(Sound Engineering) Sound Engineering and Musician Book P1

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SOUND ENGINEERING AND MUSICIAN BOOK - PART ONE

What is the difference between a CD recorder and a CD burner?

A CD recorder is self-contained, able to record in real time through its audio anddigital inputs. A CD burner must be used in conjunction with a computer running CDburning software, and it's unable to record in real time. A CD recorder can also burn

a CD from a computer if they both have a SCSI port. CD recorders are usually pricedhigher than burners, because they include a burner, a computer, and software in a

single unit. Both use the same process of laser burning the CD, and there is nodifference in sound quality.

What Are The Best Cables To Use For S/PDIF?

S/PDIF is a digital audio format that stands for Sony/Philips Digital Interface Format.

S/PDIF connections may be either optical or coaxial. The best cables for optical aremade of glass and are very costly, so plastic fiber-optic cables are generally used.

The best cables for coaxial are 75 ohm video cables, but standard RCA cables willoften suffice. Coaxial cable lengths should be kept as short as possible.

What Is Scms And What Are Its Disadvantages?

SCMS is an acronym for Serial Copy Management System. SCMS is pronounced

"scums," a word which accurately reflects how most people in recording feel about it.Some DAT recorders write the SCMS code on the tape in order to prevent the

possibility of digitally copying a digital copy. In other words, you can make digital

copies of a DAT master, but you can't make any digital copies of a digital copy of that DAT master. SCMS is transmitted through S/PDIF connections, but not throughAES/EBU connections. On some DAT recorders it can be disabled. On other DAT

recorders, it is absent altogether.

Where Is The Best Place To Put A Compressor In A Guitar Effects Chain?

Most guitar players place the compressor first, in order send a better signal to theother effects processors. Some guitarists prefer to place the compressor last, but

noise introduced by other effects will be increased by the compressor's output gain.Placing a noise reduction unit before the compressor can lessen this added noise.

However, a noise reduction unit can affect the tone quality. You can experiment withvarious placements in order to discover which one you prefer, but putting the

compressor first is usually recommended.

What Do I Need To Get Started As A DJ?

You need to have a library of music to play (LPs or CDs). You'll also need machinesto play your music. Usually, this means a couple of turntables for playing vinyl LPs,



or a couple of CD players. Turntables are the way to go if you want to scratch,backspin, and otherwise use the turntable as an instrument. CD players give you

access to a huge quantity of music, and you can burn your own CDs of songs youwant to play. Be sure the turntables or CD players have pitch control. You also must

have a basic mixer, big enough to handle two CD players or turntables. This meansat least a two-channel mixer that has some EQ on each channel. Also, be sure it has

a headphone output with controllable volume. When you start out, you can use yourhome stereo amp and speakers, but later you'll want to get professional units.

Lighting equipment is optional, but it adds a lot.

What Is A Recommended Panning For Drum Kit Programs?

Usually, it's preferable to pan drum sounds near the center. Although virtually alldrum machines and drum sound modules (as well as synthesizers and sound

modules with drum kits) have stereo outputs, acoustic drum kits do not occupy a

wide area of physical space. When a drum kit is panned both hard left and hardright, it feels unrealistic. Placing other instruments inside the drum sounds can be

disconcerting, although it can work in an electronic context. If your sound source hasauxiliary outputs (such as the Alesis DM5 & DM PRO, and the Roland TD-10 & TD-7),you can send the kick and snare to separate outputs in order to EQ and process

them individually, but they are best placed so that the kit is heard as a unit.

How Can I Use My Sampled Orchestral Sounds To Sound More Like An

Orchestra?

Orchestral instrument samples can't sound exactly like the real thing, but they can

sound fairly close. Be sure to play the sample within the range of the acousticinstrument. Use phrasing and dynamics appropriate to the instrument. MIDI volume

can add expression to phrasing. Don't sustain wind instrument samples beyond aperformer's breath capacity. Avoid playing anything on a sample that can't be played

on the actual instrument. Ranges and idiomatic instrument usage can be found inorchestration books, which are tremendously helpful. Books on MIDI orchestration

are even more to the point.

