Soybean Diesel

Bioenergy and Biofuels from Soybeans Jon Van Gerpenl and Gerhard Knothe* Wniversity of Idaho, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Moscow, ID 83844; * USDA ARS NCAUR, Peoria, IL 61604

Introduction Vegetable oils and animal fats provide some of nature’s most concentrated sources of energy. Plants and animals utilize this energy through metabolic processes but non-food uses for these materials currently focus on combustion to produce heat or work. Historically food uses have kept the price of soybean oil high enough that it was not economical for use as a fuel even when rendered fats and greases were viable alternatives to petroleum. Higher petroleum prices and government incentives have produced conditions where soybean oil can be used as fuel, usually in the form of biodiesel.

A general equation for the gross heat of combustion of vegetable oils developed by Bertram (1946) is:

-A H, ( d g ) = 11,380 - (IV) - 9.15 (SV)

Where IV is the iodine value and SV is the saponification value. Using an iodine value of 131 and a saponification value of 193 gives a value of 9,483 cal/g or 39.7 MJ/kg for soybean oil. Compared with petroleum-based No. 2 diesel fuel at about 45.3 MJI kg, soybean oil has about 12.4% less energy. This is still one of the most concentrated sources of energy found in nature. Soybean oil can be burned directly for heat, although it is rare to do so because it is more expensive than other traditional heating fuels such as natural gas, heavy fuel oil or coal.

Transportation fuels tend to be in shortest supply and command high prices. Soybean oil and its derivatives do not generally have the volatility demanded by spark- ignited engines so most attempts to use these fuels have focused on diesel engines. Diesel engines can be run on straight vegetable oil, but the results have not been satisfactory, as noted below. The greatest problem is the high viscosity of vegetable oil, which is 10 to 15 times greater than that of the No. 2 diesel fuel that most diesel engines are designed to use. Emulsions of soybean oil have been tried but have not

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J. Van Gerpen and 0. Knothe

gained widespread acceptance due to concerns for the stability of the emulsion and the durability of the fuel injection system (Goering, 1982).

A new development in the area of alternative diesel fuels is a fuel produced from vegetable oils and animal fats using specially modified hydrogenation processes in a conventional petroleum processing facility (Rantanen et al., 2005). This fuel retains the low sulfur and low aromatic character of biodiesel but contains no oxygen and has a heating value that is similar to petroleum diesel fuel. Recent U.S. interest in this approach has expanded due to governmental announcements that the fuel qualifies for federal excise tax credits.

The best success and the greatest amount of experience with using vegetable oil in diesel engines has been with transesterification of the oils with simple alcohols to produce mono-alkyl esters, which have viscosities close to No. 2 diesel fuel. Most of the discussion in this chapter will focus on trandesterified fuels, known as biodiesel.

Biodiesel History The first demonstration of a vegetable oil, peanut oil, as fuel for a diesel engine occurred at the 1900 World Exposition in Paris. One of five diesel engines shown at that event ran on peanut oil (Knothe, 2005). The use of peanut oil as fuel apparently occurred at the request of the French government, which was interested in a local energy source for its African colonies, as Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913), the inventor of the engine that bears his name, himself states (Diesel, 1912a; 1912b). The common assertion that Diesel invented “his” engine to specifically use vegetable oils as fuel is therefore incorrect. Rather, Diesel’s objective was to develop a more efficient engine as he states in the first chapter of his book Die Entstehungdes Dieselmotors (The Develop- ment (or Creation or Rise or Coming) of the Diesel Engine) (Diesel, 1913). However, Diesel conducted later experiments with vegetable oils as fuels.

Considerable interest existed in some European countries from the 1920s through the 1940s to use vegetable oils as diesel fuel, especially in countries with African colonies (Knothe, 2001; 2005). The objective was similar to the original demonstration in 1900 and to goals existing in a modified fashion today, namely to provide these colonies with a local and renewable source of energy. However, there was interest in countries such as Brazil, China and India also. Especially in China, some interest in using pyrolyzed vegetable oils existed.

This early work documented results that are still valid today. The high viscosities of vegetable oils were identified as major problems causing engine deposits (Mathot, 1921; Schmidt, 1932; Schmidt, 1933; Schmidt & Gaupp, 1934; Gaupp, 1937; Bois- corjon d’ollivier, 1939). That exhaust emissions of diesel engines are “cleaner” when running on vegetable oils than with petroleum-based diesel fuel was observed visually (Knothe, 2001; 2005), although no quantitative exhaust emissions studies were performed.

Walton (1938) also recognized that the glycerol moiety has no fuel value and

Bioenergy and Biofuels from Soybeans

suggested splitting it off and running the engine on the residual acids. However, the first documentation of esterified vegetable oil, biodiesel, as a fuel is the Belgian patent 422,877 issued August 31, 1937, to Chavanne (Chavanne, 1937). Several other publications discuss the use of these esters as fuel (Chavanne, 1943; van den Abeele 1942). The fuel was ethyl esters of palm oil. A commercial passenger bus apparently used this fuel on the route from Brussels to Louvain (Leuven). In this work, the first cetane number of testing biodiesel, in form of ethyl esters of palm oil, was described (van den Abeele, 1942). The biodiesel fuel possessed a higher cetane number than the petroleum-based reference fuels.

In the United States, a Dual Fuel project utilizing vegetable oils and petrodiesel was carried out in the late 1940’s and early 1950s at The Ohio State University (Hu- guenard, 1951; Lem, 1952) and other work was conducted at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Baker & Sweigert, 1947).

The energy crises of the 1970s and early 1980s sparked renewed interest in renewable and domestic sources of energy around the world. Vegetable oils were re- membered as potential feedstocks for alternative diesel fuels. In 1980 and 1981, Bru- wer et al. (1980a, 1980b, 1981) reported that diesel engines running on sunflower oil methyl esters were less prone to engine deposits build-up. Together with work in other countries, this research eventually led to the now existing interest in biodiesel. Later developments included the development of standards, and legislation and regulations around the world promoting the use of biodiesel.

Fats and Oils The major components of fats and oils are compounds called triacylglyeerols (triglycerides). They are esters of glycerol with long-chain fatty acids.

Besides these major components, vegetable oils usually contain a variety of other materials including phospholipids, sterols, and tocopherols. Some components are specific to a vegetable oil, such as gossypol in cottonseed oil or glucosinolates in rapeseed and mustard oils. Significant amounts of these materials are usually removed by the refining process. The remaining amounts of these materials are usually limited in biodiesel standards by a variety of specifications.

With triacylglycerols being the major components of vegetable oils and animal fats, the properties of biodiesel are significantly influenced by the fatty acids found in these triglycerides. The fatty acid profile of biodiesel corresponds to that of the feedstock used for its production. Table 16.1 gives the fatty acid profiles for several common vegetable oils.

The fatty acid profile determines the properties of the oil and the resulting biodiesel. Oils with higher levels of saturated fatty acids have more resistance to oxidation and higher cetane numbers but tend to gel at temperatures that limit their usefulness in cold climates (Klopfenstein, 1985; Knothe et al., 2003; 1997; Dunn, 2005a). Oils with high levels of polyunsaturates are prone to oxidation but frequently contain natural antioxidants that protect the oil.


