Souvenir One Health : Competing Perspectives in an Emerging...

Souvenir One Health : Competing Perspectives in an Emerging Field with Reference to Zoonoses

First Meet of PGIVAS, Akola Alumni Association - 2016 1 | P a g e

Souvenir One Health

First Meet of PGIVAS, Akola Alumni Association

One Health : Competing Perspectives in an Emerging Field with Reference

First Meet of PGIVAS, Akola Alumni Association - 2016

ith Reference to Zoonoses

4 | P a g e

Souvenir One Health


Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences

Futala Lake Road, Nagpur

Dr. N.N. Zade Director Extension & Training

I am happy to know that Post Graduate Institute of Veterinary

and Animal Sciences, Akola is celebrating its first Alumni

Meet on 30th April 2016 at PGIVAS, Akola. Alumni meet is a

good initiative to bring all the past and

single platform. Alumni association will go a long way in strengthening the institute

and secure the development of its students. This initiative will boost the environment

of cumulative learning among students and also help in developi

belongingness for the students and the staff. I am sure that the activities taken by this

association will help boosting the morale of the student to work hard and achieve

glories for the institute and for themselves. Further it is a good occ

the alumni meet on the auspicious day of World Veterinary Day on 30

apt theme of “One Health: Competing perspectives in an emerging filed with

reference to zoonoses”. I am delighted to know that a souvenir is being publis

this occasion. I wish one and all for organizing the event.

I wish the gathering all the best and extend my warm wishes for its future work.

One Health : Competing Perspectives in an Emerging Field with Reference


Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences University

Futala Lake Road, Nagpur- 440001 ( M.S.)

Phone : (0712)2040019 Fax : (0712)2511273/2511282Mob. : 9422114122email : [email protected] - www.mafsu.in

MESSAGE

I am happy to know that Post Graduate Institute of Veterinary

and Animal Sciences, Akola is celebrating its first Alumni

April 2016 at PGIVAS, Akola. Alumni meet is a

good initiative to bring all the past and present alumni on a



of cumulative learning among students and also help in developing a sense of



glories for the institute and for themselves. Further it is a good occasion to celebrate

the alumni meet on the auspicious day of World Veterinary Day on 30th April with an


reference to zoonoses”. I am delighted to know that a souvenir is being publis

this occasion. I wish one and all for organizing the event.


(N. N.

ith Reference to Zoonoses

6 | P a g e

Maharashtra Animal & Fishery Sciences

(0712)2040019 (0712)2511273/2511282

Mob. : 9422114122 [email protected] www.mafsu.in



ng a sense of



asion to celebrate

April with an


reference to zoonoses”. I am delighted to know that a souvenir is being published on


Zade)

Souvenir


POST GRADUATE INSTIT

AND ANIMAL SCIENCES,(Maharashtra Animal

Dr. H. S. Birade

M.V.Sc., Ph.D.

ASSOCIATE DEAN

I feel greatly honored and privileged to be the First Presid

Akola Alumni Association, though the institute made first foot print on this planet

during 1970. The alumni association gives us opportunity to come to our own

matter. The feeling is like coming to home, where we have spent our quality a

energetic time of our life, which can not be brought back. Alumni association also

provides opportunity to express our gratitude to teachers, supporting staff and those

who have helped us in shaping our future.

As the alumni has spent most of their lear

they are the best judges to convey us the avenues for further improvement. This first

meet will definitely give platform to interactive discussions, exchange of ideas and

thereby identifying the present needs of farmers

Similarly, the PGIVAS Akola Alumni Association has organized a Technical

Seminar on “One Health: Competing perspectives in an emerging field with reference

to zoonoses”, which is the most befitting one as many zoonotic diseases are

as threat to humanbeings. Due to urbanization and deforestation, the wild animals

entering into human habitat are not only increasing the conflict situations but also

transmitting several diseases. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics in animals

leading to development of resistant microbes and superbug problems. This is really

creating embarrassing situation in international communities to veterinary as well as

medical practitioners.

I hope this first Alumni Association Meet and Technical Sem

immense valuable for all the participants in updating their knowledge of zoonoses.

My best wishes and compliments to all the members of PGIVAS Akola Alumni

Association.

One Health : Competing Perspectives in an Emerging Field


POST GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF VETERINARY

AND ANIMAL SCIENCES, AKOLA (Maharashtra Animal and Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur)

Ph.

Fax :

Email : [email protected]

FROM THE DESK OF PRESIDENT

I feel greatly honored and privileged to be the First Presid


during 1970. The alumni association gives us opportunity to come to our own

. The feeling is like coming to home, where we have spent our quality a



who have helped us in shaping our future.

As the alumni has spent most of their learning time in a particular institute,



thereby identifying the present needs of farmers as well as industries.


One Health: Competing perspectives in an emerging field with reference

which is the most befitting one as many zoonotic diseases are



transmitting several diseases. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics in animals



I hope this first Alumni Association Meet and Technical Sem



(H.

n Emerging Field with Reference to Zoonoses

7 | P a g e

UTE OF VETERINARY

and Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur)

Ph. 0724 -2258644

Fax : 0724 -2258643

[email protected]

I feel greatly honored and privileged to be the First President of PGIVAS


during 1970. The alumni association gives us opportunity to come to our own Alma

. The feeling is like coming to home, where we have spent our quality and



ning time in a particular institute,



as well as industries.


One Health: Competing perspectives in an emerging field with reference

which is the most befitting one as many zoonotic diseases are emerging



transmitting several diseases. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics in animals is



I hope this first Alumni Association Meet and Technical Seminar will be



(H. S. Birade)



VeteVeteVeteVeterinarian's Oathrinarian's Oathrinarian's Oathrinarian's Oath

Being admitted to the profession of

Veterinary Medicine, I solemnly swear to use

my scientific knowledge and skills for the

benefit of society through the protection of

animal health, the relief of animal suffering,

the conservation of livestock resources, the

promotion of public health and the

advancement of knowledge in Veterinary

Science.

I shall practice my profession

conscientiously, with dignity and in keeping

with the principles of Veterinary medical

ethics.

I accept as a lifelong obligation the

continuous improvement of my professional

knowledge and competence



Post Graduate Institute of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Akola

Committees of Technical Seminar “Zoonosis: Current Scenario and Future Prospects”

Sr.

No.

Committee Chairman Members

1. Organizing Committee Dr H. S. Birade Dr. R. N. Dhore

Dr. V. P. Pathak

Dr. S.G. Mode

Dr. S. P. Waghmare

Dr. S. Sajid Ali

2. Registration Committee Dr S. W. Hajare Dr. R. S. Ingole

Dr. M. S. Headau

3. Hall Management Committee

Dr S. M. Wankhede Dr. Prajakta S. Kuralkar

Dr. S. D. Chepte

Dr. N. M. Bhojane

4. Technical Session Committee

Dr M. V. Ingawale Dr. M.F.M.F. Siddiqui

Dr. Mayura Gole

Dr. M. D. Kharwadkar

5. Souvenir/ News letter Committee

Dr M. G. Thorat

Dr. S. J. Manwar

Dr. K. K. Khose

Dr. Farheen Fani

Dr. P. S. Bankar

6. Refreshment / Lunch Committee

Dr S. V. Kuralkar Dr. R. V. Raulkar

Dr. S.G. Deshmukh

Dr. M. R. Wade

7. Accommodation/Transport Committee

Dr. D. R. Ambulkar Dr. K.K. Khose

Dr. M. V. Khodke

Dr. P. R. Rathod



INDEX

Sr.

No.

Particulars Page

No.

1 Brief Profile of PGIVAS, Akola 1

2 Significant Achievements and Activities of PGIVAS Akola 4

3 PGIVAS Alumni Association 5

4 Distinguished Alumni Members 7

5 Lead Papers 8

6 Technical Articles 19

7 Sponsors and Advertisements 73

9 Appeal and Application form of Alumni Association 76

10 List of Life Members 78



BBRRIIEEFF PPRROOFFIILLEE OOFF PPGGIIVVAASS,, AAKKOOLLAA

Historical Background of Institute

Post Graduate Institute of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (PGIVAS)

Akola is leading constituent college of Western Vidarbha region of Maharashtra state.

Although, PGIVAS was established in 1972 under Dr. PDKV, Akola, consequent

upon the establishment of Maharashtra Animal and Fishery Sciences University

(MAFSU) at Nagpur in the year 2000. The existing departments were metamorphosed

and started functioning as an independent constituent Institute of newly university to

provide Post Graduate education leading to M. V. Sc. and Ph. D. degree programmes

in various disciplines of Veterinary and Animal Science. The Institute encompasses

territorial jurisdiction of five districts of Western Vidarbha region, which are

primarily the breeding tracts of Gaolao Cattle, Nagpuri buffalo and Berari goats. This

institute represents the potential region of the state and therefore has a great deal for

veterinary education, research and extension work.

Academic Profile of Institute

The institute offers M.V.Sc & Ph.D. degree programmes of duration two

years (4 semesters) and three years (6 semesters), respectively. For in-service Ph.D.

candidate, the duration of degree programme is of 4 years i.e. 8 semesters. The annual

intake capacity of M.V.Sc & Ph.D. degree programmes is 34 and 16 students,

respectively.

Department Intake capacity

M.V.Sc. Ph.D.

Veterinary Physiology 2 2

Veterinary Biochemistry 2 -

Animal Nutrition 2 2

Veterinary Pathology 4 2

Veterinary Pharmacology & Toxicology 2 -

Poultry Science 4 2

Livestock Production & Management 4 -

Animal Genetics & Breeding 4 2

Veterinary Clinical Medicine 4 2

Veterinary Surgery & Radiology 4 2

Animal Reproduction 4 2

Total 36 16



The M.V.Sc & Ph.D. degree programmes offered is as per the guidelines

Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), New Delhi. The post-graduate pro-

gramme leading to the degree of M.V.Sc. is offered in 11 disciplines with overall

annual intake capacity of 34 students. In last four decades, about 700 students have

completed their M.V.Sc. degree programme and 40 students have completed Ph.D.

programme in various disciplines.

The Lower Education Section of the college monitors two years diploma

course offered by Livestock Management and Dairy Production Schools affiliated to

the University. There are thirteen (13) Dairy Management and Animal Husbandry

Diploma Schools (with intake capacity of 780 situated in Akola, Amravati, Buldhana,

Jalgaon, Dhule and Yavatmal districts of Maharashtra under control of the institute

Since establishment in 1970, the institute is imparting post graduate degree

programmes in disciplines of Veterinary Physiology, Animal Nutrition, Animal

Genetics and Breeding, Livestock Production and Management, Poultry Science,

Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Veterinary Pathology, Animal

Reproduction Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Veterinary Surgery and Radiology,

Veterinary Medicine. Post graduate degree programme in discipline of Veterinary

Biochemistry was started from 2004. After establishment of MAFSU, Nagpur the

institute has initiated Purnathadi Buffalo farm, Goat farm, Teaching Veterinary

Clinical Complex as well as departmental laboratories viz. Molecular Genetics Lab,

Feed Analytical Lab, Pathology Lab etc. as well as Laboratory Animal House, Library

facility, Girls Hostel, Seminar Hall, Model Class room, Training Hall for imparting

quality education, research and extension activities. Institute is marching ahead by

setting up professional liaisons with national institutes and laboratories through

collaborative research schemes, on one hand as well as local farmers and livestock

keepers through camps, technical lectures, visits, demonstration and ambulatory

services on the other hand.

The meritorious teachers and students of college have own several

prestigious awards at National and International level and brought laurel the college.

TVCC is well equipped providing better services to livestock owners in terms of

diagnosis and treatment of the animals and also providing ample clinical and practical

training to students. The institute has earned good reputation in the country because

of proud post graduates who have excel in competitive examinations such as ICAR,

MPSC, Bank service etc. College has provided able Teachers, Administrator,

Researcher, Extension workers and field veterinarian to Nation serving at their best to



enrich production potential of Animals their by economic upliftment of masses some

of Alumni are perusing higher studies to University and abroad and some are very

successful entrepreneur serving as a inspiring tool for future generation.

Mandate of the Institution

To undertake teaching, research and extension work related to Veterinary

and Animal sciences so as to cater to the needs of livestock and poultry farming

community of western Vidarbha region of the Maharashtra State.

Mission

� To develop human resources in all facets of veterinary and animals sciences.

� To conduct applied and strategic research in veterinary and animal sciences.

� To train various stake holders to develop skills in the area of animal production.

� To conserve and improve Gaolao cattle, Purnathadi buffalo and Berari Goat in

their native habitat.

� To develop strategic ways and means to keep the animal disease free.

Goals

� Facilitate intellectual stimulation to generate, maintain and disseminate

knowledge of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry by adoptive, innovative,

efficient and effective strategies.

� Create environment for conducting need based high quality research applying the

outreaching strategies and practices leveraging the strength of college.

� Arrange capacity/skill development programs for field workers, livestock holders,

dairyman and entrepreneurs for upliftment of livestock and poultry sector in

Western Maharashtra region.

� Create rural self-employment, economic prosperity and wellbeing of the resource-

poor farming community in this region.

� Contribute public health research and practices with an ultimate aim to enrich

human nutrition and welfare.

Objectives

� To offer post-graduate courses in Veterinary and Animal Sciences

� To develop the draught resistant fodder varieties

� To bridge the gap between scientists and field workers

� To conserve and study the characteristics of Berari goat and Purnathadi buffalo.

� To undertake continuing education programmes and trainings for skill

development.



SIGNIFIACNT ACHIEVEMENTS AND ACTIVITIES

OF PGIVAS, AKOLA

Research Achievements

� The first embryo transfer calf was produced in Maharashtra State

� National recognition of Berari goat at National level by ICAR, New Delhi

� Area specific Mineral Assay of state

� Poultry Demonstration and Training Centre established under RKVY

� Development of precision laboratories viz. Embryo transfer technology laboratory

(Animal Reproduction), Molecular Genetics laboratory (AGB), Mineral and

Hormonal Assay laboratory (Vet. Pathology), Feed Analysis and Methane

laboratory (Animal Nutrition)

� Collaboration with National and International research agencies and institutes

� Completed 28 extramural research projects since 1972-2015

Novel Technologies Developed

� Pelleted complete feed for goat

� Diagnostic techniques developed for diagnosis of non-penetrating foreign body

syndrome

� Development of herbal drugs for common illness

� Pathology of saline water drinking in livestock and poultry

Activities

� Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex with X-ray and Ultrasonography and other

diagnostics techniques for treatment of animals

� Organization of training programmes for professionals, paraprofessionals and

livestock farmers

� Organization of animal health camps, infertility, vaccination camps and farmers

awareness campaigns

� Dissemination of information to livestock farmers through training,

demonstration, exhibitions, publication of popular articles and Radio talks

� Pashu vahini (Toll free number- 1800-2333-568) for farmers and Ambulance for

animals

� Extra-curricular activities for students viz. Cultural, Sports and Research etc.



PGIVAS ALUMNI ASSOCIATION

Genesis

The idea of forming some kind of an organization to provide stimulus to

scientific developmental activities was a matter of consideration at Post Graduate

Institute of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Akola for quite some time. The issue

however, received serious thought during 2014-2015, wherein it was resolved to

establish Alumni Association with well defined objectives with a view to promote

scientific activities.

Objectives

� To provide the focal point of contact among alumni to interact with each other and

to enable them to keep in touch with the institute and to strengthen the bond

between the institute and alumni.

� To promote educational, research and extension activities in the members of the

Association, by encouraging various departments in the Institute to conduct

training courses, workshops, Technical Seminars etc.

� To help to maintain a very high professional standard amongst the students of the

Institute by disseminating to them information regarding the latest developments

in the field of Veterinary science and Animal Husbandry through the

establishment of information services, such as a Journal/ Veterinary Bulletin/

Magazine/ News Letter etc.

� To help in establishing the co-operation/ liason between our Institute and public/

Government departments/ Industries, Agricultural and Veterinary Universities/

Animal Husbandry Department and other institutes for mutual benefits in the field

of research.

� To appreciate and encourage outstanding students, alumni and workers in

Veterinary profession, by felicitating them and calling upon them to present

Orations, etc.

� To gear all the necessary efforts which will help to create a sense of comradeship

and brotherhood amongst fellow members and other veterinarians?



� To promote and encourage alumni to donate towards various activities and for

sponsoring financial assistance to economically weak student through the Alumni

Association.

� To establish Alumni Guest House for visiting Alumni/ Guests

� To raise funds for widening the sphere of welfare activities for the public

awareness in general of the Veterinary Profession etc.

� To provide the support for the growth and development of the profession, Institute

and students.

� To organize the welfare activities for the benefit of the alumni and to disseminate

technical expertise for information and entrepreneurial development among the

alumni.

� To encourage alumni to participate in the various educational, cultural and social

activities and to develop synergistic plans to support the institute and achieve its

vision.

� To operate a placement service for the benefit of our students.

� To make suggestions to modify the existing PG and PhD academic curricula,

whenever need is felt for the same.



DISTINGUISHED ALUMNI OF PGIVAS

National institutes Dr. N. V. Patil

Director- National Camel Research Institute, Bikaner, Rajasthan

Dr. M. R. Wani

Scientist 'F', National Centre for Cell Science NCCS Complex, Pune

Research institutes

Dr. A. D. Ingle

Principal Scientist, Tata Cancer Institute, Mumbai

University

Dr. S. D. Harne

Ex-Vice Chancellor & Ex-Dean, PGIVAS, Akola

Dr. M. V. Joshi

Director of Research, MAFSU, Nagpur

Dr. N. P. Dakshinkar

Associate Dean, Nagpur Veterinary College, Nagpur

Dr. B. P. Dandge Associate Dean, COVAS, Udgir and NVC, Nagpur

Dr. S. A. Bakshi Dean, Faculty of Vety. Sci., Director of Instruction, MAFSU, Nagpur

Dr. B. S. Barmase Associate Dean, PGIVAS, Akola.

Dr. A. Y. Kolte Associate Dean, PGIVAS, Akola.

