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Special Education: Contemporary Perspectives for School Professionals, 4th ed, Marilyn FriendISBN 0132836742 © 2014, 2011, 2008, 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.0

Special Education:Contemporary Perspectives for School ProfessionalsFourth Edition

By

Marilyn Friend

Kerri Martin,Contributor

Special Education: Contemporary Perspectives for School Professionals, 4th ed., Marilyn Friend

ISBN 0132836742 © 2014, 2011, 2008, 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.1

Students with Specific Learning Difficulties

Chapter 5



Objectives

•Define specific learning disabilities, explain their prevalence and causes, and outline the development of the field.

•Describe characteristics of individuals with learning disabilities.

•Explain both traditional and emerging approaches for identifying students with specific learning disabilities.

•Outline how students with specific learning disabilities receive their education.

•Describe recommended educational practices for students with specific learning disabilities.

•Explain the perspectives and concerns that parents and families may have.

• Identify trends and issues influencing the field.

Development of the Field

Time Period Person or Group Events

19th century Researchers Interested in how brain injury affects functioning

20th century Goldstein Brain-injured soldiers

20th century Researchers Brain-injured children/perceptual skills training

1960s Legal LD established as a category/ direct instruction in academics

Book title, #Special Education: Contemporary Perspectives for School Professionals, 4th ed., Marilyn Friend


IDEA Definition of LD

Lists processing disorders

Listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing,

spelling, and mathematics

Includes some disorders

Excludes other disorders

Focuses on school tasks

Book titleSpecial Education: Contemporary Perspectives for School Professionals, 4th ed., Marilyn Friend


NJCLD Definition

General term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders

Disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the lifespan

Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability

May occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions or with extrinsic influences, but they are not the result of those conditions or influences



Essential Dimensions of a Definition of LD

Heterogeneous group of disorders

Intrinsic to the individual and have a neurological basis

Characterized by unexpected achievement

Not the result of other disorders or problems but may occur with other disabilities



The Prevalence of LD

Growth in this category has decreased overall by more than 20% in recent years, and by 15% in older students

Prevalence higher for boys than girls

Medical Sociological

Maturational Brain organization

New category, developmentally delayed, is being used for some

RTI procedures are having an impact



Physiological Causes of LD

Brain injury

Prenatal

Perinatal

Postnatal

Heredity

Chemical imbalance



Environmental Causes of LD

Poor nutrition

Adverse emotional climate at home

Toxins

Lack of stimulation

English is not primary language

Poor instruction



Cognitive Characteristics

Average or above average intelligence

Weaknesses in one or more areas

Attention

Perception

Memory

Information processing/thinking



Academic Characteristics

Reading

Phonological awareness Dyslexia

Oral fluency Comprehension

Oral Language

Phonology Morphology

Syntax Pragmatics

Written language

Motor coordination Spelling

Punctuation Organization

Mathematics (dyscalculia)



Social and Emotional Characteristics

Social perception

Social competence

Nonverbal learning disabilities

Motivation

Intrinsic, locus of control, learned

helplessness



Behavior Characteristics

Types of Behavior Problems Out-of-seat behavior

Talk-outs

Physical or verbal aggression

Possible Causes Communication difficulties

Frustration with academics

Attention difficulties or hyperactivity



Traditional Approach to Identifying Students with LD

Formal Assessments

Norm-referenced intelligence and achievement tests

Criterion-referenced tests

Classroom Assessments

Curriculum-based measurement

Portfolio assessment

Observations



Criteria for Eligibility Using Traditional Approach

Is there an ability--academic achievement discrepancy?

Is the learning problem the result of a disorder in an area of basic psychological processing involved in understanding language?

Can other possible causes of the learning problem be eliminated?



Response to Intervention (RTI)

Permitted, not required by IDEA

Three-Tiered Model

All students participate in tier 1, and educators use proven instructional methods

20-30% of students who don’t succeed in tier 1 receive supplemental instruction

5-10% of all students receive more intensive interventions in tier 3



Principles of RTI

1. Replaces the ability—achievement discrepancy criteria with a direct assessment of underachievement

2. Includes periodic assessment of all students (universal screening)

3. Emphasizes prevention of identification• Frequent data-collection

• Use of scientifically-based interventions

• Increasingly intensive instruction



Eligibility Using RTI

Is the student still exhibiting significant gaps in learning even though research-based, individually designed, systematically delivered, and increasingly intensive interventions have been provided?

If the team decides that a student is nonresponsive to intervention, the team may decide the student has a learning disability.



Identification with Patterns of Strengths and Weaknesses

Combines traditional approach and RTI

Discrepant achievement across academic areas (does well in math, but not reading)

Within an area (e.g., fluency without comprehension in reading)



LD in Early Childhood

Young children generally not diagnosed as having learning disabilities

Indicators not apparent in preschool children

Potential for misdiagnosis is high

Programs address developmental delays

Gross-motor and fine-motor skills

Expressive and receptive language skills

Attention problems

Social skills



Elementary and Secondary School Services

98% percent receive their education in a typical public school setting

61% spend nearly their entire day in general settings with their peers



Inclusive Practices

“Inclusion is about how the adults and students in any particular school think about teaching and learning for all the students who go there. Being inclusive does not mean that students never leave the general education setting. Instead, it means that consideration is given to how a student’s needs can be met within the classroom context before resorting to instruction in a separate setting” (Friend, 2013).

Results of studies on inclusive practices are mixed.



Model Transition Program

Include career awareness and exploration

Teach problem-solving, organization, self-advocacy, and communication skills

Have planning activities for school professionals and community members regarding next steps

Have documented, structured process across time

Work experiences are valuable

Linkages between students and community services



Principles of Direct Instruction (Mather & Goldstein, 2001, p. 146)

1.Present lessons in a well-organized, sequenced manner.

2.Begin with short review of previously learned skills.

3.Begin lessons with a short statement of goals, what is to be learned.

4.Present new material in small steps with practice and demonstrations at each step. Provide initial guidance through practice activities.

5.Provide students with frequent opportunities to practice and generalize skills

6.Ask questions to check students’ understanding, and obtain responses from everyone



Strategy Instruction

Strategies

Techniques, principles, and rules that guide students to complete tasks independently

Outline the steps students can take to accomplish learning tasks and provide some type of memory assistance (often an acronym) so that students can easily recall them



Parents as Partners in the Educational Process

Parents are often actively involved in their child’s education

Good school-home collaboration is vital but challenging

Parent participation may be affected by cultural variables

Book title, #e Author Name© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.26

Trends and Issues

Use of Response to Intervention

May not adequately and fairly address the diversity of students

Questions about the use of interventions

Resources needed

Whether it is really being used for identification

Transition to Higher Ed

Academic access to resources and high expectations

Self-determination and self-advocacy

Book title, #e Author Name© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.27

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