CHEE – Lecture on South AsiaAncient World History

Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Bangladesh, Bhutan

Gandhi (1869-1948)

Satyagraha or Soul Force in South Africa (1893-1915)

South Asia – India & Pakistan

Complex Society?

TIMELINE – South Asia200,000 YA Paleolithic communities8-7000 BCE Agriculture begins in South Asia5000 BCE Cotton cultivation, domestication of chickens3300-1500 Harappan society3300 BCE Harappan writing 2300-1750 Trade with Mesopotamians1900-1500 Harappan decline1500 Aryan migration to India1500-500 Vedic Age1400-900 Composition of the Rig Veda1000 Aryan migrations into the Ganges River valley

Emergence of varna distinctions1000-500 Formation of regional kingdoms in northern India800-400 Composition of the Upanishads (Indian reflections and

dialogues reflecting Hindu concepts)750 First Aryan cities in the Ganges valley500 Aryan migrations to the Deccan Plateau

Harappan Society - Dravidians

Indus River

Harappan Society – Dravidian peoples

8-7000 BCE Beginning of agriculture5000 BCE Cotton cultivation

Domestication of chickens3300 BCE Harappan writing (or 2300)1900 BCE Harappan decline

Still under water*

UNESCO – 1920s Save Mohenjo-Daro Stamps

Major Dravidian cities (Pakistan)

• Harappa • Mohenjo-

Daro– 70 smaller

sites excavated (total 1,500)

Mohenjo-Daro

Mohenjo-Daro artefacts

Priest-king

Dancing girl

seal

Mohenjo-Daro• Population c. 40,000• Center with city walls, citadel,

granary, tax collections, market places, temples

• Private bathrooms, showers & toilets with city sewage system

• Weights, measures, architectural styles

• Specialized labor• Trade with Persia,

Mesopotamia via ships (cotton, pepper, pearls & gems)

Harappa

artist rendition Excavated site

Harappa

fertility deities

Aryans “noble people”Language groups1.      Afro-Asiatic – (ancient Egyptian, Semitic, Hebrew,

Arabic)2.      Austronesian – greatest reach of the language

groups – from Hawaii-New Zealand- Southeast Asia -Madagascar…

3.      Indo-European – Aryans – (Greek, Sanskrit, Latin)

4.      Sino-Tibetan – China to TibetSome groups do not fit these categories and appear

unrelated, or there are so many…5.      New Guinea, 1/5 of the world’s languages6.      Or in North America with native Americans.

Aryans Arrived 1500 BCE

o Called themselves the “noble people”

o Indo-Europeans with horses, cattle, sheep & goat

o Sang religious hymns in Sanskrit called the Vedas

The Aryan God, Indra

The Aryan God, Indra

Indra killed a dragon who lived in the sky and hoarded water in the clouds. As the dragon fell, his weight caused such turmoil in the sky to bring rain and filled the rivers in India

1500-500 BCE – Vedic Age

Veda - means wisdom or knowledge the priests needed to carry out their religious functions.

– frequent Aryan attacks on Dravidians

– Varna – or Caste (Portuguese) means color

– Aryans – “Wheat-colored”

– Dravidians, darker

The Caste System ~ 1000 B.C.E* (social hierarchy instead of a large imperial

state)

1. Brahmins - priests2. Kshatriyas - warriors & nobles3. Vaishyas - artisans & merchants 4. Shudras - landless peasants & serfs *the untouchables – those who handle the

dead/animals.*jati – subcastes*created centuries later

Aryan Migrations to Ganges River ~1000 BCE

800-400 BCE The Upanishads

Disciples “sitting in front of” a sage to discuss religious ideas

Brahman – universal soul (each person is a part)

Samsara - the transmigration of the soul

Karma – the sum of good and bad deeds that determine one’s position in the next life (plant/animal)

Moksha – the ultimate goal of obtaining a deep dreamless sleep with permanent liberation from physical incarnation).

Blending of Aryan & Dravidian values.