Dr. M. G. Thorat Associate Dean, PGIVAS, Akola



ONE HEALTH : COMPETING PERSPECTIVES IN AN

EMERGING FIELD WITH REFERENCE TO ZOONOSES

S.B. Barbuddhe

Principal Scientist ICAR-National Institute of Biotic Stress Management, Baronda, Raipur 493225

[email protected]

The interaction between living beings, including men, animals and

pathogens, sharing the same environment, should be considered as a unique dynamic

system, in which the health of each component is inextricably interconnected and

dependent with the others. The One Health approach can be defined as a

collaborative and a multidisciplinary effort at local, national and global level to

guarantee an optimal healthy status for humans, animals and environment. Over the

past decade, researchers and policymakers have been considerably paying attention

towards One Health. The concept encourages close integration of the fields of

human, animal and environmental health. There are different arguments about One

Health. It is argued that One Health's challenge to existing practice must go further,

and set out a vision that foregrounds the social and economic drivers of disease. One

Health concept has been brought to bear on other issues, such as emerging new

technologies. Ultimately, One Health is an important and worthwhile goal, and

requires a debate that clarifies both the competing uses and the political nature of the

project.

The idea of ‘One health’ replaced ‘One medicine’ with the help of coactive

translational inputs from various streams of knowledge recognizing the significance

of health to medicine. The tri–junctional human–animal–environment interaction

forms the essence of ‘One health’ concept which underlines the collaboration across

all species.

One Health

The innovative works carried out by the esteemed American Veterinary

Epidemiologist cum Parasitologist, Calvin W. Schwabe (1927–2006), among the

Dinka pastoralists of Sudan and Fulbe pastoralists of West Africa led to the

proposition of the idea of ‘One health’ in 1976, rather than a clinically implicated

term– one medicine. He asserted that “there is no difference of paradigm between

human and veterinary medicine, and is the extension of notions of comparative

medicine. Both sciences (human as well as veterinary medicine) share as general

medicine, a common body of knowledge in anatomy, physiology and the origin of

disease in all species”. Hence in due course of time the term ‘One health’ egressed

from the conventional idea of one medicine which considered ecosystems and its

relevance in global public health and animal health development.



The infectious diseases or their agents naturally transmissible between

animals and human beings are collectively referred to as “zoonoses”. According to

the latest information, of the 1415 species known to be pathogenic to humans, 61%

(868) are zoonotic, while 75% of diseases considered to be ‘emerging’ are also

zoonotic.

Emerging and re-emerging zoonoses are a significant public health concern

and cause considerable socioeconomic problems globally. The emergence of severe

acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1,

and Ebola, and the re-emergence of rabies, brucellosis, and other zoonoses have had a

significant effect on the national economy and public health, and have affected other

countries. Contributing factors that continue to affect emerging and re-emerging

zoonoses in India include social and environmental factors and microbial evolution,

such as population growth, urbanization, deforestation, livestock production, food

safety, climate change, and pathogen mutation.

Depending on social customs, economic status, habits, hobbies and

occupation, different sections of society are likely to be exposed to different sets of

zoonotic diseases. Although the risk of exposure to zoonoses is equal to all members

of society, certain occupational groups are at special risk of contracting zoonoses.

Natural calamities such as floods, earth quakes, break down in public health measures

often lead to emergence of zoonotic infections. The emerging zoonoses are fast

becoming an integral part of medicine. India has a multitude of genetically diverse,

unadmixed and isolated population groups, large population and family sizes. There

have been phenomenal improvements in India within the past decade in the

availability of medical technologies for diagnosis and clinical evaluation. Further,

India is experiencing an epidemiological transition. Infectious and early childhood

diseases though on decline, however, new emerging and re-emerging diseases are

increasing. In view of this, concerted and focused efforts in conducting research,

translation, capacity-building and service in biomedical and veterinary fields are

required.

The essential tools of surveillance, clinical curiosity, general awareness,

sound knowledge of modern epidemiological tools through training among veterinary

public health personnel is essential to meet the challenge of zoonoses, especially the

emerging ones. Community-led total sanitation programmes such as Swachha Bharat

Mission can be a strategy for mobilising communities towards hygiene and

cleanliness which can have sustainable impacts on foodborne zoonoses.

There is a question whether the public health sector really benefits from

interventions for livestock. Cross-sectoral assessments of interventions such as mass

vaccination for brucellosis

in Mongolia or vaccination of dogs for rabies in Chad consider human and

animal health sectors from a societal economic perspective. Combining the total



societal benefits, the intervention in the animal sector saves money and provides the

economic argument, which opens new approaches for the control of zoonoses in

resource-limited countries through contributions from multiple sectors.

One Health and Zoonoses

Zoonoses are fundamental determinants of community health. Preventing,

identifying and managing these infections must be a central public health focus. Most

current zoonoses research focuses on the interface of the pathogen and the clinically

ill person, emphasizing microbial detection, mechanisms of pathogenicity and clinical

intervention strategies, rather than examining the causes of emergence, persistence

and spread of new zoonoses. Identifying the causes of disease and determining how

exposures are related to outcomes in "emerging zoonoses" affecting multiple species

are considered to be the hallmarks of public health research and practice that compels

the adoption of "One Health". The interactions within and among populations of

vertebrates in the causation and transmissions of emerging zoonotic diseases are

inherently dynamic, interdependent, and systems based. Disease causality theories

have moved from one or several agents causing disease in a single species, to one

infectious agent causing disease in multiple species-emerging zoonoses.

Emphasizing ‘One Health’ concept is important in control of zoonotic

infections. Effective surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases require

multisectoral collaboration involving the human health, veterinary, agricultural,

educational, wildlife and environment and sanitation sectors. A clear advantage of

One Health is that interventions in animal populations can result in public health and

societal benefits more cost-effectively than just interventions in humans. This will

help to improve the competency and come forward with an open mind and altruistic

attitude for knowledge sharing and training their staff in the areas of zoonoses

including foodborne infections through collaborative research programmes, trainings

and network programmes. It’s a challenge to coordinate these different interests, and

to achieve collaboration in policies, priorities, resourcing and communication at the

national level.

There are gaps in the understanding of the animal determinants of

emergence and the capacity to train highly qualified individuals; these are major

obstacles to preventing new disease threats. The ability to predict the emergence of

zoonoses and their resulting public health and societal impacts are hindered when

insufficient effort is devoted to understanding zoonotic disease epidemiology, and

when zoonoses are not examined in a manner that yields fundamental insight into

their origin and spread.

******



ZOONOSES : AN OVERVIEW

Dr . Apeksha Prashant Malviya Faculty of Department of Medicine, Govt. Medical College Akola

Who definition of zoonoses ?

“Those diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between

vertebrate animals and man”.

A zoonotic agent can be bacteria, virus , fungus or any other communicable

agent.

From the Greek

Zoon : Animal

Noson : Disease

History of Zoonoses

� Bubonic plague : Epidemic of bubonic plague was described, the so called Black

Death emerged in the 14th century and caused vast losses. The Black Death is

thought to have originated in the arid plains of Central Asia, where it then

travelled along the Silk Road, reaching Crimea by 1343. From there, it was most

likely carried by Oriental rat fleas living on the black rats that were regular

passengers on merchant ships. Spreading throughout the Mediterranean and

Europe. The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30–60% of Europe's total

population

� Rabies : Rabies was described as early as 2,300 BC.

� Viral encephalitis : Ancient accounts and modern hypotheses suggest that

Alexander the Great, who died in 323 BC, died of encephalitis caused by West

Nile virus, a virus that has a wild bird reservoir.

� Indian scenario : In India 80 % of the population residing in approximately

5,75,000 villages and thousands of small towns.Close contact with domestic /wild

animals population owing to their occupation.

� Zoonotic diseases : Classified according to the type of causative agent.

Bacteria

� Salmonellosis,

� Campylobacteriosis

� Anthrax

� Brucellosis

� Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli

� Leptospirosis



� Plague

� Q fever

� Shigellosis

� Tularaemia

Parasites

� Cysticercosis/Taeniasis

� Trematodosis

� Echinococcosis/ hydatidosis

� Toxoplasmosis

� Trichinellosis

Viruses

� Rabies

� Avian influenza

� Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever

� Ebola

� Rift Valley fever

Fungi

� Dermatophytoses

� Sporotrichosis

� Histoplasmosis

� Cryptococcosis

Unconventional agents

The agent of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy is thought to be the cause

of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) which is a degenerative neurological

disease different from CJD, at present inevitably lethal in humans.

Classification of zoonoses : According to the mode of transmission

1. Direct Zoonoses: Single vertebrate host

� Transmitted from an infected vertebrate host to a susceptible host (man) by

direct contact/ fomite / mechanical vector.

� The agent itself undergoes little or no propagative or developmental changes

during transmission, e.g. rabies, anthrax, brucellosis, leptospirosis,

toxoplasmosis.



2. Cyclozoonoses : More than one vertebrate host. These require more than one

vertebrate host species, but no invertebrate host for the completion of the life

cycle of the agent, e.g. echinococcosis, taenias.

3. Metazoonoses : Requires both vertebrate and invertebrate host .Transmitted

biologically by invertebrate vectors. Agent multiplies and/or develops and there is

always an extrinsic incubation period before transmission to another vertebrate

host e.g., plague, arbovirus infections, schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis

4. Saprozoonoses : Inanimate reservoirs and vertebrate host .These require a

vertebrate host and a nonanimal developmental site like soil, plant material,

pigeon dropping etc. for the development of the infectious agent e.g. aspergillosis,

coccidioidomycosis, cryptococosis, histoplasmosis, zygomycosis.

According to the reservoir host

1. Anthrapozoonoses : infections transmitted to man from lower vertebrate

animals

Animals� man

Eg. Rabies, Brucellosis

2. Zoo anthroponoses : infections transmitted from man to lower vertebrate

animals .

Eg : Human TB, Amoebiasis

3. Amphizoonoses : infections maintained in both man and lower vertebrate

animals, that may be transmitted in either direction. Man � Animals

Eg. : Streptococcal infections

Zoonotic Disease List

� Anthrax

� Bordetella

� Brucellosis

� Campylobacteriosis

� Cat Scratch Disease (Bartonellosis)

� Chagas disease

� Cheyletiella

� Cysticercosis

� Dengue

� Dermatophytosis (ringworm)

� Ehrlichiosis

� Encephalitis



� California

� Giardia

� Hantavirus

� Influenza A

Swine Flu (H1N1)

Avian Flu (H5N1)

� Echinococcushydatid cysts

� Larval migrans

� Leishmaniasis

� Leptospirosis

� Lyme disease

� Malaria

� Monkey Pox

� Plague

� Psittacosis (Parrot Fever)

� Q-fever

� Rabies

� Raccoon Roundworms (Baylisascarisprocyonis)

� Relapsing Fever

� Ringworm

� Rocky Mountain spotted fever

� Roundworms

� Salmonella

� Sarcoptic Mange

� Taenia infection

� Toxoplasmosis

� Trichinosis

� Tuberculosis

� Tularemia

� Typhus

� Yellow Fever

Factors affecting Disease emergence

1. Introduction of a new host species in to an ecosystem.

2. Introduction of infected host in to new ecosystem.eg : Marburg Disease

3. Change in population dynamic



4. Ecological changes that bring two previously sepearted ecosystem into contact.

Eg. Trypansomiasis

5. Change in habits including the food habits

6. Technical changes brought about by man .

7. Mutation /genetic recombination of infectious agents. Eg Influenza.

8. Human population expansion and encroachment, reforestation and other habitat

changes, pollution, and climatic changes

9. The movement of pathogens, vectors, and animal host.

10. Microbial changes or adaptation

Factors Influencing Prevalence of Zoonoses

1. Ecological changes in man's environment

With the expansion of human population, man is forced to exploit the

virgin territories and natural resources like harnessing the power of rivers,

constructing roads and pipelines through virgin or thinly populated areas, clearing,

irrigating and cultivating new land, deforestation.

All this would lead to entering of humans in the unaccustomed ecosystem

in which potential pathogens form part of the biotic community (natural focus).

Large scale expansion of agricultural and engineering resources,

construction of dams, artificial lakes, irrigation schemes, clearing of forests all these

lead to changing of the biting habits of the blood sucking vectors and alteration in the

population of reservoir animals which has led to the spread of leptospira, tuleraemia,

helminthic infections etc.

2. Handling animal byproducts and wastes (occupationalhazards)

There is significantly higher attack rates in workers during the course of

their occupation than the rest of the population.

e.g.

� anthrax in carpet weavers,

� live stock raisers and workers with animal hair in the textile industry,

� leptospirosis in rice field workers,

� listeriosis in agricultural workers,

� erysipeloid in butchers and fish merchants,

� tularemia and trypanosomiasis in hunters,

� salmonellosis in food processors,

� bovine tuberculosis in farmersetc.



3. Increased movements of man

Land development, engineering project work, pilgrimages, tourism, etc.

expose the people to contaminated food and water leading to diseases like amoebiasis,

colibacilliosis, giardiasis, salmonellosis, shigellosis, etc.

4. Increased trade in animal products

Countries which import hides, wool, bone meal, meat, etc. from an area

where some of the zoonoses are endemic, are likely to introduce the disease into their

territories, e.g. salmonellosis, foot and mouth disease, anthrax, Newcastle disease etc.

5. Increased density of animal population

Animals may carry potential risk of increased frequency of zoonotic agents

in man e.g. dermatophytosis, tuberculosis, brucellosis etc.

6. Transportation of virus infected mosquitoes

Aircraft, ship, train, motor and other vehicles bring the viruses in to a new

area, e.g. yellow fever,Chikungunya fever, dengue fever etc

Cultural anthropological norms :In Kenya, people allow the dogs and

hyenas to eat human dead bodies infected with hydatidosis.This helps to perpetuate

the transmission cycle of the disease.

Zoonoses and Immune status

Immunocompromisedpersons , Elderly people, HIV patients, Patients under

cancer treatment are more suceptible to zoonotic infection. Enteric infections by

Salmonella, Camphylobactor and Cryptosporidia may result in life threatning

Diarrhoea in these group. Systemic infections like Toxoplasmosis, Tuberculosis,

Cryptococcosis, Q fever and Cat Scratch Fever may lead to fatal encephalitis and /or

Pneumonia.

Xenotransplantations and Zoonoses

Xenotransplantations is the use of animal organs, tissues or cells for

transplantation into humans to treat a variety of medical conditions.

Reverse zoonosesare diseases that do not normally occur in dogs and cats

but can be passed from infected people to their pets, which can make them very sick.

e.g. tuberculosis, MRSA, flu

Zoonosis -An International problem

Most tremendous impact on evolution of man especially on

societies/culture that domesticated and bred animals for food and clothing. Transcend

natural boundries, occur world wide Impact on global economy and Health. Global

surveillance in necessary and Inter relationship among countries has led to the

internationalization of control effort to technical, Economical and Social fields.



Zoonoses Control: General Strategies

1. Alter agricultural practices

a. Hygiene in animal production

b. Disposal/recycling animal wastes

c. Water supply/irrigation

d. Type of Husbandry

2. Establish/modify regulations

3. Improve inspections

a. Health certification

b. Movement/shipment conditions

c. Markets

d. Export/import

4. Epidemiological conditions

a. Severity of unrecognised, untreated diseases Export/import

b. Prevalence/incidence of diseases

c. Importance of carriers, subclinical infections

d. Routs of Transmission

5. Public

a. Education

b. motivation

Role of Public health Veterinarians

1. Diagnosis, treatment, control and erradication of zoonotic diseases of major

human health importance.

2. Use of biologicals(vaccines/sera) for prevention /control of zoonotic diseases.

3. Development and testing of newer drugs for important zoonotic diseases’

treatment.

4. Preparation of strategies and methods for the surveillance and control of

important zoonotic diseases.

5. Development of suitable animal models for important zoonotic diseases.

6. Supervision of food hygienic practices in slaughterhouses, dairy frams and other

food processing establishment.

7. Production of wholesome and safe foods of animal and non-animal origin.

8. Investigation of food borne and other zoonotic disease.

9. Statistical reporting of morbidity and mortality of food borne and other zoonotic

diseases.



10. Epidemiological studies on zoonotic and food borne diseases.

11. Participation in environmental health programs.

12. Notification to higher authorities about a notifiable disease/exotic disease.

13. Health education to public about the source of infection, mode of transmission,

personal hygiene, environmental hygiene and control measure against

commonly occuring zoonoses.

14. Collaboration in medical relief during calamities and diseases.

15. Maintain close coordination with medical and public health department.

16. Conduct periodic meeting to review situation on the prevalence of zoonotic

diseases in an area.

******



HISTORICAL GLIMPSES OF ONE HEALTH

Chepte S.D., M.G. Thorat, Farheen Fani and R.V. Raulkar Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology, PGIVAS, Akola

Email: [email protected]

In recent years, there have been notable increases in the occurrence of

emerging and reemerging infectious diseases, many of them diseases of livestock with

zoonotic potential. These diseases have negatively affected animal and human health

around the world and caused considerable social disruption and economic loss. In

addition, livestock production practices in both developed and developing countries

are increasingly associated with various forms of environmental degradation,

including global warming, deforestation and loss of biodiversity.

It is the notion of combining human, animal, and environmental

components to address global health challenges that have an ecological

interconnectedness. One health is defined by the One Health Commission as “the

collaborative effort of multiple disciplines to obtain optimal health for people,

animals, and our environment.” In another definition the One Health Initiative Task

Force (OHITF) defines one health as “the promotion, improvement, and defense for

the health and well-being of all species by enhancing cooperation and collaboration

between physicians, veterinarians other scientific health professionals, by promoting

strengths in leadership and management to achieve these goals.

History of the One Health concept

The notion of One Health has no single origin in human thought. It is,

rather, a basic condition of life on earth, repeatedly re-discovered and further explored

throughout human history. From time immemorial, the health and well-being of

humans has been intimately linked to animals and the planet they share. The

interdependence of humans, animals and respect for land and water, which are the

foundation of One Health, are an intrinsic part of the culture and spiritual beliefs of

many ancient civilizations and modern aboriginal peoples. Since it is fundamentally a

social, medical and ecological concept, it can also be glimpsed in various

formulations in the historical record of Western thought. A notion of One Health can

be found in the writings of the physician Hippocrates (460 BCE–367 BCE). In ‘On

Airs, Waters and Places’, he identified the interdependence of public health and a

clean environment. Almost 2,000 years later, the Italian physician Giovanni Maria

Lancisi(1654–1720), a pioneering epidemiologist, physician and veterinarian, wrote

of the important role the environment plays in the spread of diseases to humans and

animals. He is viewed as a pioneer in the management of rinderpest in cattle through

his advocating of animal depopulation and quarantine strategies and it is suggested

that he may have been the first to recommend the draining of swamps and the use of



protection against biting flies in the prevention and management of human malaria.