When an instrument is sampled with vibrato and played more than a half-step above

or below the note at which it was sampled, the speed of the vibrato might benoticeably faster or slower. This is especially evident on woodwind samples. In such

instances, use samples recorded without vibrato, and add the vibrato with a LFO orpitch-bend wheel.

Stereo samples are unrealistic; use mono samples, and pan them to simulate a stage

setup. Reverb can simulate front-to-back placement, and add hall ambience.Examples of orchestral seatings can be found in orchestration books.

If some samples were recorded close-mic, and others were recorded overhead, the

difference will be noticeable. Similarly, samples recorded with effects processing willsound unlike samples recorded dry. Use effects processing to make them compatible.

Orchestras perform with a very wide dynamic range, so dynamic compression isunstylistic.



results by tapping on the high E string and pushing it off the fretboard to the side of the neck. The techniques above are only a beginning. There are universes of

fantastic sounds awaiting your discovery.

What Does An Enhancer Do?

An enhancer is used to add high-frequency sparkle and/or low- frequency bottom,increase clarity, and reduce muddiness. It can boost some frequencies, and reduce

others. In some units, high frequency harmonics and low frequency sub-harmonicsare added to the original signal. In other units, filters are used in a way similar to an

EQ. In still others, phase relationships are realigned.

An enhancer can be used on an individual track (via channel inserts), on selected

tracks (processed as a subgroup), or on a complete stereo mix. An effect can also beenhanced, by patching into the enhancer via an aux send and return. Enhancers are

especially good for corrective measures, when EQing can't bring back lostfrequencies. However, it's easy to use too much.

An enhancer can also boost the noise level, so if the signal is particularly noisy,either use one with built-in noise or hiss reduction or don't enhance. Be sure that

your speakers can reproduce boosted bass frequencies; if they can't, you might addtoo much bass without realizing it.

Another danger is that your ear may become overly accustomed to an enhanced mix,so you might think you need to add more than necessary. Use the bypass to

compare the enhanced mix with the unenhanced mix. Listen to the unenhanced mixfor a few minutes or more, and then go back to the enhanced version to determine

whether you still need so much. It may help a lot to rest your ears for an hour or so,then check on the amount of enhancement again. Another strategy is to set your

enhancer where it sounds good, then reduce the settings slightly.

What's The Difference Between Pre-Fader And Post-Fader Aux Sends On A

Mixing Board?

Aux sends may be used for two different purposes: to send signals to an external

processor or to send signals to a separate monitor mix for the musicians onstage.Pre-fader aux sends are generally used for the monitor mix, because the channel

faders don't affect the signals sent from the aux sends. Any adjustments made tothe front-of-the-house mix don't affect the balance heard by the performers onstage.

Post-fader aux sends are generally used for connecting external effects or dynamicsprocessors - the signal is sent to the processor from an aux send and re-enters the

mixer through an aux return. Each channel has its own aux send control, so you canadjust the amount of processing. The effected signal will be raised or lowered by the

channel fader.

What Are Some Ways Of Miking A Guitar Amp In The Recording Studio?

There are several methods that are used a lot. Each yields a different sound, so find



the one that's appropriate for your music. Use these suggestions as starting points,then adjust the mic a bit until you get the tone you're seeking.

1) Place a dynamic mic pointed at the center of the amp's speaker cone, up againstthe grillecloth. If the cab has more than one speaker, find the speaker that sounds

the best and point the mic at it. This placement is good for a driving, punchy sound.

Some engineers dislike pointing the mic at the center of the cone, and prefer to pointit about a third of the way toward the rim of the speaker.

2) Point the mic at or near the center of the speaker cone, a short distance away.

Some of the room ambience will be mixed in with the amp tone. Experiment withvarious distances; try between ten inches and two feet. If you're using a cardioid

mic, moving the mic away from the cab will decrease the bass response.