Classical societies (500 BCE - 500 CE)

Characteristics – • high degrees of internal

organization, • authority over extremely large

regions • elaborate influential cultural

traditions

Classical Societies – Common Solutions

1. Vast territories - created transportation & communication infrastructure & bureaucracies

2. Military challenges – raised armies3. Bureaucracy & military costs – Taxation4. Equitable distribution of land and

wealth? 5. Long-distance trade6. Cultural & religious traditions

520 BCE, Persian Emperor Darius conquers parts of north-western India

South Asia – Classical society

o Buddhism o Jainismo and the continuing evolution of an

older religion, Hinduism, originating from Vedic philosophy

Siddartha Gautama,

the Buddha “the enlightened

one”

563-483 BCE

First-second century CE

Gautama, a wealthy prince

The Great DepartureGautama Leaves his Princely Life at

Age 29

Sculpture from the 2nd century CE

Gautama, ascetic, undergoes a Fast

•to become an ascetic, nearly starves himself.

after 49 days of meditation, achieves enlightenment

Enlightenment

Buddhist Doctrine: The Dharma or the Four Noble Truths:

1. life is pain,

2. this pain is caused by desire,

3. eliminating desire eliminates suffering, and

4. following the Noble Eightfold Path eliminates desire (right views, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration)

The Noble Eightfold Path

called for leading a balanced and moderate life and avoiding extremes.

Passionless Nirvana (immortality, free from reincarnation) was the final goal.

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Buddha and his Disciples

o Begins teaching new doctrine c. 528 BCE

o Followers owned only robes, food bowls

o Life of wandering, begging, meditation

o Establishment of monastic communities

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Appeal of Buddhism

o Less dependence on Brahmins for ritual activities

o No recognition of caste, jati statuso Philosophy of moderate consumptiono Public service through lay teachingo Use of vernacular, not Sanskrit

JAINISM

Vardhamana Mahavira, 540-468 BCEAbandoned privileged family to lead ascetic life

Jains oBelieve everything in the universe possesses a soul osweep earth, strain water, use slow movements to avoid killing insectsopractice ahimsa (nonviolence)oAhimsa continues to inspire modern movements (Ghandi, Martin Luther King Jr.)

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Appeal of Jainism

o Rejected caste, jati distinctionso Obvious appeal to underprivileged groupso But asceticism too extreme to become a

mass movement

HinduismBhagavad-Gita c. 300 BCE – 400

CE

“Song of the Lord” – Mahabharata, great epic poem

HinduismHindu ethics – 4 principal aims of human

life1) dharma - obedience to religious & moral

laws2) artha – pursuit of economic well-being and

honest prosperity3) kama - the enjoyment of social, physical

and sexual pleasure4) moksha – the salvation of the soula proper balance of the first 3 would help an

individual attain moksha

India - Foreign Invasions

o 520 BCE Darius of Persia invadeso 327 BCE Alexander of Macedon

invades (& spreads Greek language, culture)

Leaves a power vacuum

Alexander's Empire Conquers & Unifies the Region, c. 327 B.C.E.

321-185 BCE Mauryan Dynasty321-297 BCE Chandragupta Maurya’s reign

Maurya (united India’s small kingdoms for the first time)

The Mauryan & Gupta Empires321 BCE - 550 CE

Kautalya. Arthashastra - Regarding war

• Arthashastra, a manual on political statecraft & administration– Domestic policies

• Network of spies

• Regarding war - any two states that share a common border are destined to fight

• three types of war: (1)   the war of righteous duty, (2)   the war for conquest, and (3)   the war for destruction.

Advisor Kautalya

Chandragupta Maurya

Legend: Chandragupta retires to become a monk, starves himself to death

Ashoka Maurya’s Reign 268-232 BCE

• Grandson of Chandragupta• Conqueror & Governor• Brought Mauryan Empire

to its height during reign, 268-232 BCE

• Created an efficient bureaucracy & tax system

• Buddhist – sent missionaries around the region

Ashoka’s Empire

268-232 BCE Reign of Ashoka Maurya

India at its height• built roads, • promoted agriculture, • collected taxes

efficiently, • created a well-run

bureaucracy • Expanded empire to

include all of Indian subcontinent except for south

• integrated Indian society

Ashoka’s Support of Buddhism

o Personal conversion to Buddhism

o Disillusioned after violent war with Kalinga

o Banned animal sacrifices, mandated vegetarianism in court

o Material support for Buddhist institutions, missionary activities

Ashoka – Buddhist Stupa Sanchi, India

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Changes in Buddhist thought

3rd c. BCE – 1st c. CE– Buddha considered divine– Institution of

Boddhisatvas (“saints” or enlightened beings)

