, and the crucial role Responsibility to Protect plays

within all of the UN’s operations has been challenged by isolationism and

intolerance. This year, we hope that by touching on a major UN reform

point and on an issue with major humanitarian implications, delegates in

SPECPOL, along with all other delegates in every LIMUN committees, can

show the world that diplomacy in the form we know and understand at the

UN it is still alive and well.

Aidan, Aaron and I are very excited to meet you all at LIMUN 2020

and are looking forward to seeing where you will take these two dynamic

topics.

Yours Sincerely,

Eve Bradley,

Aidan Tee,

Aaron Gilchrist.

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Letters from the Directors

Director - Eve Bradley

Distinguished Delegates,

It is an honour to welcome you all from all the far-flung corners of

the world to SPECPOL at LIMUN 2020. I am very eager to meet you all, and

I am honoured to be in a position where I may observe in what direction

you delegates, enthusiastic bright and passionate, will take what I hope will

be an engaging and intense debate. To me, these two topics, whilst starkly

different, represent the core of what SPECPOL stands for. As a body with a

wide remit, the problematics SPECPOL faces are all too often life and death

questions for far too many people around the world; I have absolutely no

doubt in my mind that every one of you will do brilliantly in trying your

hardest to find resolutions to these issues. I am convinced that LIMUN 2020

will be the best one yet, and that you delegates will rise to the challenge

we are facing you with.

If LIMUN 2020 will be one of many conferences for you, I am looking

forward to how you will shape our debate with your experience; if LIMUN

2020 is one of your first conferences as a delegate, Aaron, Aidan I are

looking forward to equipping you with the tools necessary for you to thrive.

Together, I know that you will help each other do well and champion the

topics through proper diplomacy.

See you all in February!

Eve Bradley

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Assistant Director- Aaron Gilchrist

Dear delegates,

I am very excited to have the pleasure of serving as one of your Assistant

Directors of the SPECPOL committee at LIMUN 2020. The committee has

two extremely intriguing topics, relevant to both the present and future of

the world: I hope that we will conduct productive debate, but also enjoy

the social and networking aspects of the conference. I look forward to

meeting you all.

Aaron Gilchrist

Assistant Director - Aidan Tee

Dear delegates,

It is an honour to be one of your Assistant Directors for SPECPOL in LIMUN

2020. I am looking forward to meeting all of you, and am enthusiastic to

hear what proposals you have in mind with regards to the topics selected.

I look forward to a fruitful three days of socialising, debating, and partying

together!

Aidan Tee

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Introduction to SPECPOL:

As previously stated, SPECPOL (The Special Political and

Decolonisation Committee), is the fourth committee of the UN General

Assembly (GA), and is as such also known as C4. At LIMUN 2020, UN GA

committees one through three are also simulated, as DISEC, ECOSOC, and

SOCHUM. Compared to these other three, SPECPOL’s mandate is somewhat

more fragmented.

Its original mandate was to help manage trusteeship nations,

mediate in issues, and help decolonisation efforts, with the aim of having

all colonized territories established with majority rule. In 1994, when the

last trusteeship, Palau, became de jure and de facto independent, the

trusteeship system which had dominated C4 was dismantled, leaving the

committee with a sparse agenda. As such, the UN GA decided to merge an

unofficial 7th UNGA committee, the Special Political Committee, with C4, to

create modern-day SPECPOL.

This committee’s unusual history helps to explain its mandate’s

fragmented nature; the UN summarises the committee’s agenda as

concerning itself with “a broad range of issues covering a cluster of five

decolonisation-related agenda items, the effects of atomic radiation,

questions relating to information, a comprehensive review of the question

of peacekeeping operations as well as a review of special political missions,

the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the

Near East (UNRWA), the Report of the Special Committee on Israeli

Practices and International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space.

In addition to these annual items, the Committee also considers the items

on Assistance in mine action, and University for peace biennially and

triennially respectively.” As the committee’s full name suggests, its

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discussion points shift from atomic radiation issues, to peacekeeping

issues, all the way to being responsible for UNRWA. In this way, it is no

understatement to say that this committee’s mandate is wider than most.

In addition to having a wide-reaching mandate, it is important to note

that as a General Assembly committee, all of the resolutions SPECPOL

produces are non-binding. This means that operative clause language

should use soft-power, non-binding like “Recommends”, “Urges”, and

“Asks”, rather than hard-power, binding language such as “Demands”.

Being a non-binding committee also means that any peacekeeping

operations or punitive measures cannot be authorised solely by SPECPOL

and as such cannot be included in resolutions. Instead, SPECPOL has the

power to suggest that the UN Security Council investigate the issue and

carry out the actions recommended by SPECPOL.

As of Autumn 2019, SPECPOL has been addressing a number of draft

resolutions; those currently on the table include The Question of Western

Sahara, The Question of Gibraltar, Assistance in Mine Action, Effects of

Atomic Radiation, International cooperation in the Peaceful uses of Outer

Space, and Offers by Member States of study and training facilities for

inhabitants of Non-Self-Governing territories. Currently awaiting responses

from SPECPOL on requests for hearings are the Question of French

Polynesia, the Question of Guam, and the Question of New Caledonia.

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TOPIC A: The Issue of

Small Island States and

Rising Sea Levels

Introduction

“All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others”. This

statement found in British writer George Orwell’s novella Animal Farm may

be more than half a century old, but its sentiments can be applied to a

number of situations in today’s world. One of its applications involve the

impacts of climate change, and specifically rising sea levels brought about

by its occurrence. While all countries may be affected in one way or another

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by the effects of rising sea levels, its consequences vary between different

nations.

Figure 1.1: The change in sea levels since 1880.1

One group of nations set to be the hardest hit are small island nations, like

those in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, whose people’s livelihoods are under

threat. According to a UNDP article in 2017, a third of all Small Island

Developing States (SIDS) population lives on land that is less than five

meters below sea level2. As a result, they are the most vulnerable to the

effects of climate change, including rising sea levels, with consequences

ranging from water insecurity to drastically reduced economic activity

(ibid.). For instance, Fiji anticipates losing

1 Retrieved from: https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/

2 UNDP (2017), “Small Island nations at the frontline of climate action”, Available at:

https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/news-centre/news/2017/09/18/small-island-nations-at-the-frontline-of-climate-action-.html

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assets equivalent to 5% of its GDP every year, with that number expected

to increase over the coming years3.

Figure 1.2: Map indicating the most vulnerable areas to rising sea levels.4

Further adding to their already-heightened sensitivity to any climate

change-driven increase in sea levels, due to wind patterns moving water,

parts of the western pacific are seeing an average rise of around 8-12

millimetres per year, whereas seas globally rise by 3.2 millimetres per

year5. This can be seen as particularly unfair as SIDS only contribute to

less than 1% of the world’s total greenhouse gas emissions, and yet are

some of the worst affected by any changes.