The founding of the first veterinary faculty in Lyons, France, by Claude Bourgelat

(1712–1779) established in Europe formal education in animal health and in its

interactions with human health. The most novel, and thus a defining, feature of the

One Health concept of the 21st Century is its focus on ecological processes and

environmental factors as key determinants of human and animal health. Thus, the

concept rests as much on the intellectual history of the philosophy and science of

ecology as on that of veterinary and human medicine.

Importance of One Health in the 21st Century

The One Health ideas of today constitute a reconceptualisation of health

management in response to the exponentially accelerating environmental changes of

the past 100 years associated with the parallel exponential growth of the global human

population. Global populations of domestic animals and the use of all natural

resources have risen in parallel with human numbers at unprecedented rates and

scales. All of the risk factors for the health of people, animals and our shared

environment are the direct or indirect result of environmental changes that now so

vastly exceed the biological pace of adaptation by people and animals. One Health is

a hopeful, adaptive approach to achieving health in a perturbed biosphere. It proposes

to achieve human or animal or environmental health by achieving all three together in

a form of integrated mutualism and recognizes that health in all three sectors must be

achieved simultaneously and together or not at all. Over the past decade, multiple

international meetings, symposia, publications, university programmes, health

management measures and research projects have served to create an ever-expanding

community of practice and an increasing number of networks advancing the use of the

term and the tenets and principles captured by One Health.

The Role of Veterinarians in One Health

Veterinarians are particularly well prepared by virtue of their training and

professional experience to embrace and work effectively in the One Health paradigm

and indeed to take a leadership role in moving it forward from concept to practice.

Veterinarians are the only health professionals whose formal training is based in

comparative medicine, with in depth studies of the health and diseases of multiple

species across a wide taxonomic range. Veterinarians are also trained in population

health as it pertains to livestock production and they routinely incorporate

environmental assessments in their workups of animal health problems on farms and

feedlots, assessing such elements as water, feed and air quality to arrive at a proper

diagnosis. While admittedly more challenging in the execution, the same approach,

already familiar to veterinarians, applies to assessments of ecosystems as well as

farming systems. Furthermore, veterinarians are already active in public health,

working closely with physicians, other health professionals and disaster response

specialists on disease investigation, disease surveillance, and effective outbreak



response. Veterinarians in the zoo and wildlife sectors are gaining valuable experience

in the evolution of disease in wild animal species and populations and are developing

productive, interdisciplinary relationships with wildlife biologists, ecologists, and

other relevant specialists.

In today’s world of complexity, interconnectedness and what the literature

describes as ‘wicked’ problems, the drivers and convergence of issues that impact on

human, animal and ecosystem health are well entrenched. The concept and principles

of One Health are not new. Indeed, the threats and consequences that emerge from the

interface between ecosystems, animal populations and human populations continue to

be the basis for many of the events that shape history.

******



BRUCELLOSIS IN FIELD VETERINARIAN – A CASE STUDY

H. S. Birade Associate Dean

Post Graduate Institute of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Akola


Brucellosis is found throughout the world, very few countries are free from

this disease. The best method to eradicate this disease is to test, segregate & slaughter

the affected animals. However, in our country cow slaughter is banned. Hence,

eradication is out of question. Similarly it is also not controllable. As the cross-bred

animal population increasing & therefore the exposure of veterinarian to brucellosis is

also increasing day by day.

As, it is said that whenever, there is retention of placenta, then think of

Brucellosis. Though veterinarian thinks of Brucellosis but our country farmers are

adamant & they insist and pressurize the veterinarians to remove the placenta. Though

veterinarian taking utmost care to protect himself but it is not a foolproof method.

Though the brucellosis is a zoonotic disease it is not a deadly disease. Similarly, it has

been pointed by (Radostits, 2000) that Brucellosis is not transmitted through natural

coitus. As bull sprinkles the semen in vagina, vaginal epithelium is specialized

epithelium which the Brucella organism cannot penetrate. Similarly, the Brucella

organisms are the non- motile. Therefore, it is a non-coital disease. Hence, it is logical

to state that these organisms cannot penetrate the intact skin, it is advised to the vets,

that whenever, there is wound on the hands they should not do the gynecological

examination.

In veterinary profession many veterinarians are actually positive for

Brucella infection but they do not show symptoms as long as they are healthy. But

when vet suffer from fever & visits to the medical practitioner & if fever does not

come down with the routine treatment, then the general practitioner thinks of typhoid,

Malaria or Enteric fever or Pyrexia of Unknown origin & then treats for the months

together & after months of treatment when one of our senior vet. Colleagues suggest

that this fever may be of brucellosis then we start actual screening for brucellosis.

Similarly, here we recorded one brucellosis case in a 47 year old

veterinarian who was suffering from undulant fever, sweating at night, hallucination,

arthritis & feeling to do the suicide as pyrexia was not yielding to any treatment since

six months. His skin color was becoming black. Relatives and friends were suspecting

that he may having HIV. Then he was becoming more nervous & thinking of doing

the suicide. He was unable to stand. Then he was referred to the KEM, Mumbai

hospital. The vet patient was very much depressed and told the doctors that this is his

final test & treatment & he would prefer to die. Doctors took it very seriously and



they studied his case thoroughly. Then the case was referred to Mumbai veterinary

college where it was found to be positive for brucellosis. Immediately after

confirmation, treatment with Tab. Doxycycline 100 mg B.I.D for six weeks & Inj.

Streptomycin @ 25 mg/kg body weight I.M for three weeks was started. Brucella is

the intracellular organism & the doxycycline is the drug of choice for the intracellular

organisms. Even with this treatment the temperature did not reduce immediately but it

took four days to come down to normal after start of the treatment. However doctors

gave clear idea that body temperature may not come down immediately to normal but

will take three to four days to come down after commencement of the treatment. The

vet patient completed the treatment along with the supportive treatment. Toxic effect

of the streptomycin on auditory nerve (8th cranial nerve) i.e. deafness was found in the

present patient. Presently he is unable to do hard work & daily he requires highly

nutritious diet. But there is no pyrexia. Presently he is very happy and joyful, but

wished further confirmation. However further confirmation is not required as it is

complete wastage of time & money. Peer et al. (2008), reported successful recovery

of a Para-vet who was found positive for brucellosis. The Para-vet was treated with

Tab. Doxycycline 100 mg for 45 days & inj. streptomycin @ 25 mg/kg body weight

for 21 days. After 50th day of post treatment the patient was negative for brucellosis.

Brucella is sensitive to Tetracycline and streptomycin (Hall and Manion,1970).

Further Richardson and Hall,(1962) reported that streptomycin could act

synergistically with tetracycline to kill the Brucella though the Brucella is facultative

intra-cellular organism. Zoonotic nature of the disease was previously recorded by

several workers (Singh et al., 2004 & Mrunalini et al., 2004). Present case is

discussed with field vets so that they become alert and cautious. This disease is not

transmitted from one person to another person through contact. Similarly very rarely

it gets transmitted through coitus. But, if the treatment is delayed then it may cause

seminiferous tubules damaged & it may lead to impotency in the patient. As per my

knowledge is concerned I have seen my professors suffering with this disease but they

never showed any deficiency in their day to day work as well they lived a happy life

for 70 to 85 years.

Another vet positive for brucellosis told me that due to brucellosis he has

got hearing problem before the treatment. However, it can’t be explained on any

logical basis. Again he told me that very few vets they developed paralysis in the later

part of their life.

How vets & common man can protect himself?

Whenever, vet suspects brucellosis in animals he should suspend the

gynecological examination, while examination he should wear protective clothing.

Infected material may be burned or deep buried otherwise crows, dogs, rodents will

spread the infection.



Common man should not handle placenta & uterine discharges bare

handedly but, he should use disposable gloves. If disposable gloves are not available

then he should use disposable plastic carry bags. Pregnant women should not handle

parturating cows, buffaloes, sheep & goats. In India generally women and men check

the quality of milk i.e. fat % by dipping their fingers in unpasteurized milk but

unboiled milk may be containing the Brucella organisms and if there is micro-wound

on finger it will lead to active infection. After parturition or abortion the animal shed

should be cleaned with phenyl or any available disinfectant. Female calves should be

vaccinated at the age of 6 months with Brucella vaccines (Cotton strain-19).

******



CONTROL OF BRUCELLOSIS THROUGH ONE HEALTH

FOCUS

Ingawale M.V., R.S. Ingole, S.W. Hajare and H.S. Birade Department of Animal Reproduction Gynaecology & Obstetrics, PGIVAS, Akola


One Health (formerly called One Medicine) is dedicated to improving the

lives of all species, human and animal through the integration of medicine and

veterinary medicine. Brucellosis is a sexually transmissible as well as contact

transmitted infection of livestock and humans. The disease is widely prevalent in

India causing economic losses to the tune of Rs. 350 millions.

Brucellosis is caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. It primarily affects

cattle, buffalo, bison, pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, elk, and occasionally horses. Ten

species are recognized within the genus Brucella. There are 6 “classical” species:

Brucella abortus, Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis, Brucella ovis, Brucella canis and

Brucella neotomae. The main pathogenic species worldwide are B. abortus,

responsible for bovine brucellosis; B. melitensis, the main etiologic agent of caprine

brucellosis; and B. suis, responsible for swine brucellosis. B. ovis and B. canis are

responsible for ram epididymitis and canine brucellosis, respectively. B. neotomae is

only strains isolated from desert wood rat (Neotoma lepida) in North America.

Recently 4 new Brucella species have been described: Brucella pinnipedialis and

Brucella ceti, isolated predominantly from seals and cetaceans, respectively; Brucella

microti, isolated from common voles (Microtus arvalis), soil and foxes (Vulpes

vulpes) and Brucella inopinata, isolated from a breast implant. Classical Brucella

species have been isolated from a great variety of wildlife species such as bison, elk,

feral swine, wild boar, fox, hare, African buffalo, reindeer, and caribou. The disease is

characterized by abortion, retained placenta, and to a lesser extent orchitis and

infection of the accessory sex glands in males. The disease is prevalent in most

countries of the world. The disease in human referred to as undulant fever, is a serious

public health problem, especially when caused by B melitensis. In humans, the disease

is infectious with long term chronic but distressing febrile episodes.



History

Historically, the disease was recognized in the Mediterranean region,

particularly in goats and sheep, dating back to antiquity. Brucellosis type illnesses

were recognized by Hippocrates in his Epidemics writings; the Apostle Paul is

considered to have been infected following his being shipwrecked on the Island of

Malta and suffered from a recurrent illness or “thorn in my flesh” afterward. Britain

maintained a military base on this island during the 18th and 19th centuries. During

this period, several British physicians provided vivid descriptions of illness in

garrisoned troops and physician David Bruce was dispatched to investigate. He has

isolated the causative organism from four fatal cases in 1887 and named it

Micrococcus melitensis. A Greek physician Themistokles Zammit working with

Bruce in 1905, demonstrated that the Maltese goat often with no clinical signs of

illness carried the organism and served as the source of infection through

consumption of unpasteurized milk by military personnel. Goat’s milk was banned

and the troubling episode ended in 1906. Concomitantly in 1897, Bernard Bang, a

physician-veterinarian, studied a disease of cattle in Denmark referred to as

“contagious abortion” and isolated an organism that he named Bacillus abortus. Later

an American microbiologist, Alice Evans, showed in 1918 that it caused human

brucellosis and was closely related both morphologically and biochemically to

Bruce’s organism. Karl Meyer, a veterinary scientist at the Hooper Foundation in San

Francisco, proposed to group these organisms under the genus “Brucella” in honor of

Dr. Bruce to settle the nomenclature issues. Alice Evans continued to develop

improved techniques of recovering the organism and diagnosing the disease resulting

in becoming infected herself in 1925 incidental to laboratory exposure. During this

period “Bang’s Disease” became the standard term for livestock. Human disease was

also termed Bang’s as well as “Malta or Undulant Fever” for many years. Dr. John M.

Buck had maintained a group of brucellosis cultures for “well over a year” on his desk

at room temperature and decided to evaluate them for immunogenicity and stability. It

was determined that the 19th culture evaluated was significantly less pathogenic and

remained stable through numerous transmissions in testing protocols. This became the

optimal vaccine strain, first licensed in 1941 as a live attenuated “Strain 19 vaccine”

and used for decades to eliminate the infection from U.S. cattle in calf-hood

vaccination programs.

In Cattle

The disease in cattle, water buffalo and bison is caused almost exclusively

by Brucella abortus; however, B.suis occasionally is isolated from seropositive cows.

After exposure, cattle become bacteremic for a short period, develop agglutinins and

other antibodies. Some cattle resist infection and a small percentage of infected cows

spontaneously recover. Organisms are shed in milk and uterine discharges and the

cow may become temporarily infertile. Bacteria may be found in the uterus during



pregnancy, uterine involution and infrequently for a prolonged time in the nongravid

uterus. Shedding from the vagina largely disappears with the cessation of fluids after

parturition. Some infected cows that were previously aborted shed organism from the

uterus at subsequent normal parturitions. Organisms are shed in milk for a variable

length of time in most cattle for life. B. abortus can frequently be isolated from

secretions of nonlactating udders.Infection spreads rapidly and causes many abortions

in unvaccinated cattle.

In a herd in which disease is endemic, an infected cow typically aborts only

once after exposure. Subsequent gestations and lactations appear normal. Non

infected herds must be protected. The greatest danger is from replacement animals

which should be vaccinated calves or non pregnant heifers. Vaccination of calves

with B. abortus strain 19 or RB 51(In USA) increases resistance to infection.

In Goats

The signs of brucellosis in goats are similar to those in cattle. Infection

occurs primarily through ingestion of the organisms. The disease causes abortion at

approximately the fourth month of pregnancy. Arthritis and orchitis may occur. The

disease can be eliminated by slaughter of the herd. In most countries where B.

melitensis is endemic, vaccination with the Rev. 1 strain is common. Rev. 1 is an

attenuated strain of B. melitensis and is administered by SC or intraconjunctival

routes.

In Sheep

Brucella melitensis infection in certain breeds of sheep causes clinical

disease similar to that in goats. However, B. ovis produces a disease unique to sheep

in which epididymitis and orchitis impair fertility, the principal economic effect.

Occasionally, placentitis and abortion are seen and there may be perinatal mortality.

The disease can be transmitted among rams by direct contact. Active infection in ewes

is unusual but has developed after mating with naturally infected rams. Infection

frequently persists in rams and a high percentage shed B.ovis intermittently for several

years.

Primary manifestations are lesions of the epididymis, tunica, and testis in

rams, placentitis and abortion in ewes; and occasionally perinatal death in lambs. In

rams, the first detectable abnormality may be a marked deterioration in semen quality

associated with the presence of inflammatory cells and organisms. An acute systemic

phase is rarely seen in naturally occurring infections. After regression of the acute

phase which may be so mild as to go unobserved,lesions may be palpated in the

epididymis and scrotal tunics. Epididymal enlargement may be unilateral or bilateral.

The tail of the epididymis is involved more frequently than the head or body and the

most prominent lesion is spermatoceles of variable size containing partially

inspissated spermatic fluid. The tunics frequently become thickened and fibrous and

extensive adhesions develop between them. The testes may show fibrous atrophy and



these lesions are usually permanent. In a few cases, palpable lesions are transient,

while in others organisms may be present in semen over long periods without

clinically detectable lesions. Immunization of weaner rams with attenuated (Rev. 1) B.

melitensis has been recommended in some countries. Because infection in ewes

apparently originates almost exclusively from service by infected rams, lamb losses

through infection of ewes may be controlled economically by restricting vaccination

to rams.

In Pigs

Clinical manifestations of brucellosis in pigs vary but are similar to those

seen in cattle and goats. Although the disease is often self-limiting, it remains in some

herds for years. Brucellosis caused by Brucella suis rarely occurs in domestic animals

other than pigs. B. suis is usually spread mainly by ingestion of infected tissues or

fluids. Infected boars may transmit the disease during service and also the organism

can be recovered from semen. Pigs raised for breeding purposes are sources of

infection. Suckling pigs may become infected from sows but most reach weanling age

without becoming infected. After exposure to B suis, pigs develop a bacteremia that

may persist for as long as 90 days. During and after the bacteremia, localization may

occur in various tissues. Signs depend considerably on the site(s) of localization.

Common manifestations are abortion, temporary or permanent sterility, orchitis,

lameness, posterior paralysis, spondylitis and occasionally metritis and abscess

formation. The incidence of abortion may be 0–80%. Abortions may also occur early

in gestation and be undetected. Usually, sows or gilts that abort early in gestation

return to estrus soon afterward and are rebred.

Sterility in sows, gilts and boars is common which may be the only

manifestation. Before attempting treatment for other diseases, it is logical to test for

brucellosis in herds in which sterility is a problem. Sterility in sows is more frequently

temporary but may be permanent. In boars, orchitis, usually unilateral, may occur and

fertility appears to be reduced. There is no vaccine for brucellosis in swine. Control is

based on test and segregation as well as slaughter of infected breeding stock.

Brucellosis remains a problem in feral swine and is a potential source of infection for

domesticated herds and people.

In Horses

Horses can be infected with Brucella abortus or B suis. Suppurative

bursitis, most commonly recognized as fistulous withers or poll evil is the most

common condition associated with brucellosis in horses. Occasionally, abortion has

been reported. It is unlikely that infected horses are a source of the disease for other

horses, other animal species or people.

In Dogs

B. canis is a cause of abortion at 45–55 days of gestation in kenneled dogs.

Dogs are the only definitive host of this organism. Infection causes reduction of 75%



in the number of pups weaned in some breeding kennels. The disease disseminates

rapidly among closely confined dogs, especially at time of breeding or when abortions

occur. Transmission occurs via ingestion of contaminated materials or venereal

routes. Urine transmission has been reported but seems to be unusual. Both sexes

appear to be equally susceptible.

Primary signs are abortion during the last trimester of pregnancy without

premonitory signs, stillbirths and conception failures. Prolonged vaginal discharge

usually follows abortion. Abortions may occur during subsequent pregnancies.

Infected dogs may develop generalized lymphadenitis and frequently epididymitis,

periorchitis and prostatitis. Bacteremia is frequent and persists for 18 months after

exposure. Fever is not characteristic.