– Charitable donations to monasteries regarded as pious activity

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A Buddhist Monastery

Decline of the Mauryan Empire

o Economic crisis follows death of Ashoka

o High costs of bureaucracy, military not supported by tax revenue

o Frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries

o Mauryan Empire abandoned & disappears by 185 BCE

The Gupta Empire 320 CE –550 CE because of the White Huns Invasion

India would not be reunited for a thousand years until the Mughal Dynasty of the sixteenth century

Lecture: South Asia Part II:India and the Indian Ocean

World

Buzurg ibn Shahriyar’s Book of the Wonders of

India. 953Buzurg – tenth century shipmaster from the Persian Gulf, SirafoWrote 136 storiesoTall tales & realistic onesoIndian king who converted to Islam & studies Islamic lawoJewish rags to riches after traveling to India & China

The trading world of the Indian Ocean basin

Cross-Cultural Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin

• Trade increases in post-classical period• Larger ships

– Dhows, junks• Improved organization of agricultural

efforts• Establishment of Emporia

– Cosmopolitan port cities serve as warehouses for trade

• Specialized products developed (cotton, high-carbon steel)

Population Growth in India

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

600 CE 800 CE 1000 CE 1500 CE

Millions

Economic Development and Social Distinctions

• The growth of long-distance trade and manufacturing encouraged the rise of towns.

• India connected to the larger imperial states in China, Persia, and southwest Asia

• Society became strongly patriarchal, and works such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana portrayed women as weak-willed.

• Child marriages became increasingly common.

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Society: Gender Relations

• Patriarchy entrenched

• Child marriage common (8 year old girls married to men in 20s)

• Women encouraged to remain in private sphere

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Social Order

Caste system from Aryan times

– Brahmins (priests)

– Kshatriyas (warriors, aristocrats)

– Vaishyas (Peasants, merchants)

– Shudras (serfs)

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Castes and Guilds

• Increasing economic diversification challenges simplistic caste system

• Jatis formed: guilds that acted as sub-castes

• Enforced social order– “outcastes” forced into low-status employment

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Wealth and the Social Order

• Upward social mobility possible for Vaishyas, Shudras (peasants & serfs)

• Wealth challenges varna (caste) status

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Religions of Salvation in Classical India

• Social change generated resentment of caste privilige– e.g. Brahmins free from taxation

• 6th-5th c. BCE new religions and philosophies challenge status quo

• Charvakas: atheists

• Jainists, Buddhists

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Spread of Mahayana Buddhism

• Mahayana (“greater vehicle”), newer development– India, China, Japan, Korea, central Asia

• Hinayana (“lesser vehicle,” also Theravada), earlier version– Ceylon, Burma, Thailand

Mahayana Buddhism flourished because of education institutions

NalandaoBuddhist MonasteryoQuasi-university: Buddhism, Hindu texts, philosophy, astronomy, medicineoPeak at end of Gupta dynastyoHelped spread Indian thought

o E.g. mathematical number zero

Emergence of Popular Hinduism: Bhagavad-Gita

Centuries of revisions, final form c. 400 CE

“Song of the Lord” – Mahabharata, great epic poem

“Song of the Lord”Dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna during civil waroComposition of epics from older oral traditions - Mahabharata, RamayanaoEmphasis on god Vishnu and his incarnations

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Hindu Ethics

• Emphasis on meeting class obligations (dharma)

• Pursuit of economic well-being and honesty (artha)

• Enjoyment of social, physical and sexual pleasure (kama)

• Salvation of the soul (moksha)

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Popularity of Hinduismo Popularity grew for

devotional cults like Vishna, preserver of the world, & Shivu, fertility deity

o Gradually replaced Buddhism in India

Temporary restoration of Unified rule in North India under King Harsha (r. 606-648

CE)