Table 16.1. Major Fatty Acids (wt. %) in Some Oils and Fats Used as Biodiesel Feedstocks”

Fatty Acid Composition (Wt. %) oil or Fat 8:O 10:0 12:O 14:O 16:O 18:O 18: l 18:2 18:3 22:l Canola 1.5-6 1-2.5 52- 16.1- 6.4- 1-2

66.9 31 14.1 ~~

Coconut 4.6- 4.5- 44- 13- 7.5- 1-3.5 5-8.2 1.0-2.6 0-0.2 9.5 9.7 51 20.6 10.5

Corn 0- 7- 1-3.3 20-43 39- 0.5-1.5 0.3 16.5 62.5

Cottonseed 0.6- 21.4- 2.1-5 14.7- 46.7- 1.5 26.4 21.7 58.2

Linseed 6-7 3.2-5 13-37 5-23 26-60 Olive 0- 7-20 0.5- 55- 3.5-21

1.3 5.0 84.5

2.4 47.5 6.3 Palm 0-0.4 0.5- 32- 3.5- 36-53 6-12

Peanut 0- 6-14 1.9-6 36.4- 13-43 0-0.3 0.5 67.1

1.5 3.5 Rapeseed 0- 1-6 0.5- 8-60 9.5-23 1-13 5-64

Safflower 5.3- 1.9- 8.4- 67.8- 8.0 2.9 23.1 83.2

Safflower. 4-8 2.3-8 73.6- 11-19 high-oleic 79 Sesame 7.2- 5.8- 35-46 35-48

9.2 7.7

13.3 30.8 Soybean 2.3- 2.4-6 17.7- 49-57.1 2-10.5 0-0.3

Sunflower 3.5- 1.3- 14-43 44-74 7.6 6.5

Tallow 2.1- 25-37 9.5- 14-50 26-50 (beef) 6.9 34.2 a These oils and fats may contain small amounts of other fatty acids not listed here. Source: Knothe et al., 2005.

Because of the dominance of soybean oil in the U.S. market, the majority of the biodiesel produced in the United States is made from this feedstock. A few plants use more costly feedstocks, such as canola, and others use low-cost materials such as yellow grease, tallow and chicken fat.

The lower cost materials tend to be high in free fatty acids and thus require pretreatment before they can be transesterified with alkaline catalysts. The pretreatment typically involves sulfuric acid-catalyzed esterification of the free fatty acids to methyl esters (Canakci & Van Gerpen, 2001).

The search for low-cost feedstocks has tended to focus on palm oil in the near term and algae oil in the long term. Palm oil is frequently winterized to produce palm olein but the cold-flow properties restrict use of the pure fuel to warm climates. Algae has been proposed as an oil source with very high yield but challenges associated with high water consumption, invasive species, and high cost have yet to be overcome (Sheehan et al., 1998a).

The Transesterification Reaction Numerous reviews concerned with the transesterification reaction are available (Bon- dioli, 2004; Demirbas, 2003; Demirbas and Karslioglu, 2007; Dimmig et al., 1999; Fukuda et al., 2001; Gutsche, 1997; Haas et al., 2002; Hoydonckx et al., 2004; Kulkarni et al., 2006; Lotero et al., 2005; Lotero et al., 2006; Ma & Hanna, 1999; Marchetti et al., 2007b; Mbaraka & Shanks, 2006; Meher et al., 2006; Nakazono, 2003; Shah et al., 2003; Schuchardt et al., 1998).

The transesterification reaction proceeds according to the general equation:

0 I I

CH,-O-C-R

0

CH-O-C-R +

0

I I I II

I I I II CH,-O-C-R

CH,-OH I

0 I Catalyst II I

I I I

3R’OH -+ 3 R-O-C-R + CH-OH

CH,-OH

Triacylglycerol Alcohol Alkyl ester Glycerol (Vegetable oil) (Biodiesel)

Scheme 16.1. Transesterification of triacylglycerol.

The most commonly prepared esters are methyl esters, which is largely the result of methanol being the least expensive alcohol in most countries. When using methanol ( R = CH, in the above equation), approximately 100 kg of vegetable oil are reacted with 10 kg of methanol to give approximately 100 kg of methyl esters (biodiesel) and 10 kg of glycerol. Glycerol and its uses are discussed later in this chapter.

The transesterification reaction is usually conducted with alkali catalysts (sodium or potassium hydroxide or methoxide). Alkali catalysis is much more rapid than acid catalysis in the transesterification reaction (Canakci & Van Gerpen, 1999; Freedman


and Pryde 1982, Freedman et al. 1984). For transesterification to give maximum yield, the alcohol should be free of moisture and the free fatty acid (FFA) content of the vegetable oil should be <0.5% (Freedman et al., 1984).

When using an alkaline catalyst (NaOH or NaOCH,) at 32"C, transesterification was 99% complete in 4 h (Freedman et al., 1984). At 60°C, with an alcohol-to- oil molar ratio of at least 6:l and with fully refined oils, the reaction was complete in 1 h to give methyl, ethyl, or butyl esters. The reaction parameters investigated were the molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil, type of catalyst (alkaline vs. acidic), temperature, reaction time, degree of refinement of the vegetable oil, and effect of the presence of moisture and free fatty acid. Although the crude oils could be transesterified, ester yields were reduced because of gums and extraneous material.

The transesterification of beef tallow was studied with regard to the effects of mixing, catalyst, free fatty acids and water as well as the solubilities of different alcohols in the fat (Ma et al., 1998a; 199813; 1999). Water had the greatest undesirable effect. As a result of the transesterification reaction, biodiesel contains small amounts of glycerol, free fatty acids, partially reacted acylglycerols (mono- and diacylglycerols), as well as residual starting material (triacylglycerols). 'These contaminating trace materials are limited by biodiesel standards such as ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) standard D6751 (ASTM 2007), and the European standard EN 14214 (CEN 2003), as well as other standards under development around the world.

As mentioned above, feedstocks that contain more than 4 to 5% of FFA (i.e. used cooking oils, grease, crude palm oil) require pretreatment before the triacylglycerols can be subjected to alkaline transesterification. 'This pretreatment usually consists of carrying out sulfuric acid-catalyzed esterification of the free fatty acids (Canakci & Van Gerpen, 200 1). A pilot plant based on this process was described by Canakci and Van Gerpen (2003a). Once the amount of FFA has been reduced to a level making the material suitable for alkaline transesterification (< 1 Yo), this process can be carried out. The amount of FFA is monitored by determination of the acid value in this process.

Mechanism and Kinetics Transesterification is a reversible reaction. The transesterification of soybean oil with methanol or I -butanol was reported to proceed with pseudo-first-order or second- order kinetics, depending on the molar ratio of alcohol to soybean oil (30: 1 pseudo- first order, 6: 1 second order; NaOBu used as catalyst), while the reverse reaction was second order (Freedman et al., 1986). The methanolysis of sunflower oil at a molar ratio of methanol to sunflower oil equal to 3: 1 was reported to begin with second-order kinetics and the rate decreased due to formation of glycerol (Mittelbach & Trathnigg, 1990). The originally reported kinetics (Freedman et al., 1986a) were reinvestigated (Boocock et al., 1996; 1998; Mittelbach &Trathnigg, 1990; Noureddini et al., 1997) and differences were found. A shunt reaction originally proposed (Freedman et al.,


1986a) as part of the forward reaction was shown to be unlikely, that second-order kmetics are not followed and that miscibility phenomena play a significant role (Boo- cock et al., 1996; 1998; Mittelbach &Trathnigg, 1990; Noureddini et al., 1997). 'The kinetics of non-catalyzed alcoholysis of soybean oil were also investigated (Dasari et al., 2003).

The distribution of methanol and catalyst between the ester and glycerol phases has been modeled using the Wilson equation and vapor-liquid-equilibrium data (Chiu et al., 2005). Using a polar dye, the phase behaviors of methanolysis, ethanolysis and butanolysis were visualized (Zhou & Boocock, 2006a). Ethanolysis was more easily initiated by mixing than methanolysis and showed a longer emulsion period and slower phase separation. Butanolysis remained one phase throughout the process (Zhou & Boocock, 2006a). In the case of methanolysis at 23"C, 42% of the methanol, 2.3% of glycerol and 5.9% of the catalyst were in the ester phase at steady state (Zhou & Boocock, 2006b). When carrying out ethanolysis, 75.4% of the ethanol, 19.3% of the glycerol and 7.5% of the catalyst were in the ester phase (Zhou & Boocock, 2006b). The glycerol phase dissolved most of the catalyst, thus transesterification became limited by mass transfer and conversion to meet biodiesel standards is not achieved in one reaction (Zhou & Boocock, 2006b). 'The use of membrane reactors may be a method for enabling separation of the reaction products and increasing product purity (Dub6 et al., 2007).