3) Place a condenser mic at about a 45 degree angle from the front of the speaker

cabinet, about 8 to 12 inches away. Set the mic to a cardioid pattern. Usually themic is placed directly in front of the speaker, but it can be higher. This placement is

good for clean guitars when you want lots of highs and mids.

4) Try miking at various distances from the amp, from three feet to the length of theroom. Large diaphragm condenser mics are good for this, because they pick up more

low end. If your condenser can switch to omni-directional, and if you're recording in

a rectangular or square room, place the amp one or two feet from a wall, and put themic in the center of the room. As you'd expect, you'll get a lot of room ambience this

way. You might also pick up some sounds from the environment, such as cars anddogs.

5) If you have two mics and an open-back amp, mic both the front and back of the

amp. You can either use two dynamics, two condensers, or one dynamic and onecondenser. If you use a condenser, set it to cardioid. Distance each mic about eight

inches from the cabinet. Place one of the mics slightly to the left, and the other

slightly to the right. Experiment until you get a sound you like.

6) Another two-mic technique: place a dynamic mic close to the speaker to pick up

the dry guitar sound. To add room ambience, place a condenser (in a cardioidpattern) about ten feet from the front of the amp and about six feet high, pointed

toward the middle of the speaker cabinet.

7) If the cab has two speakers, use a dynamic mic on one speaker and a condenser

mic (set to cardioid) on the other. A large diaphragm dynamic is best, because it canpick up more bass than a small diaphragm dynamic. The condenser is for the highs.

Place each mic as close to each speaker as possible, in order to get a dry soundwhich emphasizes the differences between highs and lows. However, you could wind

up with phase cancellation; if the volume is quieter when both channels are pannedcenter, reverse the phase of one of the mics. Often, when two mics are used, one is

panned hard left, the other hard right.

8) Put the amp in different rooms. A concrete room will have a longer reverb time

than a carpeted room. One of our techs likes to place the guitar amp face down onthe floor in a concrete laundry room, hanging the mic above the back of the amp

near the ceiling. Have fun, and keep experimenting.



Dynamic: Shure SM-57

Large diaphragm dynamic: Sennheiser MD421; Electro-Voice RE20

Condenser: Rode NT1; CAD Equitek E350

Large diaphragm condenser: AKG 414

Which Recording Format Is Best For A Home Studio?

Each format has its advantages and disadvantages. Decide which one most closely

fits your needs, and then check out the features of various makes and models.

Digital multi-track recorders get your music onto tape quickly and easily, plus they're

portable. Archiving your work is inexpensive. However, they have no cut and pasteediting or built-in audio processing. Punch-in recording writes over the original

material. Making backups requires multiple recorders. Mixdown may require anexternal mixer.

Stand-alone hard-disk recorders are capable of detailed editing, and they offerimmediate access to any location. Usually, a mixer is built-in. On some units,

automated mixing, onboard effects, and/or timecode capability may be included. Andthey're portable. But some use data compression, and the editing screen may be

small. Archiving media is more expensive than digital tape. On some machines,punch-ins and bouncing are destructive; on others, they can be undone.

Computer-based hard-disk recorders have the advantage of a large screen forediting. There are many high-quality software plug-ins for processing. Punch-ins and

track bounces are non-destructive. Automated mixing is built-in. Most recordingsoftware also includes MIDI sequencing. However, a system can be expensive,

including a powerful computer, an audio card, software, and an archiving media. And

it's not portable.

Mini-Disc multi-track recorders are very affordable, portable, and include a built-inmixer. They offer some editing capabilities, but not as extensive as those on hard-

disk or computer-based systems. Unfortunately, they use data compression, whichincreases with each track bounce, diminishing the sound quality. Backups can't be

made.

Analog tape recording is less of an option these days. The sound of a high-end

analog tape recorder can't be beat, but the cost is high. Cassette recorders are OKfor capturing an idea quickly, but their sound quality is far below that of a digital

system.