King Harsha (r. 606-648 CE)oYoung, energetic, and ableoBuddhist, but also religiously tolerantoGenerous support for pooroPatron of the arts

o Wrote three playsoAssassinated, no successor able to retain control

Islam arrives in India through Conquest & Trade

o 711 - Arabs conquer Sind (north-west India), Abbasid Dynasty to 1258

o Arabic trade with India predates Islam

o Muslim merchants at the coast married Indians, establishing local Muslim communities in India

o E.g. Cambayo Migrations of Turkish-speaking

peoples from Central Asiao Delhi Sultanate c.1300

The Sultanate of Delhi ruled northern India from 1206-1526

o Consolidated the raiding

territory of Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghani Turk), 1001-1027, who built mosques on top of Hindu and Buddhist temples after destroying them

o Built capital at Delhi, with a weak administrative structure

o Relied on the cooperation of Hindu kings

o Assassinated 19 out of 35 Sultans

Hindu Kingdoms of Southern India

• Chola Kingdom, 850-1267– Maritime power– Not highly centralized

• Kingdom of Vijayanagar– Northern Deccan– Originally supported by

Sultanate of Delhi– Leaders renounce Islam in

1336– Yet maintain relations

with Sultantate

Temples and Indian Society

Temples and Indian Society•More than religious centers•Center of coordination of irrigation, other agricultural work

– Some Temples had large landholdings

•Education providers•Banking services

Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora

Challenges to Caste and Society

• Migrations• Growth of Islam• Urbanization• Economic development

– Development of Jati (subcastes)– Similar to worker’s guilds

• Caste system expands from north to south

• Promoted by Temples, educational system

Decline of Buddhism

• Buddhism displaced as Turkish invasions destroy holy sites, temples

• 1196 Muslim forces destroy library of Nalanda– Thousands of monks exiled

Development of Hinduism

• Growth of devotional cults– Esp. Vishnu, Shiva

• Promise of salvation• Especially popular in southern

India, spreads to north

Devotional Philosophers

• Shankara, Brahmin philosopher of 9th c. CE– Devotee of Shiva– Synthesized Hindu writings in Platonic form– Preferred rigorous logical analysis to

emotional devotion• Ramanuja, Brahmin philosopher 11th-early

12th c.– Challenges Shankara’s emphasis on intellect– Laid philosophical foundations of

contemporary Hinduism

Conversion to Islam

• 25 million converts by 1500 (1/4 of total population)

• Possibilities of social advancement for lower-caste Hindus– Rarely achieved: whole castes or jatis

convert, social status remains consistent

The Bhakti Movement

• Attempt to bring Hinduism and Islam closer together

• 12th c. southern Hindu movement, spread to north

• Guru Kabir (1440-1518)– Taught that Shiva, Vishnu, Allah all

manifestations of one Deity– Largely unsuccessful

Indian Influence in Southeast Asia

• Influence dates from 500 BCE

• Evidence of Indian ideas and traditions– Kingship– Religions

(Hinduism, Buddhism)

– Literature

• Caste system not as influential

Early States of Southeast Asia

• Funan– Lower Mekong River,

1st-6th c. CE

• Kingdom of Srivijaya– Centered in Sumatra,

670-1025 CE

• Kingdom of Angkor– Cambodia, 889-1431

CE– Magnificent religious

city complexes

The Spread of Islam to Southeast Asia

•Early populations of Muslim traders

•Tenth Century – Islam prominent, while retaining Hindu or Buddhist traditions

•Fifteenth Century – state of Melaka with a powerful navy became Islamic

Kingdom of Angkor

– Cambodia, 889-1431 CE– Magnificent religious city complexes

Later states of Southeast Asia: Angkor, Singosari, and Majapahit, 889-1520

C.E.

•Early populations of Muslim traders

•Tenth Century – Islam prominent, while retaining Hindu or Buddhist traditions

•Fifteenth Century – state of Melaka with a powerful navy became Islamic

State of Melaka (Modern Indonesia’s Sumatra)

o Founded late 14th c. CE by rebellious prince of Sumatra

o Dominated maritime trade routes

o Mid-15th c. converts to Islam

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