The addition of co-solvents, such as tetrahydrofuran (THF) or methyl teert.-butyl ether (MTBE), to the methanolysis reaction was reported to accelerate the methanolysis of vegetable oils as a result of solubilizing the methanol in the oil and to a rate comparable to that of the faster butanolysis (Boocock et al., 1996; 1998). 'The production of ethyl esters, also in presence of THF, has been described (Zhou et al., 2003). Other possibilities for accelerating the transesterification appear to be microwave (Breccia et al., 1999) and ultrasonic treatment (Stavarache et al., 2003). Facto- rial experiment design and surface response methodology have been applied to different production systems (Vicente et al., 1998). A continuous pilot-plant-scale process for producing methyl esters with conversion rates >98% was reported (Noureddini & Zhu, 1997) as well as a discontinuous two-stage process with a total methanol to acyl ratio of 4 3 (CvengroS & Povalanec, 1996).

Generally, alkoxides are preferable to hydroxides as catalysts for the transesterification reaction. 'The reason for this is that when using hydroxides, the following reaction, in which water is formed, is possible.

ROH + XOH + ROX + H,O (R = CH, or other alkyl rest; X = Na or K)

Scheme 16.2. Water formation by hydroxide catalysts.

When using alkoxides at the beginning of the process, this reaction is not possible, leading to easier work-up and better quality of the product in terms of reduced potential minor components (contaminants).

Side reactions leading to undesirable minor components in the biodiesel fuel are largely due to the presence of water or other contaminants at the beginning of the reaction. For example, when using sodium or potassium hydroxide, OH- can lead to the formation of free fatty acids, or rather, to the corresponding sodium or potassium salts. These salts are also known as soap.

Besides the methods discussed here, other catalysts have been applied in transesterification reactions. Many of the aspects related to such catalysts are summarized in the review articles cited above.

In situ transesterificarions consist of directly exposing the plant material containing the oil to transesterification conditions. The alcohol acts as extraction solvent for the oil-containing material and as the esterifying reagent. An overall transesterification efficiency of 80% was achieved by subjecting soybean flakes to such a process (Haas et al., 2004). However, large amounts of alcohol are required. Drying the flakes prior to the process improves efficiency (Haas & Scott, 2007). Sunflower seed oils were transesterified in situ using macerated seeds with methanol in the presence of H,SO, with yields reported to be higher than from transesterification of the extracted oils (Harrington & D’Arcy-Evans, 1985). Again, seed moisture reduced the yield of methyl esters. The cloud points of the in situ prepared esters appeared to be slightly lower than those prepared by conventional methods. In a related study, best yields were achieved with a 300:l molar ratio of methanol to oil (Siler-Marinkovic & To- masevic, 1998). Similarly, macerated soybeans were treated with methanol, ethanol, n-propanol and n-butanol to give the corresponding esters (Kildiran et al., 1996), although due to the insolubility of soybean oil in methanol, conversion was low in that case.

The transesterification reaction with sodium or potassium hydroxide or alkoxide catalysts occurs in a homogeneous phase. Heterogeneous catalysis, in which the catalyst exists in a solid phase while the rest of the reaction mixture is in liquid phase, offers the desirable potential feature of catalyst retrieval and recycling. Because of their nature and the possibility of recycling, heterogeneous catalysts often cause less disposal and environmental concerns. However, cost and product yield can be concerns with such catalysts, as well as the sometimes extreme reaction conditions. Numerous reports have been published concerning heterogeneous processes, using a variety of Ca, Mg, zeolite- based and other catalysts (Abreu et al., 2005; Cantrell et al., 2005; Di Serio al., 2006; Dossin et al., 2006; Gryglewicz, 1999; Kim et al., 2004; Kiss et al., 2006; Leadbeater & Stencel, 2006; Leclercq et al., 2001; Marchetto et al., 2007a; Mazzocchia et al., 2004; Mbaraka & Shanks, 2005; Peter et al., 2002; Peterson & Scarrah, 1984; Reddy et al., 2006; Secheli et al., 1999; Shah et al., 2004; Srinivas et al., 2004; Shibasaki- Kitakawa et al., 2007; Suppes et al., 2001; 2004; Watluns et al., 2004; Xie & Huang, 2006; Xie & Li, 2006; Xie et al., 2006; 2007). An example is the use of alkylguanidines attached to modified polystyrene or siliceous MCM-41, encapsulated in the supercages of zeolite Y or entrapped in SiO, sol-gel matrices (Sercheli et al., 1999).


Catalyst-free reactions at supercritical conditions have also been employed for transesterification (Bunyakiat et al., 2006; Demirbas, 2002; 2003; Cao et al., 2005; He et al., 2007a; 2007b; Kusdiana & Saka, 2001; Minami et al., 2006; Varma & Madras, 2007; Wang & Yang, 2007; Warabi et al., 2004).

Enzymatic transesterification methods are receiving attention for producing esters suitable as biodiesel. Advantages of enzymatic reactions can be specificity, mild reaction conditions, reduced product isolation problems, water tolerance, and reduced waste (Posorske 1984), although they are more expensive and, as yet, have not been used for commercial biodiesel production. Lipases from Pseudomonasfluorescens with petroleum ether as solvent yielded methyl and ethyl esters of sunflower oil (Mittel- bach, 1990). The lipase from Mucor miehei was the most efficient in yielding esters of primary alcohols while the lipase from Candida antaarctica was most efficient for yielding branched esters from secondary alcohols (Nelson et al., 1996). Other reports on enzymatic production of esters mainly for fuel purposes include ethanolysis of sunflower oil with a solvent-free, immobilized 1,3-specific Mucor miehei lipase (Selmi & Thomas, 1998), a variety of enzymes used for producing different materials (Linko et al., 1998) with dependence on the presence of solvent (Soumanou & Born- scheuer, 2003) as well as stepwise addition of methanol (Soumanou & Bornscheuer, 2003; BClafi-Bako et al., 2002), the synthesis of esters of restaurant greases (Wu et al., 1999; Hsu et al., 2002; 2003) stepwise use of immobilized Candida antarctica lipase (Shimada et al., 1999) modified later for continuous use (Watanabe et al., 2000), methyl acetate as an acyl acceptor (Xu et al., 2003) use of Rhizopus oryzde lipase in a water-containing system without an organic solvent (Kaieda et al., 1999) and in the methanolysis of vegetable oils contained in waste activated bleaching earth (Pizarro & Park, 2003). An evaluation of several lipases showed dramatic differences towards alcoholysis (Deng et al., ZOOS), with increasing presence of water being beneficial in most cases and 96% ethanol being the preferred alcohol in most reactions.

Transesterification of Other Sources of Biodiesel Potential low-cost sources of biodiesel, such as restaurant greases and soapstock, are of lower quality than refined vegetable oils. A major problem associated with them is the high content of free fatty acids, which, as indicated above, deactivate the catalyst by forming soap. Thus, the processing of feedstocks high in free fatty acid require some changes to the overall production process. For the production of biodiesel from soapstock, a byproduct of vegetable oil processing that contains a mixture of glycerides, phosphoglycerides and free fatty acids emulsified in a substantial amount of water, all ester bonds were first hydrolyzed by alkali catalysis and the resulting fatty acid sodium salts were converted to methyl esters by acid catalysis (Haas et al., 2000; 2003). The resulting ester preparation met the ASTM quality specifications and performed com- parably to biodiesel produced from refined soybean oil when tested in a heavy duty engine (Haas et al., 2001).