MIDI sequencing offers detailed editing, but it's restricted to electronic soundsources, so vocals or acoustic instruments can't be recorded. However, most MIDI

sequencing programs include some audio recording capability, so the two formatscan be easily integrated.

Many home studio owners use combinations of the above, such as a digital multi-

track recorder coupled with audio editing software. Don't forget to budget in amixdown deck, whichever is appropriate: CD recorder, 2-track DAT recorder, or 2-

track cassette recorder.



How Can I Record Audio Into A Computer?

If your computer is a PC, you need a soundcard. If you have a Mac, you can use the

inputs on the back. Don't use the mic input, it's intended for speech. If you want to

record a vocal or a miked acoustic instrument, plug the mic into a mic preamp (or amixer with a mic preamp), and connect the preamp to the line input of yoursoundcard.

An electric instrument can be plugged into a line input directly. Or, you can plug theinstrument into a mixer to add EQ and processing, and connect the mixer's output to

the soundcard's line in.

As you play or sing, set the input level in your soundcard's utility program. Turn up

your instrument's output as high as possible, for a better signal-to-noise ratio. If you're using a mixer, output at maximum volume before distortion. Mute any unused

input on the soundcard. Never overload the soundcard's input level; stay below 0 dB,or clipping will result. When all levels are set, record into your digital audio software.

Your soundcard affects the recording quality. Better sound cards have higher bitrates (at least 16-bit), and higher sampling rates (44.1 kHz or better, unless you

want a lo-fi sound).

What Do I Need To Record A CD with My Computer??

We can list only the most basic components here. The following items can get youstarted.

First, of course, you need a computer and a CD Burning program. There are a

number of good programs for both Macs and PCs.

There are two types of computer-based CD-recording (CD-R) units, SCSI and IDE. ASCSI CD-R is preferable because it's significantly faster, and it's less likely to fail due

to inability to transfer information with sufficient speed. IDE devices are usually, butnot always, fast enough, so get a SCSI device if you can.

If you don't already have a SCSI interface on your computer, you'll also need a SCSIadapter card. Preferably, get an adapter that converts a PCI slot to SCSI; adapters

that convert ISA slots are much slower.

You'll need a hard drive with at least a gigabyte of usable space. CDs hold about

650Mb of data, but more is needed to handle the buffers in the recording software.Actually, two gigs of usable space are better, because you may want room for some

audio processing software plug-ins. Ideally, use a separate hard drive for your CDrecording.

An audio interface is needed to get the audio into and out of the computer. Someaudio interfaces have analog inputs/outputs (I/Os), some have digital, and others

have both. Digital I/Os transfer the highest quality sound, by far. You may want bothanalog and digital I/Os - the digital I/O to record DAT tapes and CDs, the analog I/O

for LPs and live recording. Also, PCI cards are superior to ISA cards, because theyare faster and susceptible to fewer hardware conflicts. Many audio interfaces also



include CD Recording software.

CDs sample at 44.1kHz. If your audio source was recorded digitally at 32 or 48kHz,

you'll need to convert the sample rate to 44.1. Some soundcards can resample inrealtime, a fast and efficient solution. Some recording software can convert the

sample rate by resampling the data that was recorded onto the hard drive. This can

be time-consuming, depending on the speed of the computer. Outboard resamplersare quick and effective, but more expensive. Obviously, if your source was recordedat 44.1kHz, you don't have to convert the sample rate.

One more item is needed - a blank recordable WORM CD. WORM stands for WriteOnce, Read Multiple. It works just like a standard CD, and you can play it in any CD

player.

We haven't even scratched the surface of CD recording here, but we hope you now

have an idea of what you'll need.

What Determines The Output Of A Pickup???

Two factors contribute to a pickup's output - the number of windings of wire around

the coil, and the magnet. The more turns of wire there are, the higher the output will

be. However, if the wire is wound too many times, it won't fit within the cover. So,smaller gauge wire may be used to increase the number of windings and still fit

under the cover. But, smaller wire has more resistance, which takes away some of the tