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Uaugm Tiv`s BB

Gabs`, Eaopc`x Uaugm Tiv`s, Zramuetbag al Uaugm Tiv`s, Ousbe igmFiroagbe Utruetur`

Uaugms tfit ir` eagsbm`r`m gabs` d`g`riccy fiv` cbttc` ta ga firoagbeeagt`gt. Ousbeic saugms fiv` i fbdfcy r`lbg`m firoagbe struetur` tfit bspc`isbgd ta tf` `ir. Oigy saugms fiv` firoagbe eagt`gt hut ir` gat,tf`os`cv`s, firoagbe (`.d. sp``ef)

Zur` tag`s ir` ugeaooag bg gitur`. Oast syst`os vbhrit` bg oar` tfig ag`oam` (sbouctig`auscy). D`g`riccy tf` lugmio`gtic ar lbrst firoagbe bs tf`maobgigt tag` tfaudft tfbs bs gat icwiys tf` eis`.

Uup`rpasbtbag al lugmio`gtic lr`qu`geb`s igm firoagbes r`sucts bg ieaopc`x saugm wiv`laro.

Firoagbe av`rtag`s ir` r`cit`m ta tf` lugmio`gtic lr`qu`geyoitf`oitbeiccy (is bgt`d`r ouctbpc`s). ]f` s`eagm firoagbe bs icwiys twbe`tf` lr`qu`gey al tf` lugmio`gtic tag`. ]f` tfbrm firoagbe bs tfr`` tbo`stf` lugmio`gtic tag`, `te.

Ig aetiv` bs mauhc` tf` lr`qu`gey al i tag`. ]f` lbrst firoagbe al i tag` bs9 aetiv` up.

]f` lugmio`gtic lr`qu`gey igm r`cit`m firoagbe s`rb`s al av`rtag`s ir`r`spagsbhc` lar tf` efiriet`rbstbe saugm al ousbeic bgstruo`gts.

]f` saugm tfit w` f`ir lrao ig bgstruo`gt pciybgd i gat` bs i eaopc`xwiv`laro eagtibgbgd icc al tf` virbaus lr`qu`geb`s sup`rbopas`m bgta ag`eaopc`x wiv`.

]f` sio` gat` pciy`m ag mbll`r`gt bgstruo`gts saugms mbll`r`gt h`eius` altf` firoagbe struetur` al tf` bgmbvbmuic bgstruo`gts. ]f` r`isag tfitobmmc` E (ihaut 8

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Bg eagt`opariry w`st`rg ousbe, seic`s ir` eagstruet`m bg suef i oigg`r ista mbvbm` `ief aetiv` bgta 98 `quic s`obtag`s (s`v`g gat`s wbtf lbv` sfirpsigm lcits). ]fbs bs ngawg is tf` `v`gcy (ar `quiccy) t`op`r`m seic` igm bswbm`cy us`m ta ibm n`y trigspasbtbag igm `gs`ohc` pciybgd. Oast al tf` warcmus`s `quiccy t`op`r`m seic`s h`eius` `v`ry n`y saugms tf` sio` igm icc altf` aetiv`s ir` tf` sio` kust fbdf`r ar caw`r. Ga n`y saugms him hut gan`y bs pur` (Zytfidar`ig t`op`rio`gt) `btf`r.

Ueic` t`op`rio`gt oiy h` Zytfidar`ig t`op`rio`gt (tf` arbdbgic laro alt`op`rio`gt), T`cc t`op`rio`gt ar @quic t`op`rio`gt (oam`rg laro).

Zytfidar`ig t`op`rio`gt us`s pur` lbltfs igm pur` aetiv`s ta eagstruet iseic`. ]fbrms ir` gat pur` igm ag` aut al `v`ry 98 lbltfs (i wacl) bs v`rybopur`.

]f` w`cc-t`op`r`m seic` us`s pur` aetiv`s. Bt bs gat g`e`ssirbcy tf` seic`oast pc`isbgd ta tf` `ir bg icc eis`s. Mbll`r`gt n`ys saugm`m mbll`r`gt.Uao` w`r` wiro igm sao` w`r` firsf. Ousbe eaucm h` wrbtt`g ta tf` eacaral tf` seic`. Oast hiraqu` ousbe wis w`cc-t`op`r`m

]f` rigd` al fuoig f`irbgd bs 8: 8:,::: Fz bg bgligts (ihaut 9: aetiv`s).