3 Worland (2019), “The Leaders of These Sinking Countries Are Fighting to Stop Climate Change. Here's What the

Rest of the World Can Learn”, Available at: https://time.com/longform/sinking-islands-climate-change/

4 Retrieved from: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Sea-level-rise-and-its-impact-on-coastal-zones.-Nicholls-

Cazenave/f59382d9b3c676fe00c2718e37089b4bd11d2cd6/figure/2

5 Chow (2019), “Three islands disappeared in the past year. Is climate change to blame?” Available at:

https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/three-islands-disappeared-past-year-climate-change-blame-ncna1015316

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Sea-level-rise-and-its-impact-on-coastal-zones.-Nicholls-Cazenave/f59382d9b3c676fe00c2718e37089b4bd11d2cd6/figure/2

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Sea-level-rise-and-its-impact-on-coastal-zones.-Nicholls-Cazenave/f59382d9b3c676fe00c2718e37089b4bd11d2cd6/figure/2

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The effects of rising sea levels can already be felt on numerous island

states. In Kiribati, a UN report has shown that approximately one-half of

all households have been affected by the rising sea levels6.

According to a 2018 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change, small island states are the most under threat by a 0.5°C increase

in global temperature. Specifically, the report mentions four nations as

subject to the most risk; those are Kiribati, Tuvalu, the Maldives and the

Marshall Islands7. However, unlike large nations where any coastal

community would be able to relocate in times of an increase in sea levels,

this is not an option for inhabitants of small island states, who may find the

land that they are living on to be uninhabitable or even disappear entirely.

Of further concern is the timeframe in which these events may occur. In

August 2019, a number of Pacific Island nations, including Fiji, Kiribati,

Nauru, Timor Leste, Tonga and others, came together and declared that by

2030 their islands could be rendered uninhabitable. As such, they have also

called their situation a ‘climate crisis’ and called on major greenhouse gas

emitters around the world to take responsibility and enforce change8.

In addition to calling for change, these nations have also had to implement

their own measures in order to try and cope with the pressures of rising

sea levels. For instance, Kiribati has purchased 6,000 acres of land on Fiji

purely for food security purposes9. Other countries have already begun

anticipating actions that they may have to make in the future. Fiji is

6 Alexis-Martin et al (2019), “How to save a sinking island nation” Available at:

http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20190813-how-to-save-a-sinking-island-nation

7 Letman (2018), “Rising seas give island nation a stark choice: relocate or elevate” Available at:

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2018/11/rising-seas-force-marshall-islands-relocate-elevate-artificial-islands/

8 Cassella (2019), “There's a Climate Threat Facing Pacific Islands That's More Dire Than Losing Land” Available

at: https://www.sciencealert.com/pacific-islanders-are-in-a-climate-crisis-as-rising-sea-levels-threaten-water



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expecting to move around 40 villages in the upcoming years in response to

the continued rise in sea levels, and Marshall Islands president Hilda Heine

has mentioned the possibility of building higher ground as a form of

adaptation. However, she has emphasised the importance of making sure

that local governments and clan heads are all part of the conversation as

well10.

In addition to individual initiatives, in 1990 the Alliance Of Small Island

States (AOSIS) was created. Consisting of small island and low-lying

developmental states, the group has been vocal in pushing through

international legislation to address environmental concerns. Most notably,

the group was vital in pushing forward the 1.5 degree mark as opposed to

the 2 degree mark as was mentioned in the final version of the Paris

Agreement11. The organisation’s influence can also be seen in Article 9 of

that same agreement, in which it addressed the specific financial needs of

the small island states.



11 Worland (2019), “The Leaders of These Sinking Countries Are Fighting to Stop Climate Change. Here's What

the Rest of the World Can Learn”, Available at: https://time.com/longform/sinking-islands-climate-change/

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Definitions

Atolls Atolls are islands made up primarily of dead coral, but

also enclose a central lagoon12. They are also typically

only a few meters above sea level at any given point.

They typically form a key part of small island nations13

Small Island

Developing

States (SIDS)

Consisting of 38 UN member states and 20 non-UN

members, they are island states that, although share

economic difficulties and development concerns with

other developing nations around the world, have their

own particular vulnerabilities, including their small size,

remoteness, and vulnerability to climate change14

12 Yamamoto & Esteban (2012), “Atoll islands and climate change: disappearing States? - United Nations

University”, Available at: https://unu.edu/publications/articles/atoll-islands-and-climate-change-disappearing-states.html#info



14 More Information available at: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sids/list

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Alliance of Small

Island States

(AOSIS)

Established in 1990, AOSIS consists of 44 small island

and low-lying member states, whose main aims are to

advocate their member state’s interests and push

forward on a number of key concerns, including climate

change, sustainable development, and ocean

conservation.

Timeline:

November 1989 -

Small States

Conference on Sea

Level Rise

This meeting marked the emergence of the issue of

rising sea levels as a politically prominent issue. Held

in the Maldives it was attended by 14 Carribean,

Indian Ocean, Mediterrainian and Pacific Island States.

Many of the recommendations made during this

conference remain relevant today15

1990 - AOSIS is

established

The intergovernmental organization would go on to

have a key impact in establishing later agreements

including the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the Paris Agreement

15 Kelman (2015), “Difficult decisions: Migration from Small Island Developing States under climate change”,

Earth’s Future

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June 1992 -

United Nations

Conference on

Environment and

Development

takes place

The conference established the UNFCCC, while also

establishing SIDS as a distinct subsection of

developing nations16

November-

December 2015 -

Paris Agreement is

drafted

The Paris Agreement, built on the conventions of the

UNFCCC, is drafted, with AOSIS considerations vital in

establishing its goals- see introduction17

2017 - Fiji wins

right to lead COP

23

The 2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference

(COP 23) marked the first time a SIDS was chosen to

lead such an event. This further solidified small island

nations as one of the main drivers of Climate Change

action18

16 Bolon (2018), “1.5 to Stay Alive: The Influence of AOSIS in International Climate Negotiations.” Available at:

https://www.e-ir.info/2018/11/17/1-5-to-stay-alive-the-influence-of-aosis-in-international-climate-negotiations/

17 Worland (2019), “The Leaders of These Sinking Countries Are Fighting to Stop Climate Change. Here's What

the Rest of the World Can Learn”, Available at: https://time.com/longform/sinking-islands-climate-change/

18 Ibid.

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December 2018 -

Progress in

creating the Paris

Agreement

‘rulebook’

The following year’s conference saw the SIDS loudly

call for more drastic action with regards to Climate

Change.19 Their influence may have been key in

allowing progress to have been made on establishing

key aspects of the Paris Agreement ‘rulebook’,

including how governments will verify and report on

their emission-cutting efforts20.

Discussion of the Problem

Water Scarcity:

‘Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink’. These words of the poet

Samuel Taylor Coleridge can be easily applied to the situation facing the

numerous inhabitants of SIDS today. While the loss of land is probably the

most dramatic consequence of rising sea levels, there are other issues to

be considered that can be just as damaging. Such an issue concerns the

storage of drinking water. Fresh drinking water is already difficult to obtain

and store, and on many atolls the primary source of water is rain that is

soaked into the soil and is later collected as groundwater21.

However, as sea levels rise, seawater may soon begin to be soaked into

the soil instead. This then contaminates the soil, and hinders its ability to

hold fresh rainwater. Furthermore, if subsequent rain showers are unable

19 Rosenthal (2018), “Small island nations, threatened by rising seas, want stronger action at the climate-change

summit in Poland”, Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/energy-environment/2018/12/12/small-island-nations-threatened-by-rising-seas-want-stronger-action-climate-change-summit-poland/

20 Harvey (2018), “What was agreed at COP24 in Poland and why did it take so long?”, Available at:

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/dec/16/what-was-agreed-at-cop24-in-poland-and-why-did-it-take-so-long

21 Cassella (2019), “There's a Climate Threat Facing Pacific Islands That's More Dire Than Losing Land” Available

at: https://www.sciencealert.com/pacific-islanders-are-in-a-climate-crisis-as-rising-sea-levels-threaten-water

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to purge all of the saltwater out of the soil, it will be permanently

contaminated and therefore unable to be used as a means of collecting

rainwater anymore. As a result, governments of these island nations have

to ship out drinking water to those islands that are the worst affected. This

is a practice that is unlikely to be sustainable for long periods of time, for

reasons including cost.