In Human

The disease in human is caused by B. melitensis. In humans, symptoms

may include fever (the most common symptom, with high "spikes" that usually occur

in the afternoon),back pain, body wide aches and pains, poor appetite and weight loss,

headache, night sweats, weakness. Symptoms usually appear within five to 30 days

after when the persons come in contact with the bacteria.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic methods include direct tests, involving microbiological analysis

or DNA detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods and indirect

tests, which are applied either in vitro (mainly to milk or blood) or in vivo (allergic

test).

Summary

Brucesllosis is eradicated from livestock populations of most of European

countries, Japan, Canada and USA. It is a “legacy zoonosis” needs the role of One

Health interdisciplinary efforts by human doctors, veterinarians and environmental

health personnel to improve human and livestock well being.

******



BRUCELLOSIS: A RE-EMERGING ZOONOSIS IN INDIA

Siddiqui M.F.M.F., S.P. Waghmare, K.S. Pajai, S.G. Deshmukh and S.D. Chepte Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex, PGIVAS, Akola


Brucellosis is one of the world’s major zoonoses, which is endemic in India

caused mainly by Brucella abortus and B. melitensis and is readily transmissible to

human as an occupational hazard. The disease in cattle seems to be associated

primarily with intensive farming practices in large organized animal farms (Smits and

Kadri, 2005). Brucellosis is widely prevalent in India among the bovine population

both in farms and in the villages. It causes heavy economic loss to the animal industry

through abortion, delayed conception, temporary or permanent infertility in the

affected animals. Based on the epidemiological data of active surveillance

programme, it is estimated that due to Brucellosis, there is a loss of US$58.8 million

per year in India.

Brucellosis is an important re-emerging infectious disease. The disease is

closely associated with the evolution of mankind as an agrarian society linked to the

practice of shepherding and popularization of animal husbandry. Brucellosis was

predominant in the mediterranean region and its history has been associated with

military campaigns. Brucellosis has undoubtedly evolved as a disease since man first

domesticate the animals. This disease was fully elucidated by Sir David Bruce,

Hughes and Zammit working in Malta. Brucella abortus was discovered by Bang, the

cause of abortion in cattle and undulant fever in human beings.

Brucellosis is an important zoonotic disease with a worldwide distribution.

It is still an uncontrolled serious public health problem in many developing countries

including India. Brucellosis in India is yet a very common but often neglected disease.

Currently, Brucella melitensis accounts for most recorded cases globally with cattle

emerging as a important reservoir with the few cases of B. suis. Isolated cases of non-

terrestrial brucellosis and continuing transmission from wild animals have raised

important epidemiological issues. Routine serological surveillance along with high

clinical suspicion and screening of family members of index cases would be essential

in delineating the real magnitude of human brucellosis in endemic countries.

Increased business and leisure travel to endemic countries have led to diagnostic

challenge in non-endemic areas. Laboratory testing is indispensable for diagnosis.

Advances in newer rapid, sensitive and specific testing methodologies and alternate

treatment strategies are urgently needed. A safe and effective vaccine in human is not

yet available. Prevention is dependent upon increasing public awareness through

health education programmes and safe livestock practices. Active co-operation

between health and veterinary services should be promoted.



Brucella species are gram-negative, partially acid fast, aerobic, facultative

intracellular coccobacilli or short rods. They are oxidase, catalase, nitrate reductase

and urease positive. B. abortus preferentially infects cattle, B. melitensis in sheep and

goats, B. suis in pigs and B. canis in dogs. Above species infect humans with B.

melitens is being the most common.

Global scenario

Brucellosis remains a major debilitating illness. It is more prevalent in

western parts of Asia, India, Middle Eastern, Southern European and Latin American

countries. Human brucellosis is found to have significant presence in rural/nomadic

communities where people live in close association with animals. Worldwide,

reported incidence of human brucellosis in endemic disease areas varies from <0.01 to

>200 per 100,000 population. For example, Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran,

Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia and Syrian Arab Republic reported a combined annual

total of more than 90,000 cases of human brucellosis in 1990 (Awad 1998).

Indian scenario

Brucellosis is a significant and increasing veterinary and public health

problem in India. In India 80% of the population live in approximately 575000

villages and thousands of small towns have close contact with domestic/wild animal

population owing to their occupation. Hence, human population stands at a greater

risk of acquiring zoonotic diseases including brucellosis. The disease has an added

importance in countries like India, where conditions are conducive for wide-spread

human infection on account of unhygienic conditions and poverty. Species of main

concern in India are B. melitensis and B. abortus. B. melitensis is the most virulent

and common strain for man and it causes severe and prolonged disease with a risk of

disability. B. abortus is the dominant species in cattle. Bovine brucellosis is

widespread in India and appears to be on the increase in recent times, perhaps due to

increased trade and rapid movement of livestock (Renukaradhya et al. 2002).

However, the epidemiological data on this disease is frequently incomplete. This is

partly explained by the absence of proper laboratory facilities, lack of awareness of

endemicity, under-reporting as well as poor co-operation and exchange of information

between veterinary and health services.

Disease spectrum

The most common presenting symptom is fever. The symptoms and signs

most commonly reported are fever, fatigue, malaise, chills, sweats, headaches,

myalgia, arthralgia and weight loss (Kochar et al. 2007; Mantur et al. 2007b).

Brucellosis is invariably under-diagnosed, likely because of misleading clinical

picture (Corbel 1997). These febrile patients may be referred to as patients with the

symptoms and signs are confused with those of other diseases. Thus to an unaware

physician, the clinical diagnosis becomes a challenging one.



Clinical findings in patients infected with B. melitensis are fever, joint

pain, low backache, night sweats, cough, breathlessness, haemoptysis, testicular pain,

scrotal swelling, burning micturition, pain in abdomen, nausea, vomiting, anorexia,

jaundice, headache, fatigue, papules, mouth ulcers, convulsions, splenomegaly,

hepatomegaly, hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy, jerky movements of limbs,

burning feet, swollen hand and weakness.

Diagnosis

Clinicians practicing in endemic areas must be familiar with this disease

and develop a high degree of clinical suspicion based on epidemiological information.

Diagnostic tools include isolation and identification of Brucellae from clinical

samples, detection of antigen, genome, and antibodies. Blood culture provides definite

proof of brucellosis but may not provide a positive result for all patients. Other tests

are polymerase chain reaction, antigen detection, genome detection, antibody

detection, agglutination tests, ELISA, etc.

Treatment and Prevention

The treatment recommended by the World Health Organization for acute

brucellosis in adults is rifampicin 600 to 900mg and doxycycline100mg twice daily

for a minimum of six weeks (FAO/WHO 1986). Some still claim that the results of

the SAT and 2ME tests at different follow-up times. In most cases, in spite of falling

to low levels, Brucella SAT titres remained measurable with significant titres despite

an effective therapy and clinical cure, but there was a sustained drop in 2ME titres.

Combination of intramuscular streptomycin (1 g/day for 2-3 weeks) with an oral

tetracycline (2 g/day for 6 weeks) gives fewer relapses. Trimethoprim-

sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX) is a popular compound in many areas, usually used in

triple regimens. Various combinations that incorporate ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin

have been tried clinically, yielding similar efficacy to that of the classic regimens.

Additional experience is needed in order to determine the role of fluoroquinolones in

the treatment of brucellosis. Alternatives to the classic drugs like gentamycin or

streptomycin and the efficacy of alternative drug combinations have been partially

explored needing further elucidation in controlled trials before they become treatment

regimens. This search becomes pertinent in the view of today’s treatment regimens

incorporating antitubercular drugs. Childhood brucellosis can be successfully treated

with a combination of two drugs; Doxycycline 4 mg/kg/day and rifampicin 10 mg/kg

/day orally for six weeks. Some authors advise that gentamycin (5 mg/kg/day

intramuscularly) be administered concomitantly for the initial 5-7 days of therapy in

order to prevent relapse (Hall 1990; Mantur et al. 2004a). TMP/SMX 8 mg/40

mg/kg/day can be used for children < 6 years of age. Rifampicin with or without a

combination of TMP/SMX has proved safe to treat brucellosis during pregnancy.

Relapses can be treated with a repeated course of the usual antibiotic regimens.



Most complications of brucellosis can be adequately treated with standard

regimens with few requiring longer courses. In many countries, the use of B. abortus

strain vaccine in cattle and B. melitensis strain Rev1 vaccine in goats and sheep has

resulted in the elimination or near-elimination of brucellosis in these animals. A plan

for the control of bovine brucellosis has already been developed in India

(Renukaradhya et al. 2002). Also, the Government of India has made it mandatory to

regularly screen all the breeding bulls from artificial insemination centres for

brucellosis and to use brucellosis free bulls for semen production. However, as

brucellosis transmitted from small ruminants poses a significant health risk factor,

efforts are urgently required to control brucellosis in goats and sheep also. Studies are

ongoing to develop an effective vaccine against B. suis. Since the treatment of animal

brucellosis is very expensive, one should encourage the mass immunization of

livestock. Animal owners should be taught about the importance of vaccination of

their animals.

******



EBOLA : A DEADLY VIRAL DISEASE

Siddiqui M. F. M. F. and S.P. Waghmare Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex, PGIVAS, Akola


Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever,

is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. The virus is transmitted to people from wild

animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission.

The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied

from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks.

Ebola virus disease (EVD) first appeared in 1976 in 2 simultaneous

outbreaks, one in what is now, Nzara, South Sudan, and the other in Yambuku,

Democratic Republic of Congo. The latter occurred in a village near the Ebola River,

from which the disease takes its name. Mabalo Lokella was the first patient suffered

from Ebola disease.

The current outbreak in West Africa, (first cases notified in March 2014), is

the largest and most complex Ebola outbreak since the Ebola virus was first

discovered in 1976. There have been more cases and deaths in this outbreak than all

others combined. It has also spread between countries starting in Guinea then

spreading across land borders to Sierra Leone and Liberia, by air (1 traveller) to

Nigeria and USA (1 traveller), and by land to Senegal (1 traveller) and Mali (2

travellers).

The most severely affected countries, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone,

have very weak health systems, lack human and infrastructural resources, and have

only recently emerged from long periods of conflict and instability. On August 8, the

WHO Director-General declared the West Africa outbreak a Public Health

Emergency of International Concern under the International Health Regulations

(2005).

The virus family Filoviridae includes three genera: Cuevavirus,

Marburgvirus, and Ebolavirus. There are five species that have been identified: Zaire,

Bundibugyo, Sudan, Reston and Taï Forest. The first three, Bundibugyo ebolavirus,

Zaire ebolavirus, and Sudan ebolavirus have been associated with large outbreaks in

Africa. The virus causing the 2014 West African outbreak belongs to the Zaire

species.

Ebola virus is Long, filamentous, “Thread like” structure of a filovirus “U”

or “6” appearance, enveloped, 80 nm in diameter and 800 nm in general, but may be

up to 1000 nm long.



Source of Infection

Direct contact, Blood, secretions, organs, Unsterilized needles, Wild

Animals, Contagiousness, Personal contact.

� Virus present in high quantity in blood, body fluids, and excreta of symptomatic

EVD-infected patients

� Opportunities for human-to-human transmission

� Direct contact (through broken skin or unprotected mucous membranes) with an

EVD-infected patient’s blood or body fluids

� Sharps injury (with EVD-contaminated needle or other sharp)

� Direct contact with the person who died of EVD

� Indirect contact with an EVD-infected patient’s blood or body fluids via a

contaminated object (soiled linens or used utensils)

� Ebola can also be transmitted via contact with blood, fluids, or meat of an infected

animal

� Semen is also a source of infection.

Who is at risk

� People exposed to wild animals like Veterinarian, paravets, animal attendants etc

� People depending on wild animals such as bats as a food source

� Mortuary attendants handling the cases of Ebola

� Health workers caring for Ebola VD patients

� Health workers in hospital settings with poor basic hygiene and sanitation

practices

� Family members of an infected patients who are in direct contact with the patient.

Ebola in Domestic animals

� Dogs and pigs : identified as species that can be infected with EBOV

� In 2009 EBOV -Reston was the first EBOV reported to infect swine with

indicated transmission to humans

� Pigs infected with EBOV: develop clinical disease, depending on the virus

species and possibly the age of the infected animals

� Other animals affected: Goats, Horses and Guinea pigs

Symptoms of Ebola virus disease

The incubation period, that is, the time interval from infection with the

virus to onset of symptoms is 2 to 21 days. Humans are not infectious until they

develop symptoms. First symptoms are the sudden onset of fever fatigue, muscle pain,

headache and sore throat. This is followed by vomiting, diarrhoea, rash, symptoms of



impaired kidney and liver function, and in some cases, both internal and external

bleeding (e.g. oozing from the gums, blood in the stools).

Laboratory Diagnosis

� ELISA, Antigen detection tests, Serum neutralization test- serological surveys

� PCR, Virus isolation by cell culture., Skin biopsies

� Low white blood cell and platelet counts and elevated liver enzymes.

Treatment

No FDA-approved vaccine or medicine (e.g., antiviral drug) is available for

Ebola. Symptoms of Ebola and complications are treated as they appear. The

following basic interventions, when used early, can significantly improve the chances

of survival:

� Providing intravenous fluids (IV) and balancing electrolytes (body salts)

� Maintaining oxygen status and blood pressure

� Treating other infections if they occur.

Experimental vaccines and treatments for Ebola are under development, but

they have not yet been fully tested for safety or effectiveness.

Recovery from Ebola depends on good supportive care and the patient’s

immune response. People who recover from Ebola infection develop antibodies that

last for at least 10 years, possibly longer. It is not known if people who recover are

immune for life or if they can become infected with a different species of Ebola.

Some people who have recovered from Ebola have developed long-term

complications, such as joint and vision problems.

Even after recovery, Ebola might be found in some body fluids, including

semen. The time it takes for Ebola to leave the semen is different for each man. For

some men who survived Ebola, the virus left their semen in three months. For other

men, the virus did not leave their semen for more than nine months. Based on the

results from limited studies conducted to date, it appears that the amount of virus

decreases over time and eventually leaves the semen.

Prevention and Control

� Practice careful hygiene. For example, wash your hands with soap and water or an

alcohol-based hand sanitizer and avoid contact with blood and body fluids (such

as urine, feces, saliva, sweat, urine, vomit, breast milk, semen, and vaginal fluids).

� Do not handle items that may have come in contact with an infected person’s

blood or body fluids (such as clothes, bedding, needles, and medical equipment).

� Avoid funeral or burial rituals that require handling the body of someone who has

died from Ebola.

� Avoid contact with bats and nonhuman primates or blood, fluids, and raw meat

prepared from these animals.



� Avoid facilities in West Africa where Ebola patients are being treated. The U.S.

embassy or consulate is often able to provide advice on facilities.

� Avoid contact with semen from a man who has had Ebola until you know Ebola is

gone from his semen.

� After you return, monitor your health for 21 days and seek medical care

immediately if you develop symptoms of ebola.

� Healthcare workers who may be exposed to people with Ebola should follow these

steps:

� Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).

� Practice proper infection control and sterilization measures.

� Isolate patients with Ebola from other patients.

� Avoid direct, unprotected contact with the bodies of people who have died from

Ebola.

� Notify health officials if you have had direct contact with the blood or body fluids,

such as but not limited to, feces, saliva, urine, vomit, and semen of a person who

is sick with Ebola. The virus can enter the body through broken skin or

unprotected mucous membranes in, for example, the eyes, nose, or mouth.

Advise to people travelling to affected area

� Avoid direct contact with blood or bodily fluids of a patient or a corpse and with

objects possibly contaminated

� Avoid close contact with wild animals and consumption of ‘bush meat’

� Avoid having unprotected sexual intercourse

� Those who are providing medical care or involved in the evaluation of an

outbreak should wear protective clothing, including masks, gloves, gowns, eye

protection and practice

� Proper infection prevention and control measures.

******



ONE HEALTH APPROACH : PROSPECTS FOR CONTROL OF

RABIES IN INDIA

Waghmare S.P. and M.F.M.F. Siddiqui Teaching Veterinary Clinical Complex, PGIVAS, Akola


Rabies is one of the oldest most feared and important zoonotic diseases and

threats to public health. It has been recognized in India since the Vedic period (1500–

500 BC) and is described in the ancient Indian scripture Atharvaveda. Preliminary

data suggest that almost 60000 human deaths occur from rabies globally per year,

which is more than that attributed to any other single zoonotic disease. In south-

eastern Asia the disease is still an important public health problem. An estimated 45%

of all deaths from rabies occur in south-eastern Asian countries. The situation is

especially pronounced in India, which has reported an estimated 25,000 – 30,000

human deaths from rabies annually. Rabies is endemic in India. It is suggested that

about 36% of the world’s rabies deaths occur in India each year, most of those when

children come into contact with infected dogs.

In India, about 15 million people are bitten by animals, mostly dogs, every

year and need post exposure prophylaxis. The majority of people who die of rabies

are people of poor or low-income socioeconomic status and affects mainly children

between the ages of 5 and 15 years. Indian children often play near stray dogs, which

are many and roam freely and are used to sharing their food with them, which results

in frequent bites.

Rabies incidence in India has been constant for a decade, without any

declining trend and reported incidence is probably an underestimation of true

incidence because in India rabies is still not a notifiable disease and there is no

organized surveillance system of human or animal cases. This situation is rooted in a

general lack of awareness of preventive measures, which translates into insufficient

dog vaccination, an uncontrolled canine population, poor knowledge of proper post-

exposure prophylaxis on the part of many medical professionals and an irregular

supply of anti-rabies vaccine and immunoglobulin, particularly in primary-health-care

facilities.

Rabies is caused by neurotropic viruses (RNA virus) belonging to the genus

lyssavirus within the family Rhabdoviridae. The virus survives in a diverse variety of

animal species, including bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, wolves, coyotes,

dogs, mongoose, weasels, cats, cattle, domestic farm animals, groundhogs, bears

and wild carnivores. Bats are thought to be the reservoir for lyssaviruses. The dog is

the main reservoir of rabies in India. The number of cases involving monkey bites has

been increasing in the last few years. Monkeys are susceptible to rabies and their bites

necessitate post exposure prophylaxis. Dogs are the principal vector for human rabies



and are responsible for more than 99% of human cases. Most animal bites in India

(91.5%) are by dogs, of which about 60% are strays and 40% pets. The incidence of

animal bites is 17.4 per 1000 population. Hence controlling rabies in dogs and

especially free roaming (stray) dogs is the first priority for prevention of human

rabies. Rabies has been successfully controlled in dog populations throughout the

Americas and rabies in both dog and terrestrial wildlife populations has been

successfully eliminated from Western Europe.