]f` sfip`, eagstruetbag, oiss, m`gsbty igm sbz` al i ousbeic bgstruo`gt icceagtrbhut` ta bts tagic quicbty (firoagbe sp`etruo), is ma`s faw bt bs pciy`m.

Z`reussbag bgstruo`gts pramue` firoagbes tfit ir` gat r`cit`m ta tf`lugmio`gtic tag` al tf` bgstruo`gt bg tf` sio` oitf`oitbe s`gs` isfiroagbe bgstruo`gts, b.`., tf`y fiv` gag-bgt`d`r firoagbes.

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Faw Firoagbe U`rb`s ir` Zramue`m

]f` typ` al firoagbe s`rb`s pramue`m bg igy o`mbuo m`p`gms ag tf` haugmiryeagmbtbags tfit `xbst it tf` `md`s al tf` o`mbuo wf`r` tf` wiv`s ir` r`lc`et`m.

Utigmbgd Tiv`s ag i Utrbgd (]rigsv`rs` Utigmbgd Tiv`s)

Tf`g i strbgd str`tef`m h`tw``g twa lbx`m pabgts bs pcuen`m bt vbhrit`s bgbts lugmio`gtic oam` al vbhritbag(icsa ngawg is tf` lbrst firoagbe ),hut oar` tfig ag` oam` al asebccitbagbs icwiys pr`s`gt it tf` sio` tbo`.

]f` atf`r sbouctig`aus oam`s

(av`rtag`s) ir` oitf`oitbeiccyr`cit`m ta tf` lugmio`gtic tag` (isbgt`d`r ouctbpc`s al tf` lugmio`gtic).

]f` bgebm`gt igm r`lc`et`m wiv`striv`cbgd hien igm lartf icagd tf`strbgd pramue` i stigmbgd wiv`pitt`rg.

Bl tf` strbgd asebccit`s firoagbeiccy

ugm`r tf` bglcu`ge` al sao`o`efigbeic mrbv`r i stihc` stigmbgd wiv` pitt`rg wbcc laro.

Utigmbgd wiv` pitt`rgs ir` efiriet`rbz`m hy v`ry cird` iopcbtum`asebccitbags - i eagmbtbag ngawg isr`sagige` . It r`sagige` tf` wiv` wbccpramue` i caum saugm.

I stigmbgd wiv` pitt`rg eagsbsts al bgebm`gt igm r`lc`et`m wiv`s bg ispitbiccy ugvirybgd r`citbagsfbp pramuebgd i s`rb`s al gam`s igm igtbgam`s.

]`gsbag bg tf` strbgd igm mrbvbgd lr`qu`gey ill`et stigmbgd wiv` laroitbag.

gam`gam`

igtbgam`

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I stigmbgd wiv` bs i stihc` wiv` pitt`rg eagsbstbgd al ig bgebm`gt igm i r`lc`et`m wiv` bgwfbef tf` er`sts igm traudfs al hatf wiv`s oibgtibg lbx`m pasbtbags.

Bgebm`gt (hcu`) igm r`lc`et`m(y`ccaw) wiv`s eaohbg` ta laro istigmbgd wiv` pitt`rg (hcien). ]f`dr``g wiv` r`pr`s`gts pabgts bg tf`pitt`rg wf`r` tf` hcu` igm y`ccawwiv`s ir` bg pfis`.

]f` hcien cbg` bs tf` r`suct al tf`sup`rpasbtbag al tf` y`ccaw igm hcu`wiv`s. Tfit wiv`(s) waucm yau s``bl yau w`r` caanbgd it tfbs strbgd1

Gam`s igm igtbgam`s ir` pabgts icagdtf` strbgd wf`r` bt bs `btf`r gatoavbgd (gam`) ar it bts oixbouombspcie`o`gt (igtbgam`).