Climate Migration:

Another key consequence of rising sea levels is the ensuing climate

migration that may ensue. As islands are slowly rendered uninhabitable,

families and larger communities may be forced to move to other islands, or

maybe even leave the country altogether. For a number of reasons, neither

option is entirely desirable. With regards to the first option, forcing a

number of people to live closer together on islands already subject to

severe land constraints may lead to a number of issues involving food

security or the transmission of disease. There may simply not be enough

land for everyone to share. The capital city of the Maldives, Male, is already

very densely populated, with 120,000 people living in 2 km2. There are also

economic challenges of such a relocation, with a quarter of all pacific

islanders living below the basic needs poverty line22.

With regards to the option of leaving the country, there are some pathways

that allow for those who want to leave their country to do so. New Zealand,

for instance, has established a Pacific Access Ballot, which is a lottery that

gives the chance for Kiribati, Tonga, and Tuvalu citizens to relocate to New

Zealand every year. However, quotas are reportedly not being filled, as

people understandably display a reluctance to leave their homes or

22 More information available at: https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/sustainable/hlpf-2019-pacific-

islands-forum.html

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families23. Indeed, when the Maldivian government announced in 2008 the

intention to create a ‘sovereign wealth fund’ to buy a new homeland for

Maldivians in the case of a mass displacement and relocation, Maldivians

expressed their concerns about leaving their homeland and potentially

becoming exiles24.

Even when those who do want to leave their country for climate related

reasons do so, they are not always accepted by the receiving state. For

instance, New Zealand had a court case in 2013 where a citizen from

Kiribati was trying to gain climate refugee status. The courts turned him

down25. Recent immigration policy from countries located in the global

north over the past years has encouraged skilled migration to the detriment

of other forms26. Nevertheless, there is still a sizeable majority of SIDS

citizens who do take up this option, and the lure to do so will be more and

more attractive to those who are able to as the impacts of rising sea levels

becomes more and more severe. Regardless, most islanders have a strong

connection to their homes, even after they leave, and it is likely that the

inability to return would be devastating for any national, let alone those

with such close ties to their homes. It is unclear to what extent this will

continue to happen in the future, and moreover what the rights are of these

citizens who voluntarily or forcibly live abroad should their homelands

become uninhabitable in the future.

Economic Vulnerability



24 Kothari (2014), “Political discourses of climate change and migration: resettlement policies in the Maldives”, The

Geographical Journal

25 Kelman (2015), “Difficult decisions: Migration from Small Island Developing States under climate change”,

Earth’s Future

26 Julca & Paddison (2010), “Vulnerabilities and migration in Small Island Developing States in the context of

climate change”, Natural Hazards

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In the midst of all this discussion, it is easy to forget the ‘D’ aspect of the

acronym SIDS. The monetary means of these nations’ means to enact

policies to counter the effects of rising sea levels are limited. The economies

of these nations are not very big. For instance, they all consist of a narrow

resource base, and small domestic markets do not allow for economies of

scale to develop. As a result, these nations have to specialize in single,

dominant sectors in order to gain export revenue, while relying on imports

for everything else27. This lack of diversification and overreliance on imports

makes these states extremely vulnerable to global trade developments.

Furthermore, another key aspect of these nations’ economies concerns the

money brought in from tourism activities. The industry accounts for ⅓ of

many SIDS economies, while also supporting the creation and provision of

jobs in said countries28. Not only does this continued reliance of tourism

further highlight the vulnerability of these nation states to shocks in the

global economy, but it also serves as an indication of how damaging rising

sea levels may be on their economies, as rising sea levels submerge

beaches and threaten wildlife. This in turn reduces the allure of these

nations as tourist destinations, and a vicious cycle of reduced tourism,

leading to reduced revenues, leading to reduced monetary capabilities to

ward off the effects of rising sea levels, leading to more environmental

damage to tourist attractions, ensues.

Building more Land and Terrain adaptation:

Land reclamation has been touted as a possible means by which to reverse

the effects of rising sea levels. Previous examples have been cited, such as

the United Arab Emirates, where land has essentially been reclaimed from

27 Ibid

28 More Information Available at: https://medium.com/@WTTC/what-happens-when-an-island-is-dependent-on-

tourism-871ca4465a93

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the sea29. Furthermore, in places such as the Marshall Islands methods of

island engineering has been going on for decades, including dredging

efforts by the US military to fill in any reef flats between islands30. Failing

that, there is also the option to build other devices such as sea dykes, like

those already used in places including Japan and the Netherlands31

However, there are issues that need to be considered. Firstly, an operation

to simply build more land is not going to come cheap, and is well-beyond

the capabilities of SIDS to even consider without any outside help. For

example, it is estimated that a temporary seawall to protect just one

Marshall Island atoll would cost approximately $100 million dollars, which

is more than twice the wealth of what the country produces in a given

year32. Another aspect that may prove to be a cause for concern is,

ironically, what impact such a project will have on the environment around

it, as it is almost certain that such a massive project will result in some loss

of surrounding environment.

A further consideration is what kind of impact these projects will have on

the community. For instance, in the Marshall Islands citizens have been tied

to the land through many generations. There are ancestral land ties to

consider in any planned movement of people, with the fear being that

building more land and forcing people to relocate will sever the ties people



30 Ibid

31 Yamamoto & Esteban (2012), “Atoll islands and climate change: disappearing States? - United Nations

University”, Available at: https://unu.edu/publications/articles/atoll-islands-and-climate-change-disappearing-states.html#info

32 Ibid

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have with their heritage, as well as having impacts on the preservation of

the local culture33.

Nuclear Storage

An unfortunate truth of the past was that the islands in the Pacific were

often used to conduct nuclear tests. The Enewark and Bikini atolls were

used as nuclear test sites in the 40s and 50s, with over 60 bombs

detonated34. After testing was completed, the contaminated material was

mixed together and stored in a 350-foot crater on Runit Island, and sealed

with concrete panels on the top

Figure 1.3: The dome located on Runit island. It could now be responsible

for threatening the livelihoods of the local ecosystem and the surrounding

population.35

However, the dome was never meant to last, and now rising sea levels

are starting to further threaten the structure’s ability to keep all of it



34 Jose et al. (2015), “This dome in the Pacific houses tons of radioactive waste – and it's leaking”, Available at:

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/03/runit-dome-pacific-radioactive-waste

35 Retrieved from: https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-02-19/seawater-infiltrating-nuclear-waste-dump-remote-pacific-atoll

https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-02-19/seawater-infiltrating-nuclear-waste-dump-remote-pacific-atoll

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s toxic contents sealed away. It is a test that, so far it is failing, as a 2013

report by the US Department of Energy has acknowledged that

radioactive material is leaking out of the dome36. As sea levels continue to

rise, it is not out of the question that more and more radioactive material

will start to leak into the ocean, damaging the surrounding ecosystem and

the livelihoods of those living in the surrounding areas.