According to one study, only 70% of the people in India have ever heard of

rabies, only 30% know to wash the wounds after animal bites and of those who get

bitten, only 60% receive a modern cell-culture-derived vaccine. Sometimes patients

are advised to watch the offending animal for abnormal behaviour for 10 days after a

bite before seeking prophylactic treatment, but because animals can be asymptomatic

carriers, such delay can be risky. It would be safer to administer the complete course

of anti-rabies vaccination to anyone who gets bitten by an animal.

The nerve tissue vaccines have been replaced with more immunogenic and

safer cell-culture-derived vaccines (CCVs).The rabies monoclonal antibodies, which

is capable of neutralizing a broad range of RABV isolates from across the globe, to

replace RIG, might further promote the use of passive immunity in rabies endemic

areas where it is most needed. These preparations are undergoing clinical trials.

Development of recombinant rabies vaccines has been proposed through the

application of reverse genetics to generate rabies viruses with modified properties.

Rabies is preventable via several approved post-exposure prophylaxis

recommendations in animals and human, which consist of thorough wound-cleansing

and prompt administration of rabies immune globulin (RIG), together with a full

course of rabies vaccination. Wounds should be cleansed with soap or a virucidal

antiseptic (eg, povidone iodine) with copious irrigation and should not be sutured

unless absolutely necessary. Post-exposure prophylaxis should be started as soon as

possible after a recognized exposure and includes a series of injections of rabies

vaccine. It should be injected into and around the wound site, ideally on the day of

exposure or up to 7 days after the initial dose of vaccine.

Indeed, experts say that the main constraint to rabies elimination in India is

the lack of coordination and the lack of a comprehensive national programme. They

agree that since India shares borders with six countries that are all rabies endemic, it is

essential that India’s rabies control efforts are coordinated regionally. Meanwhile the

government is doing more to promote rabies awareness with initiatives such as a pilot

project to prevent human rabies deaths launched by the National Centre for Disease

Control (NCDC) – formerly the National Institute of Communicable Disease in 2008.

The pilot includes training of health professionals in animal-bite management and

raising public awareness about the need to seek post-exposure treatment, notably

through posting messages on buses and in other public places.



A high proportion of cases of rabies involve childhood fatalities and

therefore rabies should be considered an important paediatric disease. The

combination of an existing rabies human vaccine with a standard childhood vaccine

regimen should be a priority to ensure global vaccination against rabies of children

living in low income countries. This strategy would involve the incorporation of

rabies vaccination into the existing childhood Expanded Programme on Immunization

(EPI) schedule.

Unlike other viruses targeted for elimination, rabies will never be

eradicated because of the presence of lyssaviruses in bats. The realistic aim in the 21st

century is to enhance efforts towards the elimination of rabies in dogs with the

resultant reduction of human mortality, The strategic approach for programmes aimed

at the elimination of canine rabies should focus on a multidisciplinary core of

disparate groups, including representatives from public and private sectors (ie,

vaccine manufacturers, policy makers, scientists, veterinarians, and clinicians) with

the overall vision of elimination of human rabies. This collaborative multidisciplinary

initiative, often termed the ‘One Health approach’, is a step towards combating rabies

through the mass vaccination of dogs and humane management of dog populations.

Financial support for these initiatives will be needed. Such programmes are at present

paid for by charitable foundations, sponsors and financial donors working in

partnership with global institutions.

Alongside these measures the OIE have developed an animal vaccine

repository that it uses to supply various regions with vaccine. The Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has proposed a Progressive Control

Pathway towards rabies elimination, with the final stage of the pathway being the

maintenance of a freedom from rabies in humans and animals. Its key components are

performance, vision, and strategy. With this in mind WHO, OIE and the Food and

Agricultural Organization have proposed a strategy for the elimination of human

rabies transmitted by dogs in rabies-endemic countries; recommending this should be

a realistic goal by 2030.

The contribution of nongovernmental organizations has also been a crucial

part of an improving picture, notably from the Rabies in Asia Foundation, the

Association for Prevention and Control of Rabies in India and the Animal Welfare

Board of India, which is promoting the Animal Birth Control (ABC) Anti-Rabies

Programme in major cities. In this program, stray dogs are impounded, surgically

sterilized and released back into the area from where they were picked up. The

success of this program hinges on the sterilization of 70% of the strays in a given

geographic area within 6 months, before the next reproductive cycle begins; otherwise

the entire effort is negated. This target is difficult to achieve, given the large number

of strays and the limited resources.



Realizing that even at the dawn of 21st century thousands of people in India

are dying from rabies, some of the medical professional bodies such as the Indian

Academy of Pediatrics and the Association for the Prevention and Control of Rabies

has taken action. They have collaborated to create awareness, develop strategies

suitable to the Indian situation, popularize the use of intra-dermal vaccination, with a

view to reduce the high cost of treatment and cooperate with the government to

reduce the incidence of death from rabies, with the ultimate goal of eradicating rabies

from the country. In India, following several measures must be taken to control rabies

effectively.

1. There must be strict implementation of the legal provisions for licensing and

regular vaccination of pet dogs. At the same time, dedicated efforts are needed

to control the population of stray dogs, through animal birth control programs

and mass vaccination and to eliminate suspected infected animals.

2. Public health educational programs are needed to create awareness both in the

medical community and in the public regarding the dangers of inadequately

managed animal bites. The importance of proper wound care, post exposure

vaccination with modern tissue-culture vaccine and the administration of human

rabies immune globulin, where indicated, must be reinforced.

3. Efforts are needed to lower the prohibitive costs of post exposure vaccination by

introducing and popularizing the intra-dermal route of rabies vaccination, which

requires just one-tenth of the intramuscular dose. The possibility of adding pre-

exposure vaccination to the routine childhood immunization schedule should be

considered.

4. The facilities for the surveillance and diagnosis of animal rabies must be

improved in quality and offer wider coverage and human rabies must be made a

mandatory reportable disease.

5. Public education campaigns need to be conducted to make people aware of the

existence of rabies, especially in remote areas and of the vital importance of

seeking medical care immediately after an animal bite.

6. Steps must be taken to ensure the uninterrupted availability of vaccines and anti-

rabies immunoglobulin in all hospitals and in remote primary-health-care

centers..

7. The primary school curriculum should include developing rabies awareness

among students.

8. All dogs should be given vaccine against rabies and stray animals should be

sterilized to reduce the vector population. Rabies should be declared a notifiable

disease and incorporated into a “One Health Programme” in a coordinated

manner at all levels.



9. The highly efficacious, safe and cost-effective cell-culture-derived anti-rabies

vaccines must be made more widely and easily accessible.

10. All children, who are the most frequent victims of bites, should be vaccinated

against rabies as pre-exposure prophylaxis, particularly in areas with an

uncontrolled dog population.

The reduction in cases of human rabies is the multidisciplinary ‘One Health

approach’ to control rabies through the mass vaccination of dogs and control of

canine populations. The collaborative efforts will be required from multiple

stakeholders, including veterinarians, public health officials, legal authorities and

other health care services.

******



ONE HEALTH : DRUG AND PESTICIDE RESIDUE IN ANIMAL

PRODUCTS AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH

Hajare S.W., A.R. Sontakke, N.M. Bhojane, R.S. Ingole, M.V. Ingawale

and M.G. Thorat Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, PGIVAS, Akola


The mission of the One Health focus is to assess and respond to global

health problems arising at the human-water-animal-food interface and to design,

implement, and evaluate practical, cost-effective, and sustainable solutions that focus

on the foundations of health in collaboration with local partners. In this article the

importance of drug/chemical residues in edible animal products like milk, meat and

eggs and their possible risk to the general public has been discussed.

Presence of drugs or antibiotics residue in food above the maximum level

has been recognized worldwide by various public and government authorities.

Antibiotic residues occur in various types of foods of animal origin including milk,

egg and meat due to large-scale application of antibiotics in veterinary practice and

creates problems not only in dairy industry but also have immense public health

significance. Greater attention from a public health aspect is needed on the safety of

drug residues as a result of indiscriminate use of antibiotics and the expanding general

increase of chemicals and drugs in the food supply. The frequent use of antibiotics

may result in drug residues that can be found at different concentration levels in

products from animal origin. In general, harmful effects of drug and chemical residues

may be carcinogenic, teratogenic, reduction in reproductive performance, drug allergy

and acute toxicity or poisoning. In accordance with the label directions of the drug

product, the safety levels must be strictly observed so that meat, milk or egg products

will not contain illegal residues when they are sold for human consumption.

Indiscriminate use of antimicrobial drugs posses a great threat to human

population. Their residues in milk over a long time may produce a variety of

manifestations like individual drug toxicities including drug allergies, carcinogenicity

and most importantly microbial resistance to these specific drugs. Antibiotics are used

largely for three purposes in animals, therapeutic use to treat sick animals,

prophylactic use to prevent infection in animals and as growth promoters to improve

feed utilization and production for their growth promoting properties they are

routinely used at sub-therapeutic levels as animal feed additives. The antibiotic

residues occur in food mainly as a result of therapeutic treatment for animals or

supplementation of animal feed. A limited amount of these arise by the addition of

these antibiotics in preservation of milk, meat, fish and poultry. Microbial resistance

to antibiotics results from prolonged ingestion of small amount of contaminated food.



The Concern over Residues in Food

By definition, a chemical residue is either the parent compound or

metabolite of the parent compound that may accumulate, deposit, or otherwise be

stored within the cells, tissues, organs or edible products (e.g. milk, eggs) of an

animal following its use to prevent, control or treat animal disease, or to enhance

production. Residues can also result from unintentional administration of drugs, or

food additives. Concerns over food residues are economic as well as public health

related. For example, the contamination of milk with antibiotics, most commonly

Penicillin, can affect starter cultures used to make fermented milk products such as

cheeses, buttermilk, sour cream, etc., which can result in economic losses to those

processors.

From public-health viewpoint, both the U.S. government and producers

associations have taken active roles in minimizing antibiotic residues in meats and

milk. Penicillin for example, is known to induce allergic reactions in some sensitive

people, and therefore, penicillin-tainted milk poses a health risk for these individuals.

Similarly, chloramphenicol has been reported to induce blood dyscrasias that may

lead to death; hence its use in food-producing animals has been prohibited by the

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA has also prohibited the use of

nitrofurans in food-producing animals (excluding the topical routes for

administration) because studies have shown them to be carcinogenic. Not only

therapeutic drug but pesticides create residue problems. Most pesticides are

administered topically, allowing some amount of percutaneous absorption and

sequestration in edible tissues. Lindane has been detected in the fat deposits of sheep

dipped in a 0.0125% lindane emulsion 12 weeks after topical exposure. The FDA and

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establish tolerances for a drug, pesticide, or

other chemical in the relevant tissues of food-producing animals. The tolerance is the

tissue concentration below which a marker residue for the drug or a chemical must

fall in the target tissue before that animal’s edible tissue (s) (meat, milk, or eggs) are

considered safe for human consumption. The marker residue may be the parent

compound, or a metabolite, and reflects a known relationship to the total residues of

the drug or chemical (parent and all metabolites). The target tissue is an edible tissue,

frequently liver or kidney which, when the compound has depleted below the

tolerance, assures that all edible tissues are safe for human consumption. Tolerances

for different tissues are considered legal end points for which drug withdrawal times

are established. Tolerances are established based on assessment of potential hazard of

consumption to humans.

Oral toxicity studies are conducted in animals leading to the determination

of an acceptable daily intake (ADI) for the compound in the human diet. These

studies consider the compound’s carcinogenic potential, systemic, reproductive, and

developmental toxicity, and incorporate various safety factors.



Maximum Residue Limit (MRL)

The MRL or tolerance is the target concentration in a residue-depletion

study. It should be established purely on the basis of safety to the person consuming

the product and has no pharmacodynamic reality in the animal to which the drug has

been administered. Tissue tolerances are normally established in fat, milk, muscle,

liver, kidney, skin, or sometime meat by-products. The first step in calculating the

tolerance is to determine the safe concentration of drug that could be consumed by

individuals eating the animal products:Safe concentration = (ADI) (Body weight)/

Food consumption factor. In this equation, ADI refers to acceptable daily intake

which is the maximum amount of chemical (mg/kg) that may be consumed daily over

a lifetime without producing an adverse effect. Body weight is the average weight of

humans consuming the product (usually assumed to be 60 Kg). The food consumption

factor is the amount of edible product estimated to be consumed daily by an

individual. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and other regulatory agencies

have tabulated food-specific consumption factors. Examples (Kg consumed per day)

are 0.3 for muscle, 0.1 for liver, 0.05 for kidney, 0.05 for fat, and 1.5 for milk in USA.

Hazards of Drug Residues

Potentially, there are two types of hazards relating to drug residues i) direct

and short term hazards, and ii) indirect and long term hazards.

Direct and Short Term Hazards

Drugs used in food animals can affect the public health because of their

secretion in edible animal tissues in trace amounts usually called residues. For

example, oxytetracycline and enrofloxacin residues have been found above the

maximum residual level in chicken tissues. Similarly, diclofenac residues were

reported to be the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Some drugs have

the potential to produce toxic reactions in consumers directly; for example,

clenbutarol caused illness in 135 peoples as a result of eating contaminated beef in

Spain in 1990. Other types of drugs are able to produce allergic or hypersensitivity

reactions. For example, β lactam antibiotics can cause cutaneous eruptions, dermatitis,

gastro-intestinal symptoms and anaphylaxis at very low doses. Such drugs include the

penicillin and cephalosporin groups of antibiotics.

Indirect and Long Term Hazards

Indirect and long term hazards include microbiological effects,

carcinogenicity, reproductive effects and teratogenicity. Antibiotic residues consumed

along with edible tissues like milk, meat and eggs can produce resistance in bacterial

populations in the consumers. This is one of the major reasons of therapeutic failures

amongst such peoples. Certain drugs like 3-nitrofurans and nitroimidiazoles can cause

cancer in human population. Similarly, some drugs can produce reproductive and



teratogenic effects at very low doses consumed for a prolonged period of time. One

such example is vaginal clear cell adenocarcinoma and benign structural

abnormalities of uterus with diethylstilbesterol.

Residue Prevention

Although public awareness of the drug residue problem in food is high and

several governmental agencies spend large amounts of time attempting to control this

problem, residues in animal tissues are still an important concern today. The

responsibility for residue control and prevention cannot lie solely within a

governmental agency; rather the responsibility must be shared by the government,

producers, veterinarians, teachers and academicians, marketing associations, and other

interested parties, who must strive for both healthy and efficiently grown animals as

well as a safe food supply.Several approaches can be taken to achieve this goal: The

first step in residue prevention is to make individuals and organizations aware of the

problem through education.

How These Issues Can Be Handled?

Such problems can be resolved by taking into consideration three steps i.e.

risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. Basically, risk assessment

is a systematic scientific characterization of potential adverse health effects following

exposure to hazardous agents. Results from the risk assessment are used to inform risk

management, who work with factors like social importance of risk, social

acceptability of the risk, economic impacts etc. Finally, risk communication involves

making the risk assessment and risk management information comprehensible to

lawyers, politicians, judges, environmentalists and community groups.

One basic step to build this foundation is the determination of residue

levels in our foods. When the animal is slaughtered or its edible products are

collected, there is a legal requirement that drug concentrations in these products are

not at levels greater than those established as safe by the relevant regulatory authority

in the country of origin. In many countries of the world, this upper level is referred to

as the maximum residue level (MRL), or it is termed as tolerance.

Conclusion

Veterinarians must be well aware of the importance of drug/chemical

residues in the food animals and their possible risk to the general public. They must

have updated information about the proper withdrawal times of all the

drugs/chemicals used in their areas of practice. They must extend this information to

the livestock and poultry farmers for the production of residue free edible animal

products like milk, meat and eggs. For residue analysis, trained manpower are needed.

In this regard, the availability of sensitive equipment and modern analytical

techniques are of paramount importance.

******



ECHINOCOCCOSIS : AN EMERGING AND RE-EMERGING

CYCLOZOONOSIS OF GLOBAL IMPORTANCE

Ingole R.S., V.P. Pathak, M.V. Ingawale, S.W. Hajare and M.G. Thorat Department of Veterinary Pathology, PGIVAS, Akola


Echinococcosis is caused by several species of Echinococcus, tiny cestode

parasites in the family Taeniidae. Among currently recognized species Echinococcus

granulosus sensu lato, E. multilocularis, E. vogeli, E. oligarthrus and possibly E.

shiquicus have been identified as most prevalent infecting a wide range of domestic

and wild animals. Echinococcosis is a major public health problem in some countries,

and it may be emerging or re-emerging in some areas. Some strains or species of

Echinococcus affect people infrequently, or grow relatively slowly and are less likely

to cause disease. The incubation period for echinococcosis varies from months to

years. It can be as long as 20-30 years, if the cyst grows slowly and is not in a critical

location. The two most important forms of the disease in humans are cystic

echinococcosis (hydatidosis) and alveolar echinococcosis. Both cystic echinococcosis

and alveolar echinococcosis represent a substantial disease burden. Many of these

people will be experiencing severe clinical syndromes which are life-threatening if

left untreated. Even with treatment, people often face reduced quality of life.

Approximately 2-3 million human cases are thought to occur worldwide.

For cystic echinococcosis, there is an average of 2.2% post-operative death rate for

surgical patients and about 6.5% of cases relapse after intervention, thereby requires

prolonged recovery time. Present estimates suggest that cystic echinococcosis results

in the loss of between 1 million to 3 million disability-adjusted life years annually.

Annual costs associated with cystic echinococcosis are estimated to be US$ 3 billion

for treating cases and losses to the livestock industry. Alveolar echinococcosis results

in the loss of about 650 000 disability-adjusted life year annually, with most of the

disease burden concentrated in western China.

History of Echinococcosis

Echinococcosis is a disease that has been recognized by humans for

centuries. It was also recognized by ancient scholars such as Hippocrates, Aretaeus,

Galen and Rhazes. The first step towards figuring out the cause of echinococcosis

occurred during the 17th century when Francesco Redi illustrated that the hydatid

cysts of echinococcosis were of “animal” origin. Then, in 1766, Pierre Simon

Pallas predicted that these hydatid cysts found in infected humans were actually larval

stages of tapeworms. A few decades afterwards, in 1782, Goeze accurately described

the cysts and the tapeworm heads while in 1786; E. granulosus was accurately

described by Batsch. Half a century later, during the 1850s, Karl von Siebold showed



through a series of experiments that Echinococcus cysts do cause adult tapeworms in

dogs. Shortly after this, in 1863, E. multilocularis was identified by Rudolf Leuckart.