Lar i stihc` stigmbgd wiv`tfbs pitt`rg bs lbx`m, b.`,tf` pasbtbag al gam`s igm igtbgam`sma gat efigd` wbtf tbo`.

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Utigmbgd Tiv` Uef`oitbe

]f` guoh`r al caaps (ar s`do`gts) earr`spagms ta tf` firoagbe guoh`r altf` stigmbgd wiv` pitt`rg, `.d., tf` 8 gm igm 5rm firoagbes ir` sfawg ihav`(wfit waucm tf` lugmio`gtic ar lbrst firoagbe caan cbn`1).

Icc firoagbes (b.`., 9st , 8gm, 5rm, `te.) ir` passbhc` ag i strbgd lbx`m it hatf`gms.

Lar i dbv`g firoagbe, tf` wiv`c`gdtf, , oiy h` wrbtt`g;gc8? , wf`r` bs

tf` c`gdtf al tf` strbgd h`tw``g tf` lbx`m `gmpabgts igm g bs tf` guoh`r alcaaps bg tf` strbgd.

]f` v`caebty al i wiv` ag i strbgd oiy h` `xpr`ss`m bg t`ros al lr`qu`geyigm wiv`c`gdtf;

l v ?

X`eicc tfit tfbs v`caebty bs tf` sp``m it wfbef it wfbef `g`rdy bs trigspart`m

mawg tf` strbgd. ]fbs oiy ict`rgitbv`cy h` `xpr`ss`m;

g l

v c8

?

I stigmbgd wiv` aeeurs wf`g ig bgt`dric guoh`r al ficl wiv`s ( )8/ ir`pr`s`gt h`tw``g tf` `gms al tf` strbgd.

Bg arm`r ta pramue` i stigmbgd wiv` pitt`rg, tf` v`caebty al tf` bgebm`gt igmr`lc`et`m wiv`s oust h` suef tfit (c`gdtf al tf` strbgd h`tw``g tf` lbx`m

haugmirb`s) bs ig bgt`dric ouctbpc` al ficl wiv` c`gdtf, ar;8 g?c .

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Lar ousbeic bgstruo`gts wbtf strbgds suef is dubtirs, vbacbgs, ar pbigas bt bseagv`gb`gt ta `xpr`ss tf` v`caebty al i wiv` is i lugetbag al strbgd t`gsbagigm cbg`ir oiss m`gsbty;

]

v ?

wf`r` ] bs tf` t`gsbag bg tf` strbgd igm bs tf` oiss p`r ugbt c`gdtf altf` strbgd.

Gat icc al tf` passbhc` vbhritbgd oam`s al igy o`mbuo ir` firoagbe bg gitur`(firoagbes oust h` bgt`d`r ouctbpc`s al tf` lugmio`gtic). ]f` gag-bgt`d`rouctbpc` lr`qu`geb`s ir` ngawg is pirtbics ar bgfiroagbes . Oigy al tf`s` ir`ietuiccy ugpc`isigt saugmbgd,

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Firoagbe U`rb`s lar Utigmbgd Tiv`s ag i Utrbgd

8

g C ? ?g C8

l v ? v

l ?

]f` eagmbtbag lar i stigmbgd wiv`;

Cvg l g 8

? g ? 9,8,5

Ubge`g oiy fiv` igy bgt`d`r vicu`, icc firoagbes ir` pr`s`gt.

Lugmio`gtic Lr`qu`gey9st Firoagbe

8g Firoagbe 9 st av`r-tag`(8 lugmio`gtic)

5r Firoagbe 8 g av`r-tag`(5 lugmio`gtic)

igtbgam`

gam`

8

8? C

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Utigmbgd Tiv`s bg Eacuogs al Ibr Cagdbtumbgic Utigmbgd Tiv`s

Tiv`s triv`cbgd bg `gecas`m eacuogs al ibr h`fiv` bg ouef tf` sio` oigg`r iswiv`s triv`cbgd mawg strbgds `xe`pt tfit tf` wiv`s ir` cagdbtumbgic ritf`r tfigtrigsv`rs`

Gatbe` tfit pr`ssur` iopcbtum` igm mbspcie`o`gt iopcbtum` ir` al i eyec` autal pfis` lar i saugm wiv`

I mbspcie`o`gt igtbgam` aeeurswbtf tf` dr`it`st vbhritbag alibr oac`euc`s. H`rgauccbsZrbgebpc` stit`s tfit fbdfv`caebtb`s earr`spagm ta cawpr`ssur`s.

Zr`ssur` igtbgam`mbspcie`o`gt gam`

pr`ssur` gam`mbspcie`o`gt igtbgam`

pr`ssur` gam` (caw)mbspcie`o`gt igtbgam` (fbdf)

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g

c=? g ? 9,5,0

c=gv l ? g ? 9,5,0

Eagmbtbag lar i stigmbgd wiv`;c=

gv l ? , g ? 9,5,0, sa agcy amm firoagbes `xbst.

=0

?c 8gm Av`rtag`, 0 tf Firoagbe (0 l )

=5

?c 9st Av`rtag`, 5 rm Firoagbe (5 l )

gam` igtbgam`

=

?c Lugmio`gtic, 9 st Firoagbe ( l )

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Firoagbe U`rb`s lar Ieaustbe Tiv`s bg i ]uh` Ap`g it Hatf @gms

Bg tuh`s, pbp`s, ar eacuogs ap`g it ag` `gm igm ecas`m it tf` atf`r i stihc`stigmbgd wiv` pitt`rg r`qubr`s tfit i mbspcie`o`gt igtbgam` `xbsts it `iefap`g `gm al tf` tuh`.

]fbs o`igs tfit tf` lugmio`gtic (lbrst firoagbe) stigmbgd wiv` bg suef i

tuh` aeeurs wf`g tf` eacuog al ibr bs al c`gdtf8 .

]f` s`rb`s al gam`s igm igtbgam`s bg i tuh` ap`g it hatf `gms laros i

eaopc`t` firoagbe s`rb`s, Cgvv

l 8

??

g ? 9,8,5 kust cbn` i stigmbgd wiv`

ag i strbgd. I tuh` ap`g i hatf `gms oust h` twbe` is cagd is i tuh` ap`g it ag` `gm agcy

ta pramue` tf` sio` lugmio`gtic.

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g C8

? g ? 9,8,5

Cgvv

l 8

??

g ? 9,8,5

Eagmbtbag lar i stigmbgd wiv`; Cv

g l g 8? g ? 9,8,5, sa icc firoagbes ir` passbhc`

C

C58

?

5 rm Firoagbe

(8 gm Av`rtag`)

C? 8

5

C

I IG

C?

8gm Firoagbe

(9 st Av`rtag`)

G I

C

I IG

C?8

C8?

Lugmio`gtic

9 st Firoagbe

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H`its

Tfit fipp`gs wf`g wiv`s al mbll`r`gt lr`qu`geb`s av`rcip1

]f` h`it lr`qu`gey bs tf` eaopasbt` tfit aeeurs wf`g twa wiv`s almbll`rbgd lr`qu`gey av`rcip.

H`it Lr`qu`gey ? L I - LH Zciy`rs al strbgd`m bgstruo`gts lr`qu`gtcy us` h`its ta tug` strbgds ba tf`

prap`r r`citbv` pbtef. Is twa strbgds ir` tug`m ecas`r ta tf` sio` lr`qu`geytf` h`it lr`qu`gey scaws igm tf`g mbsipp`irs.

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@xiopc` 9. I sbx strbgd c`etrbe dubtir bs tug`m is laccaws; @8, I8, M5, D5, H5, @=

@8 68.=:

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@xiopc` 8. Issuobgd tfit tf` iopcbtum` lar `ief suee`ssbv` firoagbe bs tf`vicu` al tf` iopcbtum` al tf` pr`e`mbgd firoagbe, sn`tef i saugm sp`etruo lar tf`9st laur firoagbes lar tf` H5 strbgd lar tf` dubtir bg pr`vbaus `xiopc`s.

8=

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@xiopc` 5. Tfit bs tf` strbgd t`gsbag bg tf` H5 strbgd bl tf` oiss p`r ugbt c`gdtfbs :.4:6 x 9: -5 nd/o (.:95/.55: diud`)1

( ) ( ) G ondsoL vL l v 0.