Conclusion

The issue of small island states and rising sea levels is a multifaceted, highly

complex issue that will require careful deliberation on the part of all parties

if an environmental and humanitarian catastrophe is to be avoided. It is

clear that these nations, despite their impressive feats on the international

stage in bringing awareness to climate change and influencing subsequent

policies, need help from the international community if they are to tackle

the issues closer to home. Whatever action is agreed upon, it is clear that

there needs to be a mix of both long and short-term. At the current

trajectory some of these countries may cease to be inhabitable in the next

decade or two.

Questions a Resolution should answer:

❏ What are some short-term solutions that can be implemented in a

relatively short time frame? Can they be built upon in the long-run

as well?

❏ What are the best uses of existing resources?

36 Jose et al. (2015), “This dome in the Pacific houses tons of radioactive waste – and it's leaking”, Available at:

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/03/runit-dome-pacific-radioactive-waste

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❏ Have there been any advances in technologies that will be useful

in this situation?

❏ What, if anything, can be done to mitigate the loss of individuals

or communities that are forced to leave their homes or see their

islands modified?

❏ How can we economically strengthen or diversify these countries

to provide them with the means to cope with environmental

changes?

❏ What can the international community do as a whole to alleviate

some of the burden on these countries?

Further Reading

- Small Islands, Rising Seas:

https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/small-islands-rising-seas

- Sea-Level Rise and Small Island States: An Overview:

https://www.jstor.org/stable/25736084?seq=1#metadata_info_tab

_contents

- How to Save a Sinking Island Nation:

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190813-how-to-save-a-

sinking-island-nation

- Small Island Nations at the Frontline of Climate Action

https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressrel

eases/2017/09/18/small-island-nations-at-the-frontline-of-climate-

action-.html

- Effects of Sea Level Rise on Small Island States:

https://research.fit.edu/media/site-specific/researchfitedu/coast-

climate-adaptation-library/pacific-islands/melanesia/Ragoonaden.--

Effects-of-Sea-level-Rise-on-Small-Islands-State.pdf

https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/small-islands-rising-seas

https://www.jstor.org/stable/25736084?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

https://www.jstor.org/stable/25736084?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190813-how-to-save-a-sinking-island-nation

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190813-how-to-save-a-sinking-island-nation

https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2017/09/18/small-island-nations-at-the-frontline-of-climate-action-.html



https://research.fit.edu/media/site-specific/researchfitedu/coast-climate-adaptation-library/pacific-islands/melanesia/Ragoonaden.--Effects-of-Sea-level-Rise-on-Small-Islands-State.pdf



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Bibliography

Alexis-Martin, B., Turnbull, J., Malin, S. and Dyke, J. (2019). How to save

a sinking island nation. [online] Bbc.com. Available at:

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sinking-island-nation [Accessed 6 Oct. 2019].

Bolon, C. (2018). 1.5 to Stay Alive: The Influence of AOSIS in International

Climate Negotiations. [online] E-International Relations. Available at:

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of-aosis-in-international-climate-negotiations/ [Accessed 6 Oct.

2019].

Cassella, C. (2019). There's a Climate Threat Facing Pacific Islands That's

More Dire Than Losing Land. [online] ScienceAlert. Available at:

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crisis-as-rising-sea-levels-threaten-water [Accessed 6 Oct. 2019].

Chow, D. (2019). Three islands disappeared in the past year. Is climate

change to blame?. [online] NBC News. Available at:

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Harvey, F. (2018). What was agreed at COP24 in Poland and why did it take

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Jose, C., Wall, K. and Hendrik Hinzel, J. (2015). This dome in the Pacific

houses tons of radioactive waste – and it's leaking. [online] The

Guardian. Available at:

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https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/03/runit-dome-

pacific-radioactive-waste [Accessed 6 Oct. 2019].

Julca, A. and Paddison, O. (2010). Vulnerabilities and migration in Small

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Kelman, I. (2015). Difficult decisions: Migration from Small Island

Developing States under climate change. Earth's Future, 3(4),

pp.133-142.

Kothari, U. (2014). Political discourses of climate change and migration:

resettlement policies in the Maldives. The Geographical Journal,

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Oct. 2019].

Letman, J. (2018). Rising seas give island nation a stark choice: relocate

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seas-force-marshall-islands-relocate-elevate-artificial-islands/


Rosenthal, M. (2018). Small island nations, threatened by rising seas, want

stronger action at the climate-change summit in Poland. [online] The

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environment/2018/12/12/small-island-nations-threatened-by-

rising-seas-want-stronger-action-climate-change-summit-poland/


Small Island Developing States. (2019). Sustainable Development. [online]

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UNDP. (2017). Small Island nations at the frontline of climate action.

[online] Available at:

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centre/news/2017/09/18/small-island-nations-at-the-frontline-of-

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quarter of Pacific islanders live below 'basic needs poverty lines', top

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Worland, J. (2019). he Leaders of These Sinking Countries Are Fighting to

Stop Climate Change. Here's What the Rest of the World Can Learn.

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dependent-on-tourism-871ca4465a93 [Accessed 6 Oct. 2019].

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climate-change-disappearing-states.html#info [Accessed 6 Oct.

2019].

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TOPIC B: Review of UN

Peacekeeping operations

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Introduction:

a. An overview:

In Article 1 of the 1945 United Nations Charter, the UN’s ultimate

mandate is made clear: “maintaining international peace and security”37

and the “removal of threats to the peace”38. In the time since then, UN

Peacekeeping forces have intervened in over 70 conflicts across the world,

mostly in Africa and Asia39. As a culmination of their work over the prior

four decades, in 1988, UN Peacekeeping was awarded the Nobel Peace

Prize40. Their purpose, to act as an impartial referee in cases of conflict and

to assist with reconciliation between all parties, is outlined as follows in

Chapters 6 through 8 of the UN Charter41. For a full understanding of how

Peacekeeping is conceptualised by the UN, we expect that delegates will

have read the aforementioned UN charter, most notably chapters VI

through VIII.

To create peacekeeping missions and mobilise a peacekeeping force,

the UN Security Council must pass a resolution approving their use with a

suitable mandate for their operations42. Historically, missions have been

limited to observing situations and exclusively using force in the capacity

of self-defence; more recently, for example in the UNAMSIL mission to

Sierra Leone, the mandate has permitted the use of force for the protection

of civilians43.

37 Charter of the United Nations | Chapter I. (1946). Retrieved 3 December 2019, from

https://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-i/index.html

38 Ibid^

39 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Peacekeeping Opperations list. [online] Available at:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/unpeacekeeping-operationlist_3_0.pdf

40 The Nobel Peace Prize 1988. (2019). Retrieved 3 December 2019, from

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1988/un/facts/

41 Charter of the United Nations | Chapter I. (1946). Retrieved 3 December 2019, from


42 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Role of the Security Council. [online] Available at:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/role-of-security-council.

43 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020). UNAMSIL: United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone - Mandate.

[online] Available at: https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unamsil/mandate.html

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Every mission takes into account the three principles upon which UN

Peacekeeping operates: consent of the parties, impartiality, and non-use of

force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate44. The end goal of

a mission is working towards successful political peace processes involving

all of the main actors in the conflict; for this reason, the peacekeeping

forces ask for unilateral permission before mobilising and attempt to remain

neutral45.