Then, during the early to mid 1900s, the more distinct features of E. granulosus and

E. multilocularis, their life cycles and how they cause disease were more fully

described as more and more people began researching and performing experiments

and studies. While E. granulosus and E. multilocularis were both linked to human

echinococcosis before or shortly after the 20th century, it wasn’t until the mid 1900s

that E. oligarthrus and E. vogeli were identified as and shown as being causes of

human echinococcosis.

Where is the disease found?

Areas of the world where there is a high rate of infection often coincide

with rural, grazing areas where dogs are able to ingest organs from infected animals.

Very few countries are considered to be completely free of E. granulosus. Within an

area, its distribution may be focal. Each strain/ species has a distinct geographic

range. Of the five species, Echinococcus granulosus is found all over the world. The

G1 sheep strain is cosmopolitan; it has been reported in Europe, the Middle East,

Africa, parts of Asia, Australian, New Zealand, and North and South America. E.

multilocularis is widespread in the northern hemisphere, while two species, E.

oligarthus and E. vogeli are found only in Central and South America. The fifth, E.

shiquicus, was discovered in 2006 in the People’s Republic of China. E. granulosus

and E. multilocularis are most important for zoonotic risk. In contrast the Latin

American species rarely infect humans, and the zoonotic status of E. shiquicus is

unknown.

In livestock, the prevalence of cystic echinococcosis found in

slaughterhouses in hyperendemic areas of South America varies from 20%–95% of

slaughtered animals. The highest prevalence is found in rural areas where older

animals are slaughtered. Data about prevalence of hydatid cysts in important food

producing animals in India were obtained from previously published abattoir based

epidemiological surveys that reported a prevalence of 5.39% in cattle, 4.36% in

buffaloes, 3.09% in pigs, 2.23% in sheep and 0.41% in goats. Depending on the

infected species involved, livestock production losses attributable to cystic

echinococcosis stem from liver condemnation, reduction in carcass weight, decrease

in hide value, decrease of milk production, and reduced fertility. It is believed that in

the coming years, it will be an emerging or re-emerging disease in certain countries as

a result of E. multilocularis’ ability to spread.

Transmission of the disease

A number of herbivorous and omnivorous animals act as intermediate hosts

of echinococcus but the most widespread cycle exists for E. granulosus between dogs

and sheep. This means they get infected by ingesting the parasite eggs in the

contaminated ground and develop parasitic larval stages in their viscera. Carnivores



are definitive hosts for the parasite, and are infected through the consumption of

viscera of intermediate hosts that harbour the parasite and also through scavenging

infected carcasses.

Humans are so-called accidental intermediate hosts, acquiring the infection

in the same way described above for the intermediate hosts, but are not able to

transmit the disease. Cystic echinococcosis is principally maintained in a dog–sheep–

dog cycle, yet several other domestic animals may be involved, including goats,

swine, horses, cattle, camels and yaks. Alveolar echinococcosis usually occurs in a

wildlife cycle between foxes, other carnivores and small mammals (mostly rodents).

Domesticated dogs and cats can also be infected.

Clinical Signs

Echinococcus spp are usually carried asymptomatically in their definitive

hosts. Large numbers of parasites may be able to cause enteritis and diarrhea, but this

seems to be rare; thousands of adult parasites have been found in asymptomatic dogs

and foxes.

The symptoms of echinococcosis in humans depend on the size, number

and the location of the metacestodes. There may however be multiple cysts of E.

granulosus which can also occur in the brain, kidneys, bones, or testes causing more

severe illness. Until the cysts become large enough to damage adjacent tissues and

organs, they are usually asymptomatic.

In infected livestock with E. granulosus there can be reduced growth,

decreased production of milk, meat and wool, reduced birth rate and losses due to

condemnation of organs at post mortem examination. However, the cysts grow slowly

so that many infected animals are slaughtered before the cysts ever cause disease

problems.

Economic Losses

In India sensitivity analyses revealed a total annual median loss of Rs.

11.47 billion (approx. US $ 212.35 million). Cattle and buffalo industry accounted for

most of the losses: 93.05% and 88.88% of the animal and total losses, respectively.

Human hydatidosis related losses were estimated to be Rs. 472.72 million (approx.

US $ 8.75 million) but are likely to be an under-estimate due to under-reporting of the

disease in the country. The human losses more than quadrupled to Rs. 1953 million

i.e. approx. US $ 36.17 million, when the prevalence of human undiagnosed cases

was increased to 0.2% in the sensitivity analyses.

Surveillance, prevention and control

WHO assists countries to develop and implement pilot projects leading to

the validation of effective cystic echinococcosis control strategies by 2020.

Surveillance for cystic echinococcosis in animals is difficult because the infection is



asymptomatic in livestock and dogs. Surveillance is also not recognized or prioritized

by communities or local veterinary services.

Following preventive and control measures are suggested for prevention

and control of hydatid disease in animals-

1. Registration of dogs, control of stray dog population through animal birth

control scheme.

2. Regular deworming of domesticated as well as stray dogs that may have eaten

uncooked flesh.

3. Personal hygiene after handling of dogs, careful and scientific disposal of cyst

positive organ.

4. The detection of dogs with E. granulosus infection is very important, since

current control programs should be only based mainly on definitive hosts

treatment with the aim of interrupting the life cycle of the parasite.

5. Because the egg stage is crucial in the echinococcal life cycle, successful

suppression of egg development by regular deworming would halt transmission

to intermediate hosts, thereby effecting long-term control.

6. Molecular diagnosis in intermediate host through PCR can be used as diagnostic

tools for hydatidosis but it is having limitation as it requires cyst wall or cyst

fluid.

7. Proper education, creating awareness, and implementing strict rules regarding

the disposal of remains of slaughtered animals can help to eradicate this disease.

8. The development of vaccine and diagnostic test for E. granulosus in definitive

as well as intermediate host is highly desirable in order to provide long term

prevention of the disease and to complement control program.

******



LEPTOSPIROSIS: AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Thorat M.G., Suryavanshipatil Suchitra, F.A. Fani, S.D. Chepte

and R.V. Raulkar Department of Veterinary Surgery & Radiology, PGIVAS, Akola


Leptospirosis is one of the most recognized zoonotic diseases around the

world and has been reported from every continent inhabited by man.Human infections

result from accidental contact with carrier animals or environment contaminated with

leptospires and are primarily associated as an occupational disease.

History

The disease was first described by Adolf Weil in1886 when he reported an"

acute infectious disease with enlargement of spleen, jaundice, and nephritis.

"Leptospira was first observed in 1907 from a post mortem renal tissue slice. In

1908, Inada and Ito first identified it as the causative organism and in 1916 noted its

presence in rats. Terms used in early 20th century descriptions of leptospirosis include

the pseudo-dengue of Java, seven-day fever, autumn fever, Akiyama disease, and

marsh or swamp fever. L icterohaemorrhagiae was identified as the causative agent in

pre-World War II outbreaks in Japan, which was characterized by jaundice and a high

mortality rate. In October 2010 British rower Andy Holmes died after contracting

Weil's Disease. His death has raised awareness of this disease among the public and

medical professionals.

Introduction

Leptospirosis has been recognized as an important emerging zoonotic

disease because of its epidemic presence and increasing incidence in both developing

and developed countries In recent years leptospirosis has assumed considerable

significance being increasingly involved in cases of abortions, repeat breeding and

other reproductive problems in livestock resulting in huge economic losses. In man,

the disease is associated with a mild fever to severe jaundice and death as a result of

multi organ failure.Leptospirosis is known to be endemic in India since the early 20th

century.The first isolate of leptospires from human patients in India was recovered

from the Andaman Islands in 1929. Most outbreaks of leptospirosis in India are

reported from the coastal regions of the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, West Bengal,

Orissa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and the Andaman Islands. Highest rates occur

during October to November which coincides with the monsoon season in these parts.

More recently 209 cases with 12 deaths were reported from Kochi, Kerala. In October

2012, 16 deaths were reported from Surat and Valsad districts of Gujarat.These

alarming reports underline the continued risk this disease poses at this hour.



Etiology

Leptospirosis is caused by spirochaete bacteria belonging to

the genus Leptospira. Greek ‘leptos’=fine and Latin ‘spira’=coil) are ubiquitous

spirochetes.Survival of the leptospirae depends on variation in soil and water

conditions in the contaminated area. They are susceptible to drying, pH lower than 6

or greater than 8, ambient temperatures lower than 7ºC or higher than 34ºC. They can

survive for as long as 183 days in water saturated soil but survives for less than 30

minutes when soil is air dried. It can survive for very long periods in free surface

water.

Animal Reservoirs and Carriers

Carrier, domestic or wild animals maintain and propagate leptospires

within the population. The organisms may then be transmitted to humans directly by

contact with infected urine or indirectly via contaminated soil or water, especially

during flood. Human leptospirosis constitutes a dead-end infection; human to human

transmission is virtually unknown. Rodents and domestic mammals, such as cattle,

pigs and dogs, serve as major reservoir hosts. Infected animals may excrete

leptospires intermittently or regularly for months or years, or even for their lifetime.

Vaccinated animals may still shed infectious organisms in the urine. The predominant

serovars in India are Copenhageni, Autumnalis, Pyrogenes, Grippotyphosa, Canicola,

Australis, Javanica, Sejroe, Louisiana, and Pomona.

Mode of Transmission

Leptospires are ubiquitous. The primary source of leptospires is the

excretor animal, from whose renal tubules leptospires are excreted through the urine

to the environment. Transmission can be direct or indirect. Direct transmission occurs

when leptospires from tissues, body fluids or urine of acutely infected or

asymptomatic carrier animals enter the body of the new host and initiate infection.

Direct transmission among animals can be transplacental, haematogenous, by sexual

contact or by suckling milk from infected mother. Presence of leptospires in genital

tracts as well as transplacental transmission has been demonstrated in animals. It is

considered that the most common entry of leptospires into the host body is through

intact skin. Direct transmission from animals to human beings is common amongst

the occupational groups who handle animals and animal tissue, such as butchers,

veterinarians, cattle and pig farmers, rodent control workers, etc. When the immediate

source of infection is environment contaminated with the urine of carrier animals, the

transmission is termed as indirect.

Clinical Manifestations

The incubation period is usually 7–10 days..Leptospirosis may follow a

biphasic course: a) Septicemic phase and b) Immune phase. The clinical

manifestations are highly variable. In general, the disease presents in four broad

clinical categories: (i) a mild, influenza-like illness; (ii) Weil’s syndrome



characterized by jaundice, renal failure, haemorrhage and myocarditis with

arrhythmias; (iii) meningitis/meningoencephalitis; (iv) pulmonary haemorrhage with

respiratory failure.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of Leptospirosis can be made by observation of clinical

symptoms supported by laboratory investigations where the organism can easily

detected by dark field microscopy in clinical material viz., urine, faetal tissues, blood

etc. Diagnosis of leptospirosis is confirmed with tests such as (ELISA) and (PCR).

The MAT (microscopic agglutination test), a serological test, is considered the gold

standard in diagnosing leptospirosis. LEPTO Dipstick assay is a newly developed test

for rapid diagnosis of leptospirosis and uses a broadly reactive antigen for detecting

chiefly IgM antibodies. Kidney function tests (blood urea nitrogen and creatinine) as

well as blood tests for liver functions are to be performed. Differential diagnosis for

leptospirosis is dengue fever and other hemorrhagic fevers, hepatitis of various

etiologies, viral meningitis, malaria, and typhoid fever.

Treatment

Effective antibiotics include penicillin G, ampicillin, amoxicillin and

doxycycline. In more severe cases cefotaxime or ceftriaxone should be preferred.

Glucose and salt solution infusions may be administered; dialysis is used in serious

cases. Elevations of serum potassium are common and if the potassium level gets too

high special measures must be taken. Serum phosphorus levels may increase to

unacceptable levels due to kidney failure. Treatment for hyperphosphatemia consists

of treating the underlying disease, dialysis where appropriate, or oral administration

of calcium carbonate, but not without first checking the serum calcium levels (these

two levels are related). Corticosteroids administration in gradually reduced doses

(e.g., prednisolone) during 7–10 days is recommended by some specialists in cases of

severe haemorrhagic effects. Organ specific care and treatment are essential in cases

of kidney, liver, or heart involvement.

Prevention and Control

Doxycycline has been provided once a week as a prophylaxis to minimize

infections during outbreaks in endemic regions. Pre-exposure prophylaxis may be

beneficial for individuals traveling to high-risk areas for a short stay. Combinations of

different approaches like rodent control, sanitation, proper management and

immunization have been used to eradicate the disease from dairy and piggeries.

Monovalent and multivalent vaccines are available for animal use. The calves are

vaccinated at 3-5 months of age to counter passive immunity. The vaccination which

offers protection for 6 months should be done by using local strain as the protection

offered is serotype specific. In man, the disease control measures include: Personal

hygiene and protection, Sanitation, Health education and Immunization by Strain-

specific killed vaccines.



Leptospirosis is a major endemic disease of zoonotic importance in India.

Socioeconomic conditions, population density of animals, climatic conditions,

environmental hygiene and occupational habits of humans are determinants of the

incidence and prevalence of the disease in our country. Leptospirosis is preventable.

Host/reservoir control measures, environmental control programs and animal

vaccination, in conjunction with a strong surveillance system may significantly

reduce, if not eliminate, the disease. The comprehensive and good understanding of

the eco-epidemiological and cultural characteristics of a community that faces the

problem of leptospirosis is an essential prerequisite for evolving an effective and

acceptable control measure.

******



GENETICS OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE

Bankar P.S., S.V. Kuralkar, S.S. Ali, A.S. Joshi, M.A. Panhale, V.B. Jawane

and Snehal Patil Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, PGIVAS, Akola


Food security i.e. ‘accessibility of sufficient, safe, nutritious food to

maintain a healthy and active life all the time’ is one of the prime priorities

worldwide. The animal ecology has significant role in human food chain. Use of

antimicrobial agents in human as well as in animals has accelerated the production;

however, created selective pressure and promoted the emergence and spread of

resistant microbes’ viz. animal pathogen, human pathogen with food animal reservoirs

and commensal bacteria. It has been widely experienced in many bacteria viz.

Mycobacterium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Listeria spp., Campylobacter spp. and

many more. The genetic changes in involved in antimicrobials have serious

implications for public health. The interplay between different ecologies of human,

livestock and farm (environment) is important in context with antimicrobial

resistance. The antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is zoonotic health threat now days and

hence required to understand its genetic perspectives.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)

AMR is the resistance of a microbe to an antimicrobial medication that

used to be effective in treating or preventing an infection caused by that microbe. This

resistance is caused by natural; genetic mutation or by misuse of antibiotics or

antimicrobials. Resistant microbes become increasingly difficult to treat, requiring

alternative medications or higher doses, both of which may be more costly or more

toxic. Microbes which are resistant to multiple antimicrobials are called multidrug

resistant (MDR) and such organisms are often referred to as superbugs. The right

patient, drug, dose, route and time of administration of antibiotics are of paramount

importance for prescriber.

AMR and Public health

The use of antibiotics in the human as well as animal population and the

spread of resistant strains between human or non-human sources are prime areas

responsible for increasing drug resistance. Any use of antibiotics can

increase selective pressure in a population of bacteria, causing vulnerable bacteria to

die thereby increasing the relative numbers of resistant bacteria and allowing for

further growth. As resistance to antibiotics becomes more common there is greater

need for alternative treatments. Common types of drug-resistant bacteria

include: methicillin - resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin -

resistant S. aureus (VRSA), extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL), vancomycin -

resistant Enterococcus (VRE), multidrug-resistant A. baumannii (MRAB).



Mechanism of Antibiotic resistance

The animal genome used to influence the susceptibility to bacterial diseases

due to vast range of pathogens and complex host defense mechanism. Many genes are

involved in expression of diseases. Therefore, the genetic aspect of disease resistance,

particularly antimicrobial resistance is essential to understand.

Bacteria are rapidly growing organisms. A typical infection indicating

symptoms will contain 109 to 1012 bacteria. Based on normal genetic variability, the

bacterial population have wide variability of response to individual antibiotic. The

resistance is either chromosome mediated, plasmid mediated or transposon mediated.

If mutation is stable, selection pressure will rapidly increase the number of drug

resistant mutants. Plasmids are non essential; extra chomosomal; self replicating

elements with circular double stranded DNA. The plasmids that encode for

antimicrobial resistance are known as R-factor. The transposons are resistant genes

that are transferred within or between large piece of either chromosomal DNA or

plasmids. A natural non specific immunity is observed due to several factors in

bacterial pathogen viz. resistance due to impenetrable barriers, absence of appropriate

receptor for binding and penetration of cellular membranes, failure to survive after

entering into host, inability to replicate in host, killing or elimination by host defense

mechanism.

Major genes of AMR

With advent of advanced molecular tools, the researchers have reported few

genes that are involved in AMR, as below:

NRAMP- Natural Resistance Associated Macrophage Protein (NRAMP)

gene was identified in mouse (chromosome 1). NRAMP has many pleiotropic effects

influencing phenotypic expression viz. inhibition of bacterial growth; granuloma

formation; production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen products; antigen processing

and MHC calss II molecular expression; enhanced phago lysosomal fusion; regulation

of production and release of KC,TNF, interleukin and cytokines. NRAMP has

microbicidal role against mycobacterium and Salmonella typhimurium in cattle. Sal

gene

Salmonella (Sal) gene is operational against Salmonellosis (S.eneteritidis);

Fowl typhoid (S. gallinarum); Pullorum (S.pullorum) in chicken.