J. Van Gerpen and 0 . Knothe

Oils produced by algae are also being considered as possible feedstocks for biodiesel (Aresta et al., 2005; Chisti, 2007; Mia0 & Wu, 2006; Nagle & Lemke, 1990; Xu et al., 2006). The challenges associated with high-volume production of algae and the high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in many algal oils are problems associated with use of algae for biodiesel production.

Analysis of the Transesterification Reaction Products An important aspect of the final biodiesel product is verification that it satisfies the requirements of the accepted quality specification. Detailed overviews of the analytical methods used for biodiesel are available in the literature (Knothe, 2006). Some analytical methods used for biodiesel analysis are prescribed in standards. Of great sig- nificance is gas chromatography, the use of which is prescribed in most standards for analyzing the amount of glycerol and of unreacted triacylglycerols in biodiesel. The gas chromatographic method used for analyzing glycerol and the various acylglycer- 01s is based on a literature method (Plank & Lorbeer, 1995) extended from another report (Freedman et al., 1986b). Various chromatographic, spectroscopic and other methods have been reported, an example being one describing simultaneous analysis of methanol and glycerol (Mittelbach et al., 1996).

Commercial Biodiesel Production Oil Extraction While most soybean oil is extracted in solvent extraction plants using hexanes as the solvent, there has been considerable interest from biodiesel producers in using expeller-extracted oils, sometimes known as mechanical extraction or screw pressing, While biodiesel producers have recognized the financial advantage of being closely associated with a source of oil, their size is generally too small to have dedicated solvent extraction plants. The mechanical extraction plants are much more suitable for smaller operations.

The primary soybean oil quality issues for biodiesel production are free fatty acids, moisture, and phosphorus. These correspond well to the requirements for edible oil but bleaching and deodorization are generally not required for biodiesel. It is desirable to have levels of free fatty acid and moisture as low as possible. If both contaminants are <O.IYo, there will be no effect on the biodiesel process (Van Gerpen, 2005). In fact, levels of free fatty acids and moisture of 0.5940, as is common for crude as-pressed oil, can be used directly for biodiesel production. However, there will be some additional soap formation during processing that will need to be removed.

The specification for biodiesel, ASTM D 675 1 (ASTM, 2007), requires that the phosphorus level in finished biodiesel must be <I0 ppm. For this reason, most soy-


Finished biodiesel Methanol

Catalyst Methyl esters

Reactor Separator and methanol Water removal washing

I I =2r Wet Water

Free ~ and methanol fatty separation acids

’ , rectification

Methanollwater Wet methanol

I I I

M e t h a n o d L Water glycerin storage + I removal I Crude

Fig. 16.1. Biodiesel production schematic diagram.

bean oil used for biodiesel production is degummed to < 1 O ppm phosphorus. It appears that there is not a direct transfer of phosphorus from the oil to biodiesel with a large portion of the phospholipids going into the glycerin during processing (Van Gerpen & Dvorak, 2002). In any case, most producers use oil that has been at least water-degummed to minimize the deposition of gum deposits in their equipment due to natural degumming.

Reaction Systems Figure 16.1 shows a schematic diagram of the processes in a biodiesel production facility. It is assumed that the oil has been extracted, degummed and neutralized before entering the biodiesel process.

The transesterification reaction between soybean oil and methanol is initially a mass transfer limited reaction. The solubility of methanol in soybean oil is low enough that the reaction occurs at the interface of the two phases with the catalyst tending to concentrate in the alcohol phase. During the intermediate portion of the reaction, the presence of mono- and diglycerides produces a single-phase mixture where the reaction is limited by the chemical reaction rate. Then, as the reaction proceeds and significant amounts of product glycerin are produced, the reaction is limited by product inhibition and the tendency of the catalyst is to concentrate in the small droplets of insoluble glycerin. At least during the initial and final portions of the reaction, agitation is critical for acceptable reaction rate and complete reaction. Other reactions are occurring in parallel with the transesterification reaction. Free fatty acids will react


with the alkali catalyst to produce soap. Water in the oil greatly increases the production of soap by facilitating the hydrolysis of glyceride-ester bonds to release free fatty acids.

A common reactor scheme is to use a series of two continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTR) with glycerin separation between and after the two reactors. Typically, 70 to 90% of the total alcohol and catalyst are added in the first reactor and the balance is added to the second reactor to compensate for the alcohol and catalyst lost with the glycerin separated after the first reaction (Van Gerpen, 2005).

Other reactor designs include batch reactors, plug-flow reactors, and packed- bed reactors. Batch reactors are usually found in small plants but have been used for up to 8-9 million gal/yr. Most plants above 2-3 million gal/yr use continuous flow processes. Packed-bed reactors using heterogeneous catalysts are becoming available (Stern et al., 1999) but still require higher temperatures and longer reaction times than conventional reactors utilizing homogenous catalysts such as sodium or potassium methylate. Detailed process models have been developed for biodiesel production to allow the advantages of different process strategies to be quantified and the economics to be determined (Haas et al., 2006).

Separation Glycerin has very low solubility in methyl esters so it is relatively easy to separate by taking advantage of its higher density. Separation is accomplished with either centri- fuges or decanters with both widely used in the industry. Glycerin separation is com- plicated by the presence of alcohol and soap. Methanol is completely soluble in glycerin and partially soluble in methyl esters. It tends to act as a co-solvent to increase the solubility of glycerin in the methyl esters and also decreases the density difference between the glycerin and methyl esters. With excessive amounts of methanol, there will be no glycerin separation.

Soap acts as an emulsifier and also inhibits glycerin separation. Oils and fats with high free fatty acid contents produce more soap and if the free fatty acid level is >5%, the glycerin may not be separable as a distinct phase. Feedstocks high in free fatty acid usually require pretreatment to lower the free fatty acid content before they can be converted to biodiesel.

Methanol Recovery

Most producers operate with a molar ratio of alcohol-to-oil of at least 6:l. This is 100% more than is consumed in the transesterification reaction so the excess must be removed and recycled. The excess methanol splits 60%/40% between the methyl esters and glycerin, so methanol must be removed from both streams (Ma et al., 1998a;1998b; 1999). Methanol recovery is frequently accomplished by flash vapor- ization, which yields the methanol plus any water that may have been present in the reaction mixture. Excessive water is removed by a distillation column.


Methanol recovery may be accompanied by soap precipitation if the soap level in the biodiesel is excessive resulting in plugged filters and pumps. Acid addition to lower the pH to 4.5 will split the soap and eliminate the soap precipitation issue.

After glycerin separation and removal of methanol, biodiesel still contains some contaminants such as soap, residual free glycerin, and a small amount of methanol. These contaminants must be removed before the fuel will meet the ASTM specification (ASTM 2007). Soap will be limited by the specifications for sodium or potassium and by the sulfated ash. Methanol is limited by the flash point and a limiting value for free glycerin is directly specified. Traditionally, these compounds have been removed by relying on their preferential solubility in water so that water can be used as a solvent in liquid-liquid extraction. An amount of water comparable to the amount of biodiesel is mixed with the biodiesel and gently agitated in a batch mixer, a rotary extractor, or a counterflow column. The column may contain packing to enhance mixing but excessive mixing can encourage emulsion formation, which is possible when soap or monoglyceride levels are high. The water should be deionized to prevent transfer of dissolved metals to the biodiesel and should be heated (60°C) to encourage maximum removal of free glycerin. It is common to expose the biodiesel to water in several stages in counterflow fashion to ensure removal of the contaminants. Even with this approach the total water consumption may be 1-2 L of water per L of biodiesel produced (Van Gerpen, 2005).