Pre-1990, peacekeeping missions mostly consisted of ensuring

ceasefires and truce agreements between nations at war were held46. After

1991, the nature of global conflicts changed: instead of interstate war, the

dominant narratives were civil wars and insurgencies. Peacekeepers shifted

from a majority interstate engaged process, to being used to respond to

civil wars within member states47. Today, there are over 100 000

peacekeepers within 13 different operations around the globe, a vast

majority of which can be found in African and the Middle Eastern regions48.

The total cost of maintaining these forces has been touted by UN

Peacekeeping as less than 0.5% of global military spending; funding and

other resources are the combined responsibility of all UN member states

and they are provided as voluntary contributions on an ad hoc basis49. For

2019, the United States, China and Japan are the top three financial

contributors to the budget of UN Peacekeeping Operations, providing over

50% of the total budget50. Each peacekeeping force mandated is made up

44United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Mandates and the legal basis for peacekeeping. [online] Available at:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mandates-and-legal-basis-peacekeeping.

45 ibid^

46 Escrina Cremades, B. (2019). R2P and the UN | United Nations. [online] Un.org. Available at:

https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/r2p-and-un

47 Goulding, M. (2019). The evolution of United Nations peacekeeping. Retrieved 3 December 2019, from

https://academic.oup.com/ia/article-pdf/69/3/451/13692399/ia-69-3-451.pdf

48 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2019). Where we operate. Retrieved 4 December 2019, from

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/where-we-operate

49 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020) How we are Funded. [onl;ine] Available at:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/how-we-are-funded

50 ibid^

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of contingents from volunteer member state armed forces51. In this way,

the UN has no independent military force of its own, and each state is

responsible for the forces they contribute. As of the end of 2017, Ethiopia,

Bangladesh and India respectively contribute the most significant number

of personnel to UN Peacekeeping forces52.

b. Peacekeeping in the 21st Century, and the 2005 World

Summit:

In 2005, the UN’s chartered mandate of protection and prevention

was re-enshrined at the World Summit, which enshrined Responsibility to

Protect (R2P) into UN values and practices53, and created new bodies which

would help improve Peacekeeping missions. The changes and new

processes put in place at the world summit represent a significant change

in terms of UN Peacekeeping; many issues levelled at UN Peacekeeping,

the UNSC who mandates its missions, and its organizational structure were

addressed.

First, the UN Peacekeeping Commission was created as an advisory

body, which has massively contributed to the centralization of an

institutionalised framework for all things state building and peacekeeping,

from the immediate to the longer-term needs of a mission. Pre-1990, UN

Peacekeeping missions were run through 6 appointed employees in the

United Nations Office of Special Political Affairs (now SPECPOL)54, until

1992, when it started being organized through the newly created

Department of Peace Operations (DPO) (previously Dep. of Peacekeeping

Operations, DPKO, until Jan. 2019), whose main purpose is to concentrate

51 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Deployment and Reinbursement. [online] Available at:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/deployment-and-reimbursement

52 ibid^

53 United Nations. (2005). Integrated and coordinated implementation of and follow-up to the outcomes of the

major United Nations conferences and summits in the economic, social and related fields. [online] Available at:

https://www.who.int/hiv/universalaccess2010/worldsummit.pdf

54 United nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Timeline of peacekeeping. [online] Available at:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/historical-timeline-of-un-peacekeeping


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on policy planning and providing strategic direction55. The DPO runs

through two offices the Office of Operations, and the Office of Mission

Support (OMS) which provide logistical, personnel, and financial support

services. Secondary offices in the DPO deal with specific issues: Mine

Action, Training, Best Practices, and Military and Police Divisions56. This

system has been updated since 1992, but the general structured and

organized nature of the body has remained a constant.

In the past, UN peacekeeping has struggled with being fragmented

and bogged down, spread too thin over too many bodies at one time,

getting expertise in an ad-hoc manner, which has in practice often lead to

strategic and administration-related failures57. The UN Peacekeeping

Commission was created to offer support to these often missed targets,

providing academics and experts to advise on missions across the board;

centralising advisory roles into one body has enabled for issues surrounding

mediation, to the rule of law, all the way to reconstruction, to be dealt with

in a more organized and timely, well informed manner58. This being said, it

is worth noting that the commission has not resolved all of the

organizational and administrative issues of Peacekeeping59.

Second, the enshrining of R2P as an internationally accepted

responsibility changed, in small part, what constituted a situation where a

mission was warranted60. R2P, as understood by the UN, states that

Sovereignty entails, protecting a population from mass atrocity crimes and

human rights violations. When a state fails in its responsibility, or is heading

55 United nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Department for Peace Operations. [online] Available at:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/department-of-peace-operations

56 Ibid^

57 Peacekeeping : global perspectives, challenges, and impacts / editor, Pablo Antonio Fernández-Sánchez.

Nova Science Publishers | 2018

58 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Department of Peace Operations. [online]. Available at:


59 Fernández-Sánchez. (2018).

60 United Nations. (2005).


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towards failing to do so, or is directly acting in a way that contradicts this

role as protector, the UN and its member states has the duty to intervene61.

In the past, peacekeeping missions could only exist in countries

where that mission was accepted by the government. This rule remains

today, but the pressure a state is under to accept Peacekeeping, as

compared to before 2005, has increased significantly62. Practically, this

means a state would receive much more backlash refusing a mission today

than it has done in the past63. Additionally, increased pressure has been

placed by R2P on the Security Council, most notably the P5 (USA, UK,

France, Russia China; Permanent 5), to exhaust all options at their disposal

to protect world citizens64. In the past, the issue of reluctance was a

significant roadblock to the UN Peacekeepers abilities; many cite Rwanda

in 1994 and Kosovo in 1999 as examples of this (which this paper will

elaborate on later)65. Whilst the issue of reluctance has recently undergone

a resurgence in the UNSC and now needs re-addressing, the efforts R2P

pushed in resolving this issue did, for many years and to a lesser extent

today, make it much more difficult to be the state who refuses to mandate

a mission.

Thirdly, the World Summit created the United Nations Office of

Internal Oversight Services (OIOS), an independent office in the UN

secretariat, responsible for improving the management and oversight

processes in the UN by providing “insight into the effective utilization of the

resources of the [UN,] and the protection of its assets and also makes these

reports available to the General Assembly”66. Over the years, the issue of

61 Globalr2p.org. (2020). Peacekeeping, Civilian Protection and the Responsibility to Protect: A Handbook for

Trainers. [online] Available at: http://www.globalr2p.org/media/files/r2p-peacekeeping-course-handbook-nov-

2018.pdf

62 Bellamy, Williams, Griffin. (2010). Understanding Peacekeeping.

63 Bellamy, Williams, Griffin. (2010).

64 Ibid^

65 Ibid^

66 United Nations. (2020). OIOS: Whart we do. [online] Available at: https://oios.un.org/what-we-do

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accountability has been a significant thorn in Peacekeeping missions’

productivity. Mistakes causing the retrogression and aggravation of

problems to Peacekeeping missions have gone unpunished, un-noted and

swept under carpets around the world. Crimes of the worst kind have been

committed by peacekeepers, enabled by their missions, of which the largest

majority have gone unpunished.

In creating the OIOS, the UN has created a body which holds many

of its operations, most notably here peacekeeping, to account67.

Nevertheless, regulations remain the same: the UN cannot be prosecuted

for any failures of its missions, and its people can only be prosecuted for

any crimes committed on missions in their home countries and in

accordance to their home countries laws68. Crimes reported and mistakes

made are now audited by the OIOS and kept on record69. It’s through the

OIOS’s records that such issues are picked up by the UN, and it’s thanks to

its account holding that the rate of individual criminal prosecution in

peacekeepers has gone up (though only marginally). Unfortunately, the

OIOS has no power to hold any miscreant or failing mission to account; this

means that criminal behaviours and poor planning practices remain the

most significant problem perpetuated by Peacekeeping today.

The three issues addressed at the World Summit are most definitely

not the only issues faced by UN Peacekeeping today; the purpose of the

World Summit was never to resolve issues of Peacekeeping. This being said,

the World summit is the closest thing to UN reform in modern memory;

peacekeeping has changed significantly since, and therefore it’s important

to consider the issues from today, post World summit. Delegates must ask

67 ibid^

68 Goulding, M. (2019). The evolution of United Nations peacekeeping. Retrieved 3 December 2019, from

https://academic.oup.com/ia/article-pdf/69/3/451/13692399/ia-69-3-451.pdf

69 United Nations. (2020). OIOS: Coordination with entities.. [online] Available at:

https://oios.un.org/coordination-with-entities

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themselves, in our modern, post-R2P world, what does Peacekeeping need

to review in order to thrive going forwards in 2020?

Definitions: Peace terms

Conflict Prevention Diplomatic measures to keep intrastate or interstate

tensions and disputes from escalating into violent

conflict. Includes early warning, information gathering

and a careful analysis of the factors driving the

conflict70.

Peace In the UN charter, peace is not defined. It is assumed

implicit that the UN understands a negative definition of

peace, understanding peace as the lack of war, and not

a positive definition, which would imply the lack of war

plus justice, stability, happiness, friendship and other

social concepts. Therefore, it can be understood that the

UN as an organization works with a definition of peace

70 United nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Terminology. [online] Available at:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/terminology

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as the lack of interstate war. It should be understood

that this is not the official UN definition, as there is

none; though many have been put forwards, definitions

of peace have yet to be adopted.71

Peace enforcement

Peace enforcement involves the application of a range

of coercive measures, including the use of military force.

It requires the explicit authorization of the Security

Council. It is used to restore international peace and

security in situations where the Security Council has

decided to act in the face of a threat to the peace,

breach of the peace or act of aggression. The Council

may utilize, where appropriate, regional organizations

and agencies for enforcement action under its authority

and in accordance with the UN Charter.72

Peacekeeping

A unique and dynamic instrument developed by the

organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict

to create the conditions for lasting peace. Today's

multidimensional peacekeeping operations facilitate the

political process, protect civilians, assist in the

disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of

former combatants; support the organization of

elections, protect and promote human rights and assist

in restoring the rule of law. UN peacekeeping operations

may use force to defend themselves, their mandate, and

civilians, particularly in situations where the State is

unable to provide security and maintain public order.73

71 Escrina Cremades, B. (2019). R2P and the UN | United Nations. [online] Un.org. Available at:


72 Ibid^

73 Ibid^

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Peacemaking Includes measures to address conflicts in progress and

usually involves diplomatic action to bring hostile parties

to a negotiated agreement. The UN Secretary-General

may exercise their “good offices” to facilitate the

resolution of the conflict. Peacemakers may also be

envoys, governments, groups of states, regional

organizations or the United Nations. Peacemaking

efforts may also be undertaken by unofficial and non-

governmental groups, or by a prominent personality

working independently.74

The UN peacekeeping website states that:

“The boundaries between conflict prevention, peacemaking,

peacekeeping, peacebuilding and peace enforcement have become

increasingly blurred. Peace operations are rarely limited to one type

of activity. While UN peacekeeping operations are, in principle,

deployed to support the implementation of a ceasefire or peace

agreement, they are often required to play an active role in

peacemaking efforts and may also be involved in early peacebuilding

activities.”75

74 Ibid^

75 Ibid^

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Timeline of Events

There have been over 70 peacekeeping missions, so only fairly relevant

events have been included76:

April-June

1945

The United Nations Conference on International

Organisation meets in San Francisco to draft the Charter

of the United Nations, where the mandate for the

establishment of UN Peacekeeping operations is

created.

26 June 1945 The UN Charter is signed. Chapters VI through VIII

outline UN Peacekeeping mandates.

1948 UN Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) is formed

to handle the ceasefire at the end of the 1948 Arab-

Israeli War. This is the first UN Peacekeeping mission. It

is still active today.

1949 United Nations Military Observer Group in India and

Pakistan is formed to oversee the Kashmir conflict.

UNMOGIP is still active today.

1956-1967 The First United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) is

mandated in response to the Suez crisis.

1988 UN Peacekeeping Forces wins the Nobel Peace Prize.

1991-1993 Between 1991 and 1992, the UN Advance Mission in

Cambodia (UNAMIC) worked to prepare the country for

UN transitional authority. Between 1992 and 1993, the

UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) assisted

76 United nations Peacekeeping. (2020). Timeline of Peacekeeping. [online] Available

at:https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/historical-timeline-of-un-peacekeeping

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reorganization of Cambodia. Some UN Personnel

attached to the missions have been accused of varied

crimes of immoral sexual abuse which caused the spread

of HIV/AIDS and other diseases among local

populations, and human trafficking. No prosecutions

have been made to date.

October 1993 United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)

is formed to implement the Arusha Accords to end the

Rwandan Civil War.

April-July 1994 800 000 Tutsi, Twa and moderated Hutus are killed in

Rwandan Genocide. UN forces already present in the

region are withdrawn, citing escalations in violence.

June 1994 UNAMIR II forces arrive in Rwanda.

1999 NATO’s Peacekeeping force engages in Kosovo, without

UN approval, in response to slow engagement from a

reluctant UNSC.

October 1999 –

June 2006

United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) is

mandated, and withdrawn 7 years later.

2000-2008 United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE)

arrives in Eritrea and Ethiopia. UN personnel attached to

UNMEE have been accused of abusing children, sex

crimes, human trafficking, extortion and murder.

2004-2017 United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)

is mandated to return stability to Haiti.

In 2006, members of an Irish peacekeeping contingent

attached to MINUSTAH were accused of varied crimes of

immoral sexual abuse.

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In 2007, 114 of 950 members of the Sri Lankan

peacekeeping contingent attached to MINUSTAH were

accused of varied crimes of immoral sexual abuse. All

114 accused were deported to Sri Lanka. No

prosecutions were carried out in this case.

In 2016, the Sri Lankan government granted a one-time

ex-gratia payment to a victim and child born as a result

of sexual exploitation and abuse related to the cases.

September

2005

The World Summit takes place, fundamentally changing

many aspects and facets of UN Peacekeeping as it was

known.

2010 The deadly Cholera outbreak in Haiti is tied to

MINUSTAH; faulty piping in Nepalese forces base leaked

cholera-infected sewerage into the Artibonite River near

the town of Meille.

2012 United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria attempts

placing a peacekeeping force in Syria, but withdraws

within the same year due to increasing tensions

2014 UN peacekeepers from France and Georgia are

implicated in incidents of sexual violence against young

children in the Central African Republic. No arrests are

made in the case.

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Discussion of the Problem

UN Peacekeeping is no stranger to criticism from the international

community, on account of its past shortcomings, lacunas and failures77. To

outline these effectively could take several lifetimes; instead, this guide will

cover three main limitations which hold back UN Peacekeeping, as outlined

in the above introduction. These three will cover reluctance to act,

Organizational challenges and lacuna’s leading to endless or failed

missions, and accountability for criminal behaviour and actions. Then,

review elements currently being discussed by the international community

will be broached.

a. Reluctance

Reluctance isn't a problem unique to UN Peacekeeping. Rather, the

entire UN is plagued by domestic agendas of nations out to benefit from UN

77 McGreal, C. (2015). What's the point of peacekeepers when they don't keep the peace?. [online] the

Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/17/un-united-nations-peacekeepers-

rwanda-bosnia

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activities78. P5 nations like the United States, China, and Russia are some

of the most reluctant states at the UN. Their lines of foreign policy often

hold back effective resolutions and plans for working towards peace in

numerous situations. These episodes of sabotage from these states are

most dangerous to the UN Peacekeeping mandate as outlined in the Charter

within the context of the Security Council, especially in the context of

approving action to resolve tensions with the deployment of peacekeepers.

During the early days of the Syrian Civil War, and more widely the

Arab spring, the international community was reeling from over 7 years

militarily involved in the middle east, in domestically unpopular wars79.

Further commitment to returning peace in revolutionary states was not

something any of the P5 wanted to commit to. As conflict continued, a

strategy of patience was put forth by the UN, with the body arguing that a

slow, steady and measured approach; no one would act until the moment

was right. As months turned into years, terrorism took a firm grip in the

region; whilst the UNSC was facing its own myriad of issues at the time

which affected this outcome, by the time the UNSC had agreed to create a

Peacekeeping force in 80Syria, the UN Support Mission in Syria (UNSMIS)81,

the situation was too tense to handle. To add to this struggle of reluctance,

Syria’s Bashar Al-Assad is a close ally of P5 member Russia, and China will

often act against the United States; combined, China and Russia vetoed

twenty UNSC Resolutions on Syria82.

In Myanmar, a similar narrative can be identified. In September

2016, Pre-genocide, the UN mandated the Advisory Committee on Rakhine

78 Patrick, M. (2003). Deterrence now. Cambridge University Press.

79 Kopan, T. (2013). Poll: The most unpopular U.S. war. [online] POLITICO. Available at:

https://www.politico.com/story/2013/12/afghanistan-war-unpopularity-poll-101596

80 Ibid^

81 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020). UNSMIS: United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria - Mandate.

[online] Available at: https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unsmis/

82 En.wikipedia.org. (2020). List of vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions. [online] Available at:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vetoed_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions

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State, to review alleged military abuses and claims of ethnic cleansing in

the region83. The report came back damning in 2017, mid-genocide.

According to leading scholars, warning signs of escalating tensions were

clear, and the legal grounds for a peacekeeping force to be present on the

ground was reasonable84. However, P5 member China is a close ally with

Myanmar, one of its neighbours. All moves for documented UN involvement

in the region was blocked before a vote, leading to a seemingly eerie silence

from the DPO on the issue.

Today, in Yemen, a proxy war is being carried out, between the US

and their ally Saudi Arabia, and Iran, funding the Houthi Insurgency in the

nation. As conflict has escalated, little has been done by the security

council, as the US and Russia have together blocked moves by the body to

address the issue. Pre-2015, before the insurgency coup, opportunities

presented themselves for a Peacekeeping force to be sent to the region;

the conflict was ignored, under the later days of the strategy of patience

hailing from the early to mid 2010’s85.

Though these examples level their criticism more at the UNSC than

at peacekeeping, it must be recognised that a large reason why

peacekeeping forces are not sent in pre-emptively is due to this reluctance

to serve the international good over or realistically and most often, in

tandem, with domestic policy. This is an issue of attitude which is

limiting the effectiveness of UN Peacekeeping in the 21st century; moving

forward from 2020, a solution must be reached. In 2005, with the

enshrinement of R2P, reluctancy underwent a drop, even in the most

volatile days of domestic discontent for foreign wars P5 members had

involved themselves in. whether this phenomenon could reproduce itself,

83 Rakhine Commision. (2017). Advisory Commission on Rakhine State. [online] Available at:

http://www.rakhinecommission.org/

84 ibid^

85 Hubert, S. (2017). The Yemen War: A Proxy War, or a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. Polish Quarterly of

International Affairs, Vol. 26, Issue 2, pp. 162-178

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whether its yields could last long-term, and what circumstances would be

necessary for that, is unclear.

b. Organizational Challenges

Long-lasting missions without end are a sizeable issue for the UN

today. Over time, it has become clear how limitations in forward planning,

in terms of peacebuilding, peace enforcement and state building, have been

left unaddressed in the planning process. Missions have to stay open,

because the political, cultural, social and/or economic aspects of the

mission have not been addressed. This can lead to years of a peacekeeping

mission being active in a fairly inactive regions, where leaving would create

enough disturbance to reignite active conflict, but staying does not inspire

enough renewed diplomatic passion to resolve tensions.

There are currently six peacekeeping missions that have been

running for over 25 years, none of which are likely to be terminated in the

near future. In some of these cases, for example the UNMOGIP mission

which has been observing the India-Pakistan conflict in Kashmir since 1948,

relations between the belligerents have worsened86.

The most recent example is the mission in Western Sahara. UN

Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) has been active

since 1991, and continues to be active today. The missions purpose was to

implement the ceasefire and help promote a referendum on area's future;

without focussing too much on the narrative of the Western Saharan civil

unrest, the mission stalemated once conflict ended, as neither parties

would negotiate any referendum87.

The conclusion of many scholars in the face of such issues has been

relatively unanimous; the creation of a framework to ensure the full

consideration of any ramifications and consequences of involvement should

86 United Nations Peacekeeping. (2020).

87 MINURSO. (2020). MINURSO: UNITED NATIONS MISSION FOR THE REFERENDUM IN WESTERN

SAHARA. [online] Available at: https://minurso.unmissions.org/

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be considered88. The World Summit tried to address this in 2005 with the

creation of the UN Peacekeeping Commission89, but it seems the lessons

have not taken on board, as endless missions, including those surrounding

Haiti in 201090, have continued to be an issue for the UN post-2010.

Scholars here are most definitely unanimous: more needs to be done by

the UN to plan its Peacekeeping missions in a way to ensure they do not

become an occupation.

c. Accountability and Criminal Behaviour

i. Individual crimes (Haiti)

The biggest issue to plague UN Peacekeeping is crimes committed by

its personnel. Sexual abuse and rape of children are common narratives to

come out of a large number of Peacekeeping missions91. Murder, extortion,

Human Trafficking, Prostitution rings, assaults… all have been documented

in the past 15 years in peacekeeping missions around the world92. Scandals

related to the actions of active peacekeepers are in numerous, and shall

not be listed here. In the 12 years between 2004 and 2016, almost 2000

allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse were made against

peacekeepers93. Such issues are not new; their documentation and

recording can be attributed to the OIOS, whose recording of these instances

is relatively novel to peacekeeping94. Better accountability in peacekeepers

who commit crimes of these worst kinds are an absolute must moving

forward.

88 Patrick, M. (2003).

89 United nations. (2005).

90 Ivan Watson and Joe Vaccarello, C. (2019). U.N. sued for 'bringing cholera to Haiti,' causing deadly outbreak

- CNN. [online] CNN. Available at: https://www.cnn.com/2013/10/09/world/americas/haiti-un-cholera-lawsuit/

91Anderlini, S. (2017). UN Peacekeepers' Sexual Assault Problem. [online] Foreign Affairs. Available at:

https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2017-06-09/un-peacekeepers-sexual-assault-problem [Accessed 9

Jan. 2020].

92 ibid^

93 ibid^

94 United Nations. (2005).

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Under the current rules the UN cannot prosecute UN soldiers. Instead,

it is left to the “troop-providing country”95. This leads to confusion, as

requirements for prosecution surrounding evidence can often not be

obtained, as states protect their criminal military personnel to save their

reputations, and as different legal systems around the world mean justice

can often not be done96. Furthermore, whilst on official duty, immunity is

given to all UN operatives in this setting; in practice this, has extended to

all parts of their lives on deployment, as the legal surroundings are unclear

and left to precedent in many cases97. Academics have cited legal reform

to tackle such shortcomings as a starting place for accountability reform.

UN Security Council Resolution 2272, passed in 2016, condemned

these behaviours and set up a framework for greater accountability within

peacekeeping forces98. Despite all of these efforts, crimes are still being

perpetrated and a long term means of prevent are next to non-existent, as

the UN prefers to bury its controversies rather than address them and risk

the fallout of having bought criminals to unstable, often pre or post conflict

areas.

ii. Organizational, strategic and administrative failure

Another area where UN Peacekeeping fails to be kept to account is in

terms of its larger failures. In 2010, after years of UN intervention in the

country, Haiti suffered a deadly earthquake. Soon after, a deadly cholera

95 Johnston, L. (2018). Now UN peacekeepers stand accused after 612 cases of sex abuse. [online]

Express.co.uk. Available at: https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/920390/Sexual-abuse-UN-peacekeeper-

accused-612-cases

96 ibid^

97 ibid^

98 United Nations. (2016). UNSC resolution 2272. [online] Available at: http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/2272

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outbreak struck the country, killing thousands who’d survived the elements

and natural disasters99.

A few months into the outbreak, it was reported that Cholera,

eradicated in Haiti at the time of the earthquake, had to have been brought

to the nation from abroad; it was discovered that UN peacekeeping

barracks sewerage pipes had failed, and had leaked Nepalese forces

infected sewage into a nearby river, which fed into a small town. From

there, the disease spread in the perfect post-disaster environment, leaving

thousands dead100.

In the wake of this scandal, the UN asserted that it could not be

prosecuted for negligence because it had immunity in the areas in which it

had open and active missions; no compensation was paid nor given to Haiti

for the so-called oversight. This kind of mistake is common in UN

operations, as room is left for cracks, physical and metaphorical, to develop

where poor management, bad strategy and despicable behaviour can

develop and grow into the horrific issues we see today. It is important to

address how we can better legal accountability of the UN in these situations.

d. Peacekeeping Reform debates

Over the years, many arguments have been put forward claiming to

have solutions to peacekeeping problems. Here are a selection of three.

Over the years, the argument has been made numerous times in

favour of the creation of a UN army. Chapter VIII of the UN Charter grants

the Security Council the right to authorise the use of “military force”, a

phrase which has been interpreted by some to warrant the formation of a

UN standing army. Academics and practitioners all warn that the

99 Pilkington, E. (2019). Haitians urge judges to find UN culpable for cholera outbreak that killed thousands.

[online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/01/haiti-cholera-2010-un-us-

supreme-court

100 ibid^

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consequences of the existence of such a force are difficult to predict, and

that such resolution is exceptionally unlikely to reach the position of global

consensus needed for its introduction.

Elsewhere, proposals have been made for a UN rapid reaction force,

which would mobilise in the case of extreme threat of violence, such as in

cases pre-empting genocide, as would be relevant to the aforementioned

Myanmar case. Draft resolutions are yet to materialise on the issue, though

the idea has been given merit.

Seeing the need for change within the UN Peacekeeping Forces,

Secretary General António Guterres launched his Action for Peacekeeping

campaign, which aims to increase efficacy of operations. The Program aims

to do so through means including but not limited to closer cooperation with

other UN bodies and other intergovernmental organisations such as the

European Union or African Union, increased focus on protection of civilians,

and more accountability within all levels of the system. The vast majority

of all UN member-states have endorsed this programme and its 150

commitments, though the yields are yet to be established.

Conclusion

It cannot be denied that UN Peacekeeping forces have had a large effect on

many of the conflicts within the last century in their missions to “create the

conditions for lasting peace.'' There are, however, a plethora of issues that

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have arisen as a direct consequence of their actions: these relate to a

reluctant and disengaged attitude towards engagement in peacekeeping

missions in situations warranting UN attention, a lack of efficacy in their

strategic and administrative planning and executions, and crimes

committed by UN personnel and Peacekeeping troops. All of these

consequently lead to intensification of conflict. There is a clear need for a

review of the operations of all departments engaged with Peacekeeping;

despite previous recent efforts, resolute decisions still need to be made

concerning the future. Peacekeeping is an extremely powerful resource held

by the international community. In our troubled, unstable times, there has

recently been a distinct rise in isolationist, confrontational, and militaristic

approaches to foreign relations and interstate communications. At such a

time, Peacekeeping is one of the best tools the UN has to ensure the safety

of citizens failed by their governments. Without innovative update and

review, 2020 could spell the beginning of the end of one of the best conflict

prevention and de escalation tools we have.

Questions a Resolution should answer:

❖ Are peacekeeping missions in their current form suitable for the

conflicts that arise today?

❖ How can peace be kept without a common concept of the term?

❖ Would increasing the resources available to UN Peacekeeping forces

increase their efficacy?

❖ When should peacekeeping be used as opposed to peace

enforcement?

❖ Can more be done to hold peacekeepers accountable for their actions

while deployed?

❖ Should peacekeepers become more heavily armed and use military

force in more cases?

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❖ Should the possibility of a UN standing army be considered?

❖ What position should peacekeeping hold within the UN’s future

strategies to bring about peace in conflict zones?

Further Reading

- Current Peacekeeping Operations:

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/current-peacekeeping-operations

- What's the point of peacekeepers when they don't keep the peace?:

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/17/un-united-

nations-peacekeepers-rwanda-bosnia

- Are UN Peace Operations Effective?:

https://reliefweb.int/report/world/are-un-peace-operations-effective

- Are UN Peacekeeping Missions Moving Toward “Chapter Seven and

a Half” Operations?:

https://theglobalobservatory.org/2018/02/peacekeeping-chapter-

seven-half/

- UN Peacekeeping has a Sexual Abuse Problem:

https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/11/un-peacekeeping-has-

sexual-abuse-problem

https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/current-peacekeeping-operations

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/17/un-united-nations-peacekeepers-rwanda-bosnia

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/17/un-united-nations-peacekeepers-rwanda-bosnia

https://reliefweb.int/report/world/are-un-peace-operations-effective

https://theglobalobservatory.org/2018/02/peacekeeping-chapter-seven-half/

https://theglobalobservatory.org/2018/02/peacekeeping-chapter-seven-half/

https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/11/un-peacekeeping-has-sexual-abuse-problem

https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/11/un-peacekeeping-has-sexual-abuse-problem

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