Besides these are few genes recorded are as follows:

Gene Pathogen Role

NOS2 Mycobacterium Inducible macrophage nitric oxide synthase

Cryp Salmonella Paneth cell defensins

Ric Rickettsia T-cell mediated elimination

Lsr1 Listeria Macrophage activation

MHC class I - b Listeria Non-classical MHC antigen presentation to CD8+ T cells



Implications of AMR on genetic improvement

Treatment of disease by administrating antibiotics by selectively targeting

bacteria, directly assist in evolution of resistant bacteria by allowing the survival of

those bacteria that have tolerated the drug. Some pathogen that resides in animals and

can infect human like enteric bacteria (E.coli, Yersenia, Staphylococcus) and can

carry with them their resistance patterns. Thus, exchange of antimicrobial resistance

genes between bacterial species can further maintain the resistance patterns in human

population. Zoonoses may contaminate animals and human by remaining active in

ecosystem. This may lead to new emerging diseases and reduction in ability to react

with adequate vaccines and control strategies thereby.

Molecular tools for controlling AMR

The recent improvements in sequencing technologies various tools can be

aided to control AMR viz. Deep sequencing, Drug-susceptibility testing (DST),

Heteroresistance, Metagenomics, Whole-genome sequencing (WGS), respectively.

The researchers have reported that WGS is an effective tool to control AMR amongst

others. However, appropriate data analysis platforms will need to be developed before

routine WGS can be introduced on a large scale.

In WGS, entire genome is sequenced and it can be used to develop novel

antibiotics (drug development by rapid identification of resistance mechanism);

surveillance of diseases; study of emergence of AMR; to develop diagnostic tests; to

direct infection control measures in clinic and to detect antibiotic resistance in clinics.

The use of antimicrobials for non therapeutic purpose i.e. for growth

promotion in pig; poultry and other beef animals, is not justified for economic reasons

in modern food animal production. The AMR is daunting public health threats

impacting both human and animal health. Breeding for resistance to all bacterial

pathogen is not possible; however, the selection for disease resistance and appropriate

molecular tools can reduce the risk of AMR.

******



ONE HEALTH : HOPEFUL AND ADOPTIVE APPROACH FOR

EMERGING ZOONOSES

Fani Farheen, M.G. Thorat, S.D. Chepte and R.V. Raulkar Department of Veterinary Surgery and Radiology, PGIVAS, Akola


One Health has been defined as "the collaborative effort of multiple

disciplines — working locally, nationally, and globally — to attain optimal health for

people, animals and the environment" "One Health Initiative" is a term that refers to

the concept of multidisciplinary collaborative approaches to solving today's global

and environmental health challenges Urbanization, globalization, climate shift, and

terrorism have brought the need for a more diverse public health workforce to the

forefront of public planning. Deforestation for agriculture can lead to the emergence

of zoonotic diseases. One Health is a unifying concept to bring together human health

care practitioners, veterinarians, and public and environmental health professionals.

By strengthening epidemiologic and laboratory investigations that assess the role of

environmental influences, this partnership can help to develop and apply sustainable

and effective community health interventions. Animals suffer from many of the same

chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes, asthma, and arthritis as

humans. Sometimes a disease entity is recognized in animals long before it is

recognized in humans.

History

One Health is a new phrase, but the concept extends back to ancient times.

The recognition that environmental factors can impact human health can be traced as

far back as to the Greek physician Hippocrates in his text "On Airs, Waters, and

Places". He promoted the concept that public health depended on a clean

environment.The Italian physician Giovanni Maria Lancisi was a pioneering

epidemiologist, physician, and veterinarian, who had a fascination in the role the

physical environment played in the spread of disease in humans and animals. Lancisi

may have been the first to advocate the use of mosquito nets for prevention of malaria

in humans but was also a pioneer in the control of rinderpest in cattle. The idea that

human, animal and environmental healths are linked was further revived during the

French Revolution by Louis-René Villerme and Alexandre Parent-Duchâtelet who

developed the specialty of public hygiene.

In the late 19th century, German physician and pathologist Rudolf Virchow

coined the term "zoonosis", and said "...between animal and human medicine there are

no dividing lines – nor should there be". In 1947, veterinarian James H. Steele

furthered the concept in the U.S. by establishing the field of veterinary public health

at the CDC. The phrase "One Medicine" was developed and promoted by Calvin W.

Schwabe , a veterinary epidemiologist and parasitologist in his textbook "Veterinary



Medicine and Human Health"One Health" was mentioned in a story about Ebola

hemorrhagic fever on April 7, 2003, when Rick Weiss of the Washington Post quoted

William Karesh as saying, "Human or livestock or wildlife health can't be discussed

in isolation anymore. There is just one health and the solutions require everyone

working together on all the different levels

Emerging infectious diseases

An emerging zoonosis is a zoonosis that is newly recognized or newly

evolved, or that has occurred previously but shows an increase in incidence or

expansion in geographical, host or vector range”. By inference it can be assumed that

a disease need not necessarily be a new one in time-space framework to be classified

as emerging. It can be a well-known disease as well. That is important in India’s

context. We have had rabies, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and tuberculosis for long

and yet the maladies strike us regularly at places of their choosing may be in their

newer versions. A related term re-emerging zoonosis (REZ) is used to refer to a well-

known disease which was managed/controlled to a level that posed no imminent

danger to the animals and humans but has since reversed its course to show an

increasing trend in respect of its incidence. Tuberculosis in humans in our country and

elsewhere has assumed a dangerous posture on account of its linkage with HIV/AIDS

and emergence of drug resistant strains.

Many emerging health issues are linked to increasing contact between

humans and animals, intensification and integration of food production, and the

expansion of international travel.As the number of new infectious diseases emerged in

the 20th century, scientists began to recognize the challenges that the societies come

across regarding these threats that largely come from animals. Of the 1,415 microbes

that are known to infect humans, 61 percent come from animals. For example, rodents

transmit plague and typhus to humans and domestic livestock are the original source

of diseases such as measles, mumps, and pertussis. One important exception is

Mycobacteria tuberculosis. Genetic evidence suggests that Mycobacteria tuberculosis

originated in human populations and spread to animals.Chimpanzees were a reservoir

host for the human immunodeficiency virus. Global trade of wildlife exacerbates the

problem of disease emergence.

The avian influenza (HPAI H5N1) epidemic that began in Hong Kong in

1997 forced the global community to recognize that animal health and human health

are linked. The 1997 outbreak affected 18 people, killed 6, and provoked the culling

of 1.5 million birds. The HPAI H5N1 virus resurfaced in isolated outbreaks between

1998–2003 but a widespread outbreak occurred in mid-2003 in South Korea. Delays

in international reporting and weak response measures contributed to the spread of the

virus across South East Asia. In recognition of the global threat that avian influenza

(HPAI H5N1) and other emerging zoonotic diseases posed, the Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO), and World Organization for



Animal Health (OIE) developed a strategic framework, a tripartite agreement to work

more closely together to address the animal-human-ecosystem interface.

Common Emerging diseases in South AsiaWHO/FAO/OIE identified

diseases and agents relevant to South- East Asia. These include avian influenza,

rabies, Japanese encephalitis, leptospirosis, Hanta virus, SARS, Nipah virus,

cysticercosis, echinococcosis and schistosomosis. In addition, plague and anthrax are

also considered important in India

******



BIOSECURITY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT IN POULTRY

Khose K.K., S.J. Manwar, M.A. Gole and M.R. Wade Department of Poultry Science, PGIVAS, Akola


Biosecurity can be defined as the exclusion, eradication and effective

management of risks posed by pests and diseases to the economy, environment and

human health.

“All procedures used to prevent the introduction of disease”

“A set of management practices which reduce the potential for the introduction and

spread of disease causing organisms on to and between sites”

Over the past 40 years, the poultry industry has witnessed tremendous

growth globally. Integration has offered economy of scale and the ability to respond

more quickly and effectively to market demands, which is essential as the poultry

industry faces ever- narrowing profit margins. This has led to dense concentration of

poultry farms in relatively small areas. Simultaneously, there has been a lot of

improvement in the genetic potential of birds. Overall the industry, which has

traditionally been reactive is becoming proactive. The Indian poultry industry has also

undergone a major change. Indian integrated poultry is focusing more on setting

standards for domestically sold chicken and establishing a breeding system for poultry

meat, which together will promote processed chicken retailing in the coming days.

This would demand setting production standards in order to seek legislative support

and meet the ever- growing awareness of consumers, who are now demanding risk

free food.

Biosecurity, which literally means safety of living i.e. is a programme

designed to prevent the exposure of the birds to disease causing organisms by

reducing the introduction and spread of pathogens into and between farms.

Biosecurity is the cheapest and at the same time most effective means of disease

control available, without which no disease prevention programme will work.

Biosecurity is defensive health plan with a set of hygienic procedures that can help

keep your farm disease free. Biosecurity is therefore, important in all poultry

operations.

As the poultry operations become more and more efficient , they also

become a threat to themselves and their neighbors because of their large size and the

concentration of many birds in a small space. Poultry farmers should take the time to

eliminate as many disease causing organisms as possible. Therefore, it is better to

wait a little longer before introducing new flock than to hurry and risk infection of the

new flock. Poultry farmers, are worried about loss of returns when their buildings are

empty, but high mortality and poor performance can be exceptionally expensive in the



long run. Disease that affect poultry reduce returns and have a negative effect on

product quality.

The key to introduce the same number of birds at reduced cost is increased

efficiency and one of the most significant factors limiting efficiency and good

performance. Hence if disease is prevented or limited, efficiency will automatically

rise. The most effective form of protection against disease, especially for poultry

under modern production techniques is Biosecurity i.e. Excluding disease from the

farming environment, and this holds the key to successful and profitable farming.

Medication and vaccination traditionally played a major role in treating

diseases but it is now widely accepted that they can’t in isolation prevent losses due to

disease. Modern farming methods demand an all encompassing holistic approach.

Unless the background challenge from disease organisms can be controlled and good

management practices are strictly followed. Medication and vaccination alone cannot

adequately protect stock. Live stock must be given an environment in which disease

and infection are controlled to the point where vaccination and medication can

achieve beneficial effects. Biosecurity is a key element in this triangle of disease

control methods.

Importance of biosecurity

1. To keep highly contagious diseases IBD, ND etc. out of the poultry farm.

2. To reduce common pathogens like E. Coli and Salmonella.

3. To reduce or eliminate background immunosuppresive pathogens such as MD and

IBD virus.

4. To reduce contamination by pathogens important to public health safety like

Salmonella, Compylobactor.

Biosecurity for breeders / broilers / layers

Locational biosecurity

It is best to build the breeder farm in an isolated area, at least 3 Km

away from the nearest poultry in case of breeder farms and 1.6 Km in case of

commercial broiler and layer farms. Breeder farms should be away from major road

ways that may be used to transport commercial and backyard poultry. Maintain

enough distance between breeder and growout farms and facilities such as hatcheries,

and feed mills.

Farm should be located-

� At an elevated and well ventilated site

� Away from any existing farms or complexes

� Away from water ways/water pools/lakes/tanks

� Away from any nearby village poultry



� Broiler and layer units should not be established in close vicinity

� Farms having more than 50000 (Layers) should have preferably separate facilities

for brooding/growing.

� The new poultry farms may be one kilometer away from the existing farms or

complexes.

Structural biosecurity

� Fencing of farm perimeter to prevent unwanted visitors restricting the entry of

outside visitors & human beings.

� Test the water source for mineral, bacterial, chemical contamination and

pathogen load.

� Disinfectant spray with suitable water and power supply for sanitization of

vehicles.

� Suitable location for storage of bagged feed.

� Good roads within the farm to ease cleaning and to prevent spreading of microbes

by vehicles and footware.

� Facilities for scientific disposal of dead birds.

� Safe housing with suitable wild bird and rodent proofing.

� Feed, litter and equipment should be stored in a section separated from the live

bird area to prevent contamination.

� A 3 meter boundary of land around buildings must be kept free of all vegetation to

inhibit rodent and wildlife activity.

Operational Biosecurity:

� Operational manuals incorporating emergency plans should be developed for day

to day activities carried out in feed mills, hatcheries, breeding and grow out

facilities.

� Proper decontamination and disinfection of equipment, houses etc. following

depletion of flocks.

� In breeder farms all workers and visitors should shower and use clean farm

cloths to prevent cross contamination between facilities.

� Maintain a record of visitors, including name, company, purpose of visit, previous

farm visited and next farm to be visited.

� In case of breeders, no vehicles or equipment should be allowed within the farm

area from the time of delivery of flock until depletion.

� In commercial broilers units a minimum inter flock interval of 2 weeks is

recommended



� Effective pest management programme through biological, mechanical and

chemical means.

� Appropriate disease detection and proper vaccination schedules should be

implemented.

� In case of small scale egg production units follow all-in -all- out. If this is not

possible, pullets should obtain from a source free of vertically transmitted

diseases.

� Recycled egg packing material, plastic egg trays. etc. Should be decontaminated at

the point of entry to the farm.

� Routine disease monitoring procedures like post mortem examination of dead

birds and periodic serum antibody assays to determine the immune status of

flocks is necessary.

Continuous biosecurity

� Limit people movement

� Avoid visitors

� Control site traffic to a minimum

� Spray vehicles especially wheels.

� Supply effective protective clothing

� Provide boots

� Use foot dips (with brush and hose)

� Hand washing facilities

� Hand sanitisers

Control of rodents

� An uninterrupted integrated programme to control rodents includes rodents

proofing of buildings, elimination of nesting places, appropriate management and

sanitation to prevent rodents access to feed, water, and shelter.

� Effective baiting programmes should be followed continuously.

� Bait should be offered at stations located in the activity zone of rodents between

the nesting site and the common food source, and at the entrance to active

burrows.

� Any amount of disinfection without proper rodent control is a waste of money.

� Thus the concept of poultry biosecurity can be implemented at different levels

within a farm. Properly scheduled vaccination programme followed by all

possible biosecurity measuers will certainly lead to better profitably by lowering

proportion of mortality and morbidity, automatically cutting down of medication.



Biosecurity measures:

� Vaccination

� Medication

� Nutrition

� Environment

� Management

� Hygiene and disinfection

� Testing of birds

Infectious agents of poultry are a threat to poultry health and, at times,

human health and have significant social and economic implications. In poultry

production, especially under intensive conditions, prevention is the most viable and

economically feasible approach to the control of infectious agents. Biosecurity

procedures should be implemented with the objective of preventing the introduction

and dissemination of infectious agents in the poultry production chain. Biosecurity

will be enhanced with the adoption and implementation of the principles of Good

Agricultural Practices and the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

system.

******



DESIGNER EGG : MODIFIED APPROACH FOR ONE HEALTH

Khose K.K., M.M. Khan, A.J. Chougule and J.L. Agashe Department of Poultry Science, PGIVAS, Akola


The modern desire of the health conscious people is functional food. The

optimistic views of increasing demand of the functional foods are also supported by

number of institutions and health related organisations. Among them a chickens eggs

have been used as a food by human being since antiquity. Compare with the hens

eggs, no other single food of animal origin is eaten by so many people all over the

world and none is served in such a variant a ways. Eggs have been described as

“Nature’s original functional food” and are considered as complete food with most of

the nutrients required for well beings which is packed with various important vitamins

and minerals. Eggs are said to contain the highest quality protein, when compare to

other animal protein sources and they are inexpensive when compare to other protein

sources. Its popularity is justified not only because it is so easily produced and has so

many uses in cookery, but also because it is nutritive excellence.

Now a day’s peoples are more concerned about their own health. Moreover,

the consumers are willingly paying extra price for products, which are safe and also

promote their health. So in addition, to the nutrients already available in the egg if we

can alter or incorporate certain health beneficiary nutrients then these eggs will be the

choice of food for health conscious peoples and it can also reduces the chances of

occurrence of certain diseases. By the modification or enrichment in eggs we can

obtain the eggs like low cholesterol eggs, omega-3 enriched eggs, vitamin enriched

eggs, mineral enriched eggs, pigment enriched eggs and many more types of the

modified or enriched eggs can easily be obtained for the specific proposes.

Considering the modification in eggs for a purpose, a revolutionary idea of designer

egg change the concept of animal food. Designer eggs are the eggs produce when

hens fed with special feed prepared to suit the nutrients one desires to be present in

egg produced.

History

In the beginning of Cruickshank (1934) has testified that the fatty

acid composition of egg may be modified by dietary manipulation of the feed. In the

late 80s Sim Jany and their associates in the University of Alberta, Canada have

combined those concept together and developed a designer egg which was rich in

3n fatty acid as well as antioxidants. They have been patented this egg as professor

Sim’s designer egg. Afterward in Australia, Farrell (1998) produced another type of

modified egg that was good source of folic acid and iron which was good for anemic

patients. In Canada, Leeson and Caston (2004) produced an egg which was fairly high



in Lutein content as compared to the generic egg. These modified eggs act as retinal

tonic by preventing Macular Degeneration and Retinitis Pigmentosa.

In India, Narahari et al. (2004) has build up a Herbal Enriched Designer

Eggs (HEDE) which was not only rich in n-3 PUFA but also had vit-E, Se,

carotenoids, certain B-complex vitamins and trace minerals. Theses eggs were also

rich in several herbal active principles like allicin, betaine, eugenol, lumiflavin, luetin,

sulforaphane, taurine and a lot of more active principle depending on herb fed to the

hen. The modified eggs have 25% less cholesterol in their yolk as compared to the

ordinary eggs or generic eggs. There are several techniques by which we can produce

the modified or enriched eggs for different specific purposes.

Types of designer eggs and its significance

Designer eggs are those in which the content has been modified from the

standard egg in terms of high vitamin and minerals, lower cholesterol, high

omega fatty acids and added pharmaceutical compounds.

High mineral content

Most of minerals particularly calcium and phosphorus are present in egg

shell. So altering the calcium and phosphorus level of edible portion of egg (albumin

and yolk) is very difficult. However, scientists have achieved the success in increasing

the micro mineral contents of these portion especially selenium, iodine, zinc, copper

and chromium by dietary supplementation. Iodine deficiency exists in

many developing countries including India, so eggs could be a good source for its

supplementation. Selenium level in eggs can be increased by incorporating the

selenium yeast in diet of hens.

High vitamin content

Designer eggs can be modified with higher concentrations of several

vitamins particularly vitamin A and E. Although, the vitamin content of eggs varies

with the diet of hen but the hen may also differ in transferring the different vitamins

with different efficacy. It is highest for vitamin A, vitamin B12, riboflavin, biotin and

pantothenic acid, vitamin D3 and vitamin E. So the attention should be there for the

economic production of high vitamin eggs.

Alteration in pigment content

The yolk colour is due to the pigment content of egg and varied with

dietary supplementation such as plants viz., marigold, chili or corn; blue green algae

viz., spirulina. Recently in a study, it was found that high intake of carotenoids

reduced the macular degeneration, a major cause of blindness in the elderly.