One approach to reducing water consumption is to lower the pH of the biodiesel, either by direct acid addition or by adding acid to the wash water. Below pH 4.5, the soap dissolved in the biodiesel will be split into free fatty acids and salts. The free fatty acids stay with the biodiesel and as long as they do not exceed the Acid Value specification in ASTM D 6751 (0.5 mg KOH/g), they do not cause a problem. The salts are removed with a small amount ofwater (3 to 10%).

Some biodiesel producers have sought to eliminate water from their process through the use of adsorbents. One type of adsorbent is applied similar to bleaching clay where approximately 1% of the adsorbent in the form of a fine powder is mixed with the biodiesel after the methanol has been removed and stirred for 20 min at an elevated temperature. Then, the biodiesel is filtered through a cake of the adsorbent and soap is removed along with glycerin, methanol, and some mono- and diglycerides. A second class of adsorbents are ion-exchange resins. These can be used in a packed bed and do not require methanol removal prior to use. They will remove soap and free glycerin, but generally do not reduce levels of mono- or diglycerides.

Additives

Petroleum-based diesel fuel is commonly treated with a large number of additives to enhance cetane number, improve cold flow and oxidative stability, lessen corrosive-


ness, etcetera. Additive technology for biodiesel is much less well developed. Most biodiesel in the United States is sold without additives. It may be treated with antioxidants such as TBHQor BHT if customers require or if the additive is required for the fuel to meet the stability requirement in ASTM D 675 1. Cold-flow additives may be added if the fuel is blended to lower the pour point or filter plugging point.

Effect of Alcohol Type

Virtually all biodiesel in the United States is made using methanol due to its cost advantage over other alcohols (Van Gerpen, 2005). In Europe, methanol is used because European Union specifications only recognize methyl esters as biodiesel. In Brazil and other parts of the world, ethanol is frequently used (Bikou et al., 1999; Encinar et al., 2002). Considerable work has also been done with isopropanol, which provides considerable cold flow advantages (Johnson & Hammond, 1996; Lee et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2005; Wu et al., 1998).

Other Uses of Methyl Esters Vegetable oil alkyl esters (biodiesel) are used in a variety of other applications. These can be distinguished as fuel or non-fuel related uses.

Fuel-related Uses

Cetane improvers based on fatty compounds have been reported. The use of nitrate esters of fatty acids in diesel fuel was reported in a patent (Poirier et al., 1995). Mul- tifunctional additives consisting of nitrated fatty esters for improving combustion and lubricity have been reported (Suppes et al., 2001; Suppes and Dasari, 2003). Glycol nitrates of acids of chain lengths C,, C,, C,4, C,, and C,, (oleic acid) were also prepared and tested as cetane improvers with C,-C,, glycol nitrates showing better cetane-improving performance due to their balance of carbon numbers and nitrate groups (Suppes et al., 1999). These compounds are more stable and less volatile than ethylhexyl nitrate (EHN), the most common commercial cetane improver and their cetane-enhancing capability is up to 60% of that of EHN (Suppes et al., 1999; 2001; Suppes and Dasari, 2003).

Biodiesel can be used as heating oil (Mushrush et al., 2001). In Italy, the esters of vegetable oils serve as heating oil instead of diesel fuel (Staat & Vallet, 1994). A Eu- ropean standard, EN 14213, has been established for this purpose. A salient project in this regard has been the use of biodiesel as heating oil for the Reichstag building in Berlin, Germany (Anon., 1999). Other work reports the use of biodiesel derived from used cooking oils (Cetinkaya & Karaosmanoglu, 2005) or soybean oil ethyl esters (Ferrari et al., 2005) as generator fuel.


Another suggested use of biodiesel as fuel has been in aviation (Dunn, 2001; Wardle, 2003). A major problem connected with this use is the low-temperature properties of biodiesel, thus making it more feasible only in lower-flying aircraft (Dunn, 2001). Biodiesel can be used to generate hydrogen for synthesis gas production (Czernichowski et al., 2006).

Non-fuel Related Uses

The classic use of methyl esters of vegetable oils has been as intermediates in the production of fatty alcohols from vegetable oils (Peters, 1996; Ahmad et al., 2007) or esterquats and methyl ester sulfonates (Ahmad et al., 2007). Fatty alcohols and the other products are used in surfactants and cleaning supplies. Intermediates were produced from polyisobutylene (PIB) maleic anhydride and rapeseed oil methyl esters which were used to acylate polyethylene polyamines (Hancs6k et al., 2006). These additives showed corrosion-inhibiting and lubricity-improving effects.

Branched esters of fatty acids are used as lubricants because their improved bio- degradability relative to petroleum lubricants makes them attractive from an environmental aspect (Willing, 1999). Vegetable oil esters also possess good solvent properties. This is expressed in their use as a medium for cleaning beaches contaminated with crude oil (petroleum) (Miller & Mudge, 1997; Mudge & Pereira, 1999; Pereira & Mudge, 2004; Fernindez-hvarez et al., 2006). Related results were obtained for crude palm oil and fatty acids (Obbard et al., 2004).

'The high flash point, low volatile organic compounds and benign environmental properties of methyl soyate make it attractive as a cleaning agent (Wildes, 2002). The solvent strength of methyl soyate is also demonstrated by its high Kauri-Butanol value (relating to the solvent power of hydrocarbon solvents), which makes it similar or superior to many conventional organic solvents. In this connection, a variety of fatty esters were examined (Hu et al., 2004), with shorter fatty acid chains and straight- chain esters enhancing the Kauri-Butanol value. Methyl esters of rapeseed oil have been suggested as plasticizers in the production of plastics (Wehlmann, 1999) and as high-boiling absorbents for cleaning of industrial gases/emissions (Bay et al., 2004). Hydrogenated fatty alkyl esters mixed with paraffin-based or glyceride-based waxes provide improved combustion performance in candles (Schroeder et al., 2004).

Specifications and Standards Biodiesel standards have been or are being developed in many countries or regions around the world. The American biodiesel standard ASTM D675 1 and the European biodiesel standard EN 14214 are standards that have been utilized by other countries when developing their own standards. The current versions ofASTM D6751 and EN 14214 are summarized in Table 16.2.


Quality Concerns

While alkyl esters are the major components of biodiesel, a variety of minor components or contaminants can be found in biodiesel. Several sources can be identified for these compounds. The first source is the feedstock, i.e., naturally occurring materials such as sterols, or carryover materials containing phosphorus, sulfur, calcium and other elements in animal fats. The second source is biodiesel production, leading to unreacted triacylglycerols and partially converted mono- and diacylglycerols as well as residual glycerol, alcohol and catalyst. The third source is biodiesel storage, when it may come in contact with extraneous materials. During storage, biodiesel can also begin to slowly degrade, leading to a variety of compounds briefly discussed below under the header oxidative stability. Most of these issues are also addressed by various specifications in biodiesel standards.

lest Methods Generally, test methods that should be observed are prescribed in standards such as ASTM D6751 or EN14214. However, in many cases, other test methods, usually developed by professional organizations, may be simpler, less expensive, and more suitable for process development. For example, since biodiesel is an oleochemical product, test methods developed by organizations, such as the American Oil Chem- ists’ Society (AOCS), are often well-suited, while ASTM methods were often developed specifically for petrodiesel.

Oxidative Stability Oxidative stability of biodiesel has been the subject of considerable research. This issue affects biodiesel primarily during extended storage. The effects of parameters, such as the presence of air, heat, traces of metals, antioxidants, peroxides as well as the nature of the storage container, were investigated in the aforementioned studies. Generally, factors, such as presence of air, elevated temperatures or the presence of metals, facilitate oxidation.

Oxidation, which can occur by autoxidation or photo-oxidation (initiation by light), is a complex chain reaction. The initial step of oxidation is the formation of hydroperoxides. This initial step is followed by secondary reactions in which species, such as aldehydes, acids, alcohols and hydrocarbons, are formed. Since it is a mechanism based on the formation of radicals, dimerization of some intermediates can occur, leading to formation of higher molecular weight products. Oxidative polymerization can also occur. In addition to these mechanisms, fuel deterioration can also occur hydrolytically through the presence of water. A detailed book on oxidation has been published by Frankel (2005).

The reason for autoxidation is the presence of double bonds in the chains of many fatty compounds. The autoxidation of unsaturated fatty compounds proceeds


at different rates depending on the number and position of double bonds (Frankel 2005). The positions allylic to double bonds are especially susceptible to oxidation. The bis-allylic positions in common polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (double bonds at 9 and 12, giving one bis-allylic position at C-11) and linolenic acid (double bonds at 9, 12, and 15, giving two bis-allylic positions at C-1 1 and C-14), are even more prone to autoxidation than allylic positions. The relative rates of oxidation given in the literature (Frankel, 2005) are 1 for oleates (methyl, ethyl esters), 41 for linoleates, and 98 for linolenates. This is essential because most biodiesel fuels contain significant amounts of esters of oleic, linoleic, or linolenic acids, which influence the oxidative stability of the fuels.

An overview of analytical methods used to study oxidation was edited by Kamal- Eldin and Pokornjr (2005). Numerous methods, including wet-chemical methods, such as acid value and peroxide value, various oxidation tests, pressurized and conventional differential scanning calorimetry (P-DSC; DSC; see Dunn 2000, 2006), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and others, have been applied in oxidation studies of biodiesel. NMR can be used to assess the fatty acid profile of oxidized biodiesel (Knothe, 2006a).

A European standard (EN 141 12) assessing oxidative stability using the Ranci- mat method, which is very similar to the oil stability index (OSI) method (AOCS Cd 12b-93), is included in both the European biodiesel standard EN 14214 and the American standard ASTM D6751-07. In EN 14214, the requirement for the minimum Rancimat induction time is 6 h and in D6751 the prescribed minimum time is 3 h. Both standards prescribe a temperature of 110°C. The use of the Rancimat or OSI, as well as their limitations, have been described in several publications (Bondi- oli et al., 2004; Dittmar et al., 2004a; Knothe & Dunn, 2003; Lacoste & Lagardere, 2003). The induction period in such tests decreases with increasing oxidation (Mit- telbach & Gangl, 2001).

In addition to the Rancimat-based oxidative stability specification, the European biodiesel standard EN 142 14 contains other parameters dealing with oxidative stability (Knothe, 2006b). The most prominent is iodine value (IV), which is not without significant problems (Knothe, 2002). The IV is a method for determining the number of carbon-carbon double bonds of a lipid based on its tendency to add iodine. The IV depends on the molecular weight of the compound, thus using a higher ester, such as ethyl or propyl instead of methyl, reduces the IV without affecting the reactivity of the double bond towards oxidation. For mixtures, an infinite number of mixtures of fatty esters can yield the same the IV. Also, double bond(s) in polyunsaturated fatty esters separated by several CH, groups tend to behave more like the lone double bonds in monounsaturated fatty acid chains. In practical tests, the IV could not be used to predict storage stability and no correlation with polymerization or viscosity could be established (Bondioli & Folegatti, 1996).

The standard EN 14214 also limits oxidation-prone fatty acids with 3 double bonds to <12%, which permits rapeseed/canola oil to be used as feedstock, and fatty


acids with >3 double bonds are limited to <I%. In the aforementioned tests (Bondioli & Folegatti 1996), oxidative stability could not be correlated with linoleic or linolenic acid content, although higher amounts of oleic acid increased oxidative stability. Accordingly, hydrogenation improved oxidative stability (Falk and Meyer-Pittroff 2004).

Stability tests developed for petrodiesel fuels reportedly are not suitable for biodiesel or biodiesel blends with petrodiesel (Canakci et al., 1999; Stavinoha & Howell, 1999; Westbrook & Stavinoha, 2003), however, appropriate modification may render them useful. Another study (Bondioli et al., 2003) states that the petrodiesel method ASTM D4625 (Standard Test Method for Distillate Fuel Storage Stability at 43°C (1 10°F) is suitable but not fast.

Long-term storage tests on biodiesel have been conducted. Viscosity, peroxide value, acid value and density increased in biodiesel stored for two years while heat of combustion decreased (Thompson et al., 1998). Viscosity and acid value, which can be strongly correlated (Monyem et al., 2000), changed dramatically over one year with changes in Rancimat induction period depending on the feedstock (Bondioli et al., 2003) but even during 90-day storage tests significant increases in viscosity, peroxide value, free fatty acid, anisidine value and UV absorption were found (Du Plessis, 1985). Biodiesel from different sources stored for 170-200d at 20-22"C did not exceed viscosity and acid value specifications but induction time decreased, with exposure to light and air having the most effect (Mittelbach and Gang1 2001). In another 52-week storage study, water enhanced degradation due to hydrolysis, but the effect was reportedly less than the combination of temperature and air (Leung et al., 2006). Acid value and viscosity are two facile methods that can be used to evaluate the oxidation status of aged biodiesel since they increase continuously with increasing fuel deterioration (Canakci et al., 1999; Dunn, 2002).

In addition to the composition of the fuel, the degradation of biodiesel is affected by factors such as elevated temperature, presence of air, presence of light, presence of extraneous materials such as metals, including the nature of the storage container (Bondioli et al., 1995; Du Plessis et al., 1985), and antioxidants. Studies performed with the automated oil stability index (OSI) method, confirmed the catalyzing effect of metals on oxidation, with copper being especially effective, however, the influence of compound structure of the fatty esters was even greater (Knothe & Dunn, 2003). Additives to encourage the regeneration of diesel particulate filters negatively affected biodiesel oxidative stability, possibly necessitating higher levels of antioxidants (Schober & Mittelbach, 2005). Some additives designed for improving the cold filter plugging point also had a small effect on oxidative stability. Antioxidants have been studied for prolonging the storage of biodiesel. In these studies, there is no agreement on which antioxidant performs best, although often propyl gallate is mentioned as an effective antioxidant. The varying results are underlined by studies where soy methyl esters from different producers or from different feedstocks responded differently to


Table 16.2. Biodiesel Standards ASTM D6751 and EN 14214

ASTM D6751 (United States)

Test Units Limits Test Units Limits

EN 14214 (Europe) Property

Flash point D 93 "C 93 min EN IS0 "C 120 method method

(closed CUD) 3679 min Methanol - - - EN14110 %(m/m) 0.2 content max Water and D2709 %vol. 0.05max EN IS0 mg/kg 500 sediment 12937 rnax Kinematic D445 mmz/s 1.9-6.0 EN IS0 mm2/s 3.5- viscosity 5.0 Density - - - EN IS0 kg/m3 860-

3675; 12185

900

Sulfated ash D874 %mass 0.02max IS03987 %(m/m) 0.02

Sulfur D5453 %mass 0.0015 EN IS0 mg/kg 10.0 (PPm) max 20846;

(S15); 20884 0.05 max (S500P

max 1

51 min

Copper strip D 130 - No. 3 max EN IS0 - corrosion 2160 Cetane D 613 - 47 min EN IS0 - number 5165 Cloud point D 2500 "C Report - - -

Carbon D4530 0.05 %mass EN IS0 %(m/m) 0.30 residue max 10370

- - EN12662 mg/kg 24 Total con- - tamination Acid number D 664 mg 0.50max EN14104 mg 0.50

K O H h KOH/n Ester content - - - EN 14103 %(m/m) 96.5

Linolenic acid - - - EN 14103 %(m/m) 12 content

. . . double bonds Iodine value - - - EN 14111 giodine 120

/1oog Free glycerol D 6584 % mass 0.02 EN 14105 %(m/m) 0.02

/ EN 14106

Total glycerol D 6584 % mass 0.24 EN14105 %(m/m) 0.25

Cont.onp.518.


Table 16.2., cont. Biodiesel Standards ASTM D6751 and EN 14214

ASTM D6751 (United States)

Test Units Limits Test Units Limits

EN 14214 (Europe) Property

method method Monoglycer- - - - EN 14105 %(m/m) 0.80 ide content Diglyceride - - - EN 14105 %(m/m) 0.20 content Triglyceride - - - EN 14105 %(m/m) 0.20 content Ca and Mg, EN PPm 5max EN14538 mg/kg 5.0 corn bined 14538 ( W g ) Phosphorus D 4951 % mass 0.001 EN 14107 mg/kg 10.0 content max Na and K, EN PPm 5 max EN IS0

Oxidation EN h 3 min EN IS0 h 6 min stability 14112

Distilla- D1160 "C 360 max tion temp., atmospheric equivalent temp., 90% recovered Alcohol control: One of the following must be met:

combined 14538 ( W g )

- - -

Methanol EN14110 % vol- 0.2 max - - -

content ume - - - Flash point D93 " C 130 min

a Different specifications for 15 and 500 ppm sulfur.

different antioxidants (Dunn, 2005b; Schober & Mittelbach, 2004) and the nature of the production process affecting antioxidants (Dittmar et al., 2004b). Butyl hydroxy- toluene (BHT) may have solubility problems because it may not be readily soluble in blends with larger methyl soyate ratios (Dunn, 2005a). A general consensus appears to be that synthetic antioxidants are more effective than naturally occurring tocopherols. However, crude esters or feedstocks are more stable than distilled or refined counterparts due to their content of natural antioxidants (Du Plessis et al., 1982; Li- ang et al., 2006). Synthetic antioxidants that have been studied include propyl gallate (PG), pyrogallol (PY), tert.-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), BHT and butylated hy- droxyanisole (BHA). Antioxidants in biodiesel can be analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Tagliabue et al., 2004). Other studies on the use of


antioxidants include Dunn (2006), Liang et al. (2006), Loh et al. (2006), Mittelbach and Schober (2003), Polavka et al. (2005), Simkovsky and Ecker (1998; 1999).

The effect of oxidation on exhaust emissions of biodiesel has been studied (Monyem & Van Gerpen, 2001; Monyem et al., 2001). A shorter ignition delay by 0.9" crank angle for oxidized biodiesel was observed and oxidized biodiesel produced 15 and 16% lower CO and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) exhaust emissions than unoxidized biodiesel. No statistically significant difference was found between NOx and smoke emissions. Blends at 5% level using highly oxidized biodiesel were found to be compatible with fuel system components but 20% highly oxidized biodiesel showed that significant problems may occur with oxidized fuels (Terry et al., 2006).

Biodiesel blends can present some storage problems due to the degradation of biodiesel. It was reported that polymers formed during storage of biodiesel are soluble in oxidized biodiesel but are insoluble when biodiesel is mixed with petrodiesel (Bondioli et al., 2002). Sediments and gums formed can cause fuel filter plugging (Monyem et al., 2000). In one study, deposit formation was determined gravimetri- cally (Fang & McCormick, 2006).

Emissions In 2006, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations man- dated that diesel fuel used for on-highway applications could contain no more than 15 pprn sulfur. This was a large decrease from the previous level of 500 ppm. The primary motivation for this reduction was to allow the introduction of exhaust catalysts to reduce oxides of nitrogen to the level required by the EPA in 2007. A consequence of the hydrotreating needed to reduce the sulfur to < I5 pprn was that the fuel lost much of its lubricity. While biodiesel from virtually all vegetable oils is naturally low in sulfur, so compliance is not difficult, the need for lubricity in diesel fuel resulting from desulfurization provided an opportunity for biodiesel to be used at the 0.5 to 2.0 % level as a lubricity additive (Knothe & Steidley, 2005; Drown, 2001). The introduction of exhaust aftertreatment is also responsible for the tight limits on phos- phorous, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium in the biodiesel as they can produce ash with the potential for deactivating or plugging particulate traps.

The pollutants of primary concern for diesel engines are carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOJ, and particulate matter (PM). Compared with spark-ignited, gasoline-fueled engines, CO and HC emissions from diesel engines are low and the regulations for these pollutants are relatively easy to satisfy. NOx and PM are much more difficult and tend to respond in an opposing manner when engine design and operating parameters are changed. This is the termed the NOx -purticulute tradeof(Heywood, 1988).

NOx emissions are formed in virtually all combustion processes and originate from three fundamental mechanisms: fuel nitrogen, prompt NOx, and thermal NOx. Fuel nitrogen can contribute to NOx formation but since most transportation fuels


contain little or no nitrogen, this is not a significant source of NOx from engines. Sim- ilarly, prompt NOx,, which is NOx formed by complex chemical reactions during the combustion itself, is also not believed to be a significant source of NOx from engines (Heywood, 1988). Thermal NOx is NOx formed by elementary reactions between radicals, such as H, 0, N, and OH, with stable species such as N, and 0,. It occurs in high-temperature post-flame gases because at the conditions found in engines the time and temperature conditions favor NOx emissions by this mode (Heywood, 1988). One result has been the difficulty in treating NOx using additives. Since NOx is formed in the post-flame gases, an additive must modify the time-temperature relationship of the post-flame gases. To have a direct effect on the chemical reactions that form NOx, the additive would need to survive the flame and still be chemically active in the post-flame gases. Additives that change the combustion timing, such as cetane-enhancing additives, can influence NOx production by shifting the timing of the combustion event or decreasing the initial rate of combustion of the fuel, and this can reduce NOx (McCormick, 2002). Additives that can reduce NOxby other means have not been found.

Biodiesel-fueled engines generally have higher levels of NOx and lower emissions of PM than conventional diesel-fueled engines (Sharp et al., 2000a; 2OOOb). Figure 16.2 from an EPA report that surveyed biodiesel emissions data shows that the effects of blending biodiesel with diesel affect the emissions in an approximately linear manner (EPA, 2002). Increases in NOx are expected to be 10-15% for BlOO but only 2-3% for B20. The increases for B20 are difficult to measure consistently and differences between engines and testing protocols may be greater than the differences between diesel fuel and B20 (McCormick et al., 2006).

Energy Balance Energy balance calculations are one element of the larger field of life-cycle analysis. These calculations usually focus on the ratio of the energy in the fuel to the energy required to produce the fuel. The most commonly cited analysis of the energy balance for soybean-based biodiesel was performed by Sheehan et al. (1998) who determined that the biodiesel contained 3.2 times more energy than was required to produce it. The reason that a fuel can contain more than 100% of its input energy is that the solar energy input is not included in the calculations.

Table 16.2 shows the fossil energy requirements for soybean-based biodiesel production from Sheehan et al. (1999). Most of the energy required can be divided into three main categories: soybean agriculture, extraction of the oil, and conversion to biodiesel. Approximately one-half of the input fossil energy is associated with the conversion of soybean oil to biodiesel. As crop yields increase and production technology improves, the energy inputs should decrease and the energy ratio should increase over time.

Bioenergy and Biofuels from S

Percent biodiesel Fig. 16.2. Comprehensive analysis of biodiesel impacts on exhaust emissions (EPA 2002).