Low cholesterol

Many researchers have tried to reduce cholesterol level of chicken eggs by

the use of genetics, nutrition or pharmacology intervention. Supplementation of

chromium to laying hen diets has been shown to lower egg cholesterol and also



improve the interior egg. The low cholesterol eggs can be produced by feeding a diet

rich in protein and fiber fortified with vitamin E.

Biological compounds

Like many other animals, chicken can also produce antibodies that can

neutralize the antigens of bacteria, viruses etc. These antibodies circulate in the blood

and transferred to eggs for the protection of chicks. Researchers are trying to take the

advantage of this fact and in future become successful to develop antibodies against

battery of antigen and concentrate in egg. We can expect the designer eggs containing

the antibodies (anti-venom) against snake venom.

Fat and fatty acid profile

Change in the total fat contents in poultry diet does not significantly affect

the total fat in the eggs but we can change the fatty acid profile of egg by the

alteration in the fat of poultry diet. Various studies suggests that high amount of

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) in the diet of human beings promote the infant

health and reduces the chances of atherosclerosis, heart attack and stroke. The

addition of safflower oil, marine algae, fish oil, fish meal and vegetable oil in feeds of

the poultry increases the omega-3 fatty acid content in the egg yolk which is vital

nutrient for adult and children. The beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids are faster

development and enhanced functioning of brain, less chance of heart attack, better

oxygen deliver to tissues and some support in rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory

disorders and other diseases. High content of fatty acid also increases the keeping

quality and shelf life of the eggs. Studies have also been conducted on the egg having

the lower saturated and unsaturated fatty acid ratio by feeding the hen with canola oil.

Pharmaceutical alterations

With the advancement of biotechnology, we can produce genetically

modified chickens which then produce the eggs containing the desired compound e.g.,

insulin for the treatment of diabetic patients.

Designer egg enriched with vitamins, minerals and other nutrients like fatty

acids is a good nutritional product as well as a good vector for the delivery of

pharmaceuticals and biological products like antibodies for human health. Despite all

these promising prospects, there is a tendency among humans to resist change,

particularly those of transgenic. Thus, the future of biotechnologically modified foods

is at crossroads even after three decades of promising results. The future of the

poultry industry is not just about producing more and more eggs but about producing

more eggs of the right kind. Thus, we can expect that in future poultry farmers may be

the producers of "designer eggs".

******



AVIAN INFLUENZA IN POULTRY: AN OVERVIEW

Manwar S.J., K.K. Khose and M.M. Gole Department of Poultry Science, PGIVAS, Akola


Avian influenza (AI) viruses infect domestic poultry as well as pet, zoo,

and wild birds. In domestic poultry, AI viruses are typically of low pathogenicity

(LP), causing subclinical infections, respiratory disease, or drop in egg production.

However, a few AI viruses cause severe systemic infections with high mortality. This

highly pathogenic (HP) form of the disease has historically been called fowl plague.

In most wild birds, AI viral infections are subclinical except for the recent H5N1 HP

AI viruses of Eurasian lineage.

Outbreak History of Avian Influenza

Avian influenza was first recorded in Italy in 1878. The disease, originally

known as Fowl Plague, continuously caused massive outbreaks in poultry, including

two outbreaks in the United States (1924 and 1929). In 1955, it was discovered that

the virus causing Fowl Plague was an influenza virus.

There are three types of influenza virus: A, B, and C. All influenza viruses

affecting domestic animals (horses, pigs, poultry, etc.) belong to type A, which is the

most common virus type producing serious epidemics in humans. Influenza types B

and C affect only humans.

Avian influenza outbreaks occur sporadically throughout the world. This

disease has been very disruptive to the poultry industry; millions of chickens, geese,

and turkeys have been destroyed to prevent further spread of the disease. Starting in

1997, when highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 was discovered in

humans in Hong Kong, the virus (also known as bird flu) has received unprecedented

publicity. The avian influenza outbreak has since spread to 15 countries in Asia,

Africa, and the Middle East, and, as of December, 2011, infected 573 people. Three

hundred and thirty-six of those infected people died.

An outbreak of the H5N1 virus in India in 2006 seriously disrupted the

functioning of the poultry industry in Navapur, negatively affecting the people living

in the area as the poultry industry was their main source of income at the time. Soon

after a large number of birds were reported dead in the village of Navapur, in the

Nandurbar district of Maharashtra, the government intervened, first confirming the

presence of the bird flu and then destroying large numbers of birds to control the

spread of the virus.

Etiology

AI viruses are type A orthomyxoviruses characterized by antigenically

homologous nucleoprotein and matrix internal proteins, which are identified by



serology in agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) tests. AI viruses are further divided

into 16 hemagglutinin (H1-16) and 9 neuraminidase (N1-9) subtypes based on

hemagglutinin inhibition and neuraminidase inhibition tests, respectively. Most AI

viruses (H1-16 subtypes) are of low pathogenicity, but some of the H5 and H7 AI

viruses are highly pathogenic for chickens, turkeys, and related gallinaceous domestic

poultry.

Epidemiology and Transmission

Low Pathogenic (LP) AI viruses are distributed worldwide and are

recovered frequently from clinically normal shorebirds and migrating waterfowl.

Occasionally, LP viruses are recovered from imported pet birds and ratites. The

viruses may be present in village or backyard flocks and other birds sold through live-

poultry markets, but most commercially raised poultry in developed countries are free

of AI viruses. The HP viruses arise from mutation of some H5 and H7 LP viruses and

cause devastating epidemics. Stamping-out programs are used to quickly eliminate the

HP viruses in developed countries, but some developing countries may use vaccines

to control HP viruses.

The incubation period is highly variable and ranges from a few days in

individual birds to 2 wk in the flock. Transmission between individual birds is by

ingestion or inhalation. Naturally and experimentally, cats and dogs have been

infected with one strain of H5N1 Eurasian HP AI virus. Experimental infections

occurred after respiratory exposure, ingestion of infected chickens, or contact

exposure, but cats were more susceptible than dogs. Potentially, domestic pets could

serve as a transmission vector between farms, but the ability of other AI viruses,

including other H5N1 strains, to infect pets is unknown. Other mammals that have

been experimentally infected include pigs, ferrets, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, mice,

mink, and nonhuman primates. Transmission between farms is the result of breaches

in biosecurity practices, principally by movement of infected poultry or contaminated

feces and respiratory secretions on fomites such as equipment or clothing. Airborne

dissemination between farms may be important over limited distances. Limited spread

by wild birds of the Eurasian H5N1 HP AI virus has been suggested but is not typical

of other HP AI viruses. Other HP AI and all LP AI have minimal potential to infect

dogs and cats.

Clinical Findings and Lesions

Clinical signs, severity of disease, and mortality rates vary depending on AI

virus strain and host species.

Low Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Viruses

LP AI viruses typically produce respiratory signs such as sneezing,

coughing, ocular and nasal discharge, and swollen infraorbital sinuses in poultry.

Sinusitis is common in domestic ducks, quail, and turkeys. Lesions in the respiratory

tract typically include congestion and inflammation of the trachea and lungs. In layers



and breeders, there may be decreased egg production or fertility, ova rupture (evident

as yolk in the abdominal cavity) or involution, or mucosal edema and inflammatory

exudates in the lumen of the oviduct. A few layer and breeder chickens may have

acute renal failure and visceral urate deposition (visceral gout). The morbidity and

mortality is usually low unless accompanied by secondary bacterial or viral infections

or aggravated by environmental stressors. Sporadic infections by any subtype of LP

AI viruses can occur, but H9N2 LP AI is common in poultry in Asia, the Middle East,

and North Africa.

High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Viruses

Even in the absence of secondary pathogens, (High Pathogenic) AI viruses

cause severe, systemic disease with high mortality in chickens, turkeys, and other

gallinaceous poultry; mortality can be as high as 100% in a few days. In peracute

cases, clinical signs or gross lesions may be lacking before death. However, in acute

cases, lesions may include cyanosis and edema of the head, comb, wattle, and snood

(turkey); edema and red discoloration of the shanks and feet due to subcutaneous

ecchymotic hemorrhages; petechial hemorrhages on visceral organs and in muscles;

and blood-tinged oral and nasal discharges. In severely affected birds, greenish

diarrhea is common. Birds that survive the peracute infection may develop CNS

involvement evident as torticollis, opisthotonos, incoordination, paralysis, and

drooping wings. The location and severity of microscopic lesions are highly variable

and may consist of edema, hemorrhage, and necrosis in parenchymal cells of multiple

visceral organs, skin, and CNS.

Diagnosis

LP and HP AI viruses can be readily isolated from oropharyngeal and

cloacal swabs, and HP AI viruses from many internal organs. AI viruses grow well in

the allantoic sac of 9- to 11-day-old embryonating chicken eggs, and they agglutinate

RBCs. The hemagglutination is not inhibited by Newcastle disease or other

paramyxoviral antiserum. AI viruses are identified by demonstrating the presence of

1) influenza A matrix or nucleoprotein antigens using AGID or other suitable

immunoassays, or 2) viral RNA using an influenza A–specific reverse transcriptase-

PCR test.

LP AI must be differentiated from other respiratory diseases or causes of

decreased egg production, including 1) acute to subacute viral diseases such as

infectious bronchitis, infectious laryngotracheitis, low virulent Newcastle disease, and

infections by other paramyxoviruses; 2) bacterial diseases such as mycoplasmosis,

infectious coryza, ornithobacteriosis, turkey coryza, and the respiratory form of fowl

cholera; and 3) fungal diseases such as aspergillosis. HP AI must be differentiated

from other causes of high mortality such as virulent Newcastle disease, peracute

septicemic fowl cholera, heat exhaustion, and severe water deprivation.



Prevention and Treatment

Vaccines can prevent clinical signs and death. Furthermore, viral

replication and shedding from the respiratory and GI tracts may be reduced in

vaccinated birds. Specific protection is achieved through autogenous virus vaccines or

from vaccines prepared from AI virus of the same hemagglutinin subtype. Antibodies

to the homologous viral neuraminidase antigens may provide partial protection.

Currently, only inactivated whole AI virus, recombinant fowlpox-AI-H5, and

recombinant herpesvirus-turkey-AI-H5 (rHVT-AI-H5) vaccines are licensed in the

USA. The use of any licensed AI vaccine requires approval of the concerned

authority. In addition, use of H5 and H7 AI vaccines in the USA requires USDA

approval. Treating LP-affected flocks with broad-spectrum antibiotics to control

secondary pathogens may reduce morbidity and mortality. Treatment with antiviral

compounds is not approved or recommended. Suspected outbreaks should be reported

to appropriate regulatory authorities.

Zoonotic Risk

AI viruses exhibit host adaptation to birds. Human infections have

occurred, usually as isolated, rare, individual cases. Most human cases have

originated from infection with Eurasian H5N1 HP AI virus and, most recently,

Chinese H7N9 LP AI virus. The total accumulated human cases of H5N1 HP AI virus

in Asia and Africa from 2003–2013 is 648, of which 384 were fatal. The primary risk

factor for human infection has been direct contact with live or dead infected poultry,

but a few cases have resulted from consumption of uncooked poultry products,

defeathering of infected wild swans, or close contact with human cases. Respiratory

infection has been the most frequent presentation of human H5N1 cases. For H7N9

LP AI, total accumulated human cases in China for 2013 is 137, of which 45 were

fatal. Most cases had exposure risk to live-poultry markets. Conjunctivitis was the

most frequent symptom in human cases of H7N7 HP AI virus infection in the

Netherlands during 2003, with 89 confirmed cases and 1 fatality. Other HP AI viruses

and all LP AI viruses have produced very rare or no human infections.

With the incidence of avian influenza cases in many countries including

India biosecurity measures needs to be strengthened to meet the challenges posed like

avian influenza which not only affect the poultry industry but may also have public

health hazards.

******



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APPEAL

Join Alumni Association…

It was a long standing dream of all academic staff and PG students to form a Alumni

Association of PGIVAS. Friends, it gives me an immense pleasure to announce that

the ‘PGIVAS Akola Alumni Association’ has been formed. The main objective of

this Alumni Association is to provide the focal point of contact among alumni to

interact with each other and to strengthen the bond between the institute and alumni,

encourage them to participate in the various educational, cultural and social activities,

to develop synergistic plans to support the institute and achieve its vision. These

collective efforts will be our contribution to the growing generation, the institute and

the society as a whole.

Therefore, I appeal to all M.V.Sc. and Ph.D. students who have obtained

degree and academic staff members associated with teaching, research and extension

activities of this institute to please become a life member of PGIVAS Akola Alumni

Association by paying membership subscription of Rs. 1000/- (Rs One thousand

only).

Your cooperation and support in this regard is highly essential to activate our

Alumni Association for achieving goals. I hope you will join the Alumni Association

and create a cohesive commitment by extending your detail in membership form of

the association.

Let’s Come Together… Let’s Connect… Let’s Unite to Impact…Let’s Come Together… Let’s Connect… Let’s Unite to Impact…Let’s Come Together… Let’s Connect… Let’s Unite to Impact…Let’s Come Together… Let’s Connect… Let’s Unite to Impact…

With warm regards Dr. Sunil P. Waghmare

Secretary PGIVAS Akola Alumni Association Contact No. 09921511799 E-mail: [email protected]



LIST OF LIFE MEMBERS OF ALUMNIASSOCIATION

Sr.

No.

Name Phone No.

01 Dr Mohan Bhagwat

02 Dr Hemant Shankar Birade 09821187497

03 Dr Madan Vasant Joshi 09822744478

04 Dr Milind Gonduji Thorat 09011088825

05 Dr Sunil Pandurang Waghmare 09921511799

06 Dr S A Bakshi 09869923152

07 Dr Ravindra Naresh Dhore 09422960002

08 Dr Swapnil Sudhakar Mehesare 09922226000

09 Dr Shyam Ganesh Deshmukh 09657725790

10 Dr Dlip Ramchandrarao Ambulkar 09423129099

11 Dr Kishor Shaligram Pajai 09860913300

12 Dr Sadashiv Gopal Mode 09921885001

13 Dr Dayanand Balwantrao Pawashe 09922399400

14 Dr Shrikrushna Jayaramji Dhule 09850418440

15 Dr Vinod Shalikram Janotkar 09822728287

16 Dr Madhuri Sudhakarrao Hedau 09922951416

17 Dr Gajanan Purushottam Rane 09850033433

18 Dr Chandrashekhar Ganpat Raut 09423003806

19 Dr Sajid Ali Razique Ali Syed 07350302323

20 Dr Mahesh Vitthal Ingawale 09405372142

21 Dr Anil Hiroji Ulemale 07768068008

22 Dr Satish Jagannath Manwar 09730283212

23 Dr Pravin Suryakant Bankar 09960986429

24 Dr Sanjay Sheshrao Awaghate 07387996668

25 Dr Md. Ferozoddin Md. Fasihuddin Siddiqui 09960147171

26 Dr Nitin V. Kurkure 09921310135

27 Dr Ratnakar Vasantrao Raulkar 09604095899

28 Dr Manjusha Ganeshrao Patil 09096368406

29 Dr Mohini Vishwapal Khodke 09850736653

30 Dr M R Wade 08600626400

31 Dr. Kakasaheb Kalyanrao Khose 09422646529



Sr.

No.

Name Phone No.

32 Dr S M Wankhede 09420653515

33 Dr Digambar Harishchandra Rekhate 09423127358

34 Dr M M Bhojne 09421977228

35 Dr Shailendra Vasantrao Kuralkar 09822923997

36 Dr Vishnu Bhagwan Jawane 09011060765

37 Dr A V Patil 09422472987

38 Dr Megha Shridharrao Wankar 09420661308

39 Dr Sunil Wasudeo Hajare 09225493159

40 Dr S D Chepte 07722043766

41 Dr M D Kharwadkar 09175433412

42 Dr M R Raut 09881442123

43 Dr Ramnath Dhondo Sadekar 09422017768

44 Dr Pooja Dorle 08237708148

45 Dr Rajivkant 09860928038

46 Dr S G Mitkari 09422002205

47 Dr Vishwas B Deshmukh 09822640601

48 Dr Dilip A Deshmukh 09404689721

49 Dr Gokul S Khandelwal 09423338228

50 Dr Babarao S Aswar 09423623631

51 Dr Prajakta Shailendra Kuralkar 09422938138

52 Dr Mayur D Pawshe 09747205002

53 Dr Rajesh Gulabrao Shrirao 09881387635

54 Dr Kathale 08007631037

55 Dr G S Meshram 09422914287

56 Dr R B Matle 09890737851

57 Dr G J Panchbhai 09730630122

58 Dr Atul P Dhok 09823176352

59 Dr Shital Chopde 09028208885

60 Dr R B Nichal 09850588358

61 Dr R B Meshram 09619472096

62 Dr C H Pawshe 09921611899



Sr.

No.

Name Phone No.

63 Dr K P Chithore 09850133080

64 Dr P B Hase 09890248494

65 Dr P R Rathod 09823741214

66 Dr Mahendra Arunchandra Panhale 09921936087

67 Dr Saleem B Tadavi 08275047492

68 Dr R S Ingole 09822866544

69 Dr Vaijnath Bapurao Kale 09405491412

70 Dr M U Bendre 09561697263

71 Dr Mayura Atmaram Gole 09421626657

72 Dr Farheen Fani 08888357989

73 Dr P T Makode 09922578793

74 Dr Mohd. Izhar Ahmad 09850339820

75 Dr Arun Prabhakar Handa 09422103145

76 Dr S G R Daimi 09422640006

77 Dr.A.P.Gawande 09881300721

78 Dr.Prajwalant Satputey 08097441399

79 Dr Pravin Hushangabade 09959992200

80 Dr Manjusha Pundalik 09923043553

81 Dr S.N.Suryawanshi 09403768895

82 Dr Naina Deshpande 09403930946

83 Dr S.R.Manjare 09423069213

84 Dr Snehal Patil 07738555138

85 Dr Javed Khatik 08888876070

86 Dr Priyanka Hirole 07083959919

87 Dr D.S.Raghuwanshi 09423682346

88 Dr J.M.Chahande 09890518658

89 Dr Anand Ratnaparkhi 09822624199

90 Dr P.T.Jadhav 09881300730

91 Dr Syed Anwar Ali 09145764980

92 Dr Mustajaab Khan 09168686857

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