Table 16.2. Fossil Energy Requirements for the Biodiesel Life Cycle

Stage Fossil Energy (MJ per MJ of Fuel ) Percent Soybean Agriculture 0.0656 21.08%

Soybean Crushing 0.0796 25.61% SOY Oil TransDort 0.0072 2.31%

Soybean Transport 0.0034 1.09%

Soy Oil Conversion 0.1508 48.49% Biodiesel TransDort 0.0044 1.41%

Total 0.3110 100.00%

Other researchers have also studied biodiesel production from soybean oil (Ahmed, 1994; Hill et al, 2006; Pimentel & Patzek, 2005). Differences between these studies tend to be associated with the allocation of input energy between different byproduct streams and then how the byproduct energy is incorporated into the energy ratio calculations. For example, soybeans are crushed to separate the seeds into two primary products, high protein meal for livestock feed and oil for food use or biodiesel production. Approximately 18% of the seed weight is extracted as oil and 82% is meal. Researchers have used different approaches to dividing the input energy

between these two products. Sheehan et al. (1998) chose to divide the input energy between the two products in proportion to their fraction of the incoming weight. Pi- mentel and Patzek (2005) estimated the energy value of the meal and then subtracted this as a credit from the input energy to leave the energy assumed to be needed to produce the oil. The energy content assigned to the meal by Pimentel and Patzek (2005) appears to be in error. They used 2 MJ/kg when the true value is about 19.95 MJ/kg (Beyer et al., 2003). With their assumption, the oil is associated with over 80% of the input energy, and the energy ratio is very close to 1.0. The problem with this approach is demonstrated when the actual energy content of the meal is used. In this case, the energy in the meal is greater than the input energy, so, when the meal energy is credited, the processing appears to produce rather than consume energy.

The energy balance for the production of an alternative fuel can be enhanced if the byproducts are used to produce some of the energy required to produce the fuel. For example, if the soybean meal or the glycerin were burned to provide process heat for the conversion of soybean oil to biodiesel, this would improve the overall energy balance. Currently, the economic value of these byproducts is higher for use as animal feed and other products than for use as fuel.

Glycerol Utilization Besides alkyl esters, glycerol is the other product of the transesterification reaction (see Scheme 16.1). It may be noted that the termglyceroloften denotes the pure compound while the term glycerin refers to the purified commercial products containing >95% glycerol (Appleby, 2005). However, in the literature these terms are generally used interchangeably.

Glycerol (C,H,O,; 1,2,3-propanetriol) is a non-toxic, sweet-tasting, odorless, colorless, highly viscous and hygroscopic liquid, soluble in water and ethanol but insoluble in hydrocarbons. It boils at 290°C under decomposition. It has countless applications, which have been summarized previously (Jakobson et al., 1989; Morri- son, 1994; Appleby, 2005). These applications include drugs, oral care products such as toothpaste and mouthwash, which are the two most significant uses of glycerol, cosmetics, urethane foams, lubricants, synthetic resins and ester gums as well as foods and tobacco. A more recent application for glycerol is in the formulation of aircraft anti- or deicing fluids (for example, see Samuels et al., 2006).

The increased production of biodiesel and thus glycerol has had a major effect on glycerol markets in the last few years, with glycerol prices dropping significantly. The increased production of glycerol from oleochemical sources has been accompanied by a sharp decline in synthetic glycerol, including even the closing of production facilities. In addition to the effect on traditional glycerol markets, the decrease in glycerol prices potentially can negatively affect the economics of biodiesel production. Therefore, it has become necessary to develop new uses for glycerol or expand existing markets in order to achieve some price stabilization.


Recent research concerning products from glycerol include its use as a feedstock and nutrient binder for the production of 1,2- and 1,3-propanediol, dihydroxyac- etone, succinic acid, polyglycerols, polyesters, polyhydroxyalkanoates (Ashby et al., 2005a; 2005b; Koller et al., 2005), hyperbranched poly(glycero1-diacid) oligomers from by the acid-catalyzed condensation of glycerol with iminodiacetic, azelaic, or succinic acid (Wyatt et al., 2006), hydrogen and other materials (Claude, 1999; Pachauri & He, 2006). These materials themselves have numerous applications.

Some additional recent reports on hydrogen production from glycerol include a Ni catalyst on doped alumina improving selectivity in hydrogen production (Iriondo et al., 2006) and that the combination of Ru/C with Amberlyst was effective under mild conditions (Miyazawa et al., 2006). Steam reforming with a ruthenium catalyst was also used in hydrogen production from glycerol (Hirai et al., 2005).

Generally, 1,3-propanediol is currently one of the most “popular” products from syntheses with glycerol as starting material, since 1,2-propanediol is historically the more mature product and market. Within the project BIODIOL funded by the Eu- ropean Union, bioconversion processes of crude glycerol to 1,3-propanediol are being developed and evaluated (Hirschmann et al., 2005). The selective chemical dehydroxylation of glycerol to I ,3-propanediol from glycerol has been reported (Wang et al., 2003) and the mechanism of glycol formation from glycerol studied (Lahr & Shanks, 2003). Another recent report on the synthesis of 1,3-propanediol is Smidov6 et al. (2006).

Fermentation of glycerol from biodiesel production gave citric acid (Imadi et al., 2007), while in other cases ethanol and succinate were obtained (Dharmadi et al., 2006). A biodiesel co-product stream consisting of 40% glycerol, 34% hexane- solubles (92% fatty acid soaps and methyl esters and 6% mono- and diacylglycerols) as well as 26% water was used as fermentation feedstock for the microbial synthesis of sophorolipids (Ashby et al., 2005a). Other syntheses using glycerol include carboxylation to glycerol carbonate with carbon dioxide in the presence of Sn catalysts (Aresta et al., 2006) and oxidation to ketomalonic acid using the catalyst TEMPO (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-l-oxyl) with NaOCl as primary oxidant (Ciriminna & Pagliaro, 2003). One-pot electrocatalytic oxidation of glycerol to 1,3-dihydroxyac- etone with a longer reaction under the applied conditions led to comparable amounts of hydroxypyruvic acid (Ciriminna et al., 2006). Instead of serving as a reactant, glycerol has also been used as a green solvent in the reduction of prochiral carbonyl compounds with baker’s yeast (Wolfson et al., 2006).

Glycerol ethers have also been evaluated as fuel components. Ethers derived from glycerol and isobutene have been suggested as octane enhancers for automotive fuel, constituting an alternative to methyl tert.-butyl ether (MTBE) (Behr & Obendorf, 2003). ?he etherification of glycerol with iso-butene gives five ether products, two mono-ethers, two di-ethers and the tri-ether (Karinen & Krause, 2006). The products of the etherification of glycerol with tert.-butanol have been suggested as oxygenated

additives for diesel fuel (Klep6ov6 et al., 2003). A report on di-butoxy glycerol dis- cusses this compound as a candidate material for blending with diesel fuel (Spooner- Wyman et al., 2003).

The transesterification of rapeseed oil with triacetin yielded a product in which all products could be used as fuel components, including triacetylglycerol, which was formed instead of glycerol (Lipkowski et al., 2005).

The crude glycerol phase from biodiesel production has several other potential applications. One use is to treat acid mine drainage. The crude glycerol served as carbon source for the sulfate-reducing bacteria in bioreactors used for this purpose (Za- mzow et al., 2006). Other applications include the utilization as a feed component for swine (Kijora & Kupsch, 1996).

Conclusion 'Ihe decline in the supply of inexpensive petroleum-based fuels and the rise of concern for global climate change are driving the search for sustainable energy sources. Carbohydrate energy sources are attractive because of their wide spread availability but with the exception of starch-based ethanol, the technology to produce the liquid fuels needed for transportation from these materials is not commercially viable. In contrast, the high energy density and minimal processing requirements of fats and oils have made them an attractive option. Although the interaction of fuel and food production involves social and political issues that have not been resolved, it is likely that lipid-based fuels will play an increasing role in the worlds energy future. In the United States, the source of these fuels will be predominately soybean oil for the foreseeable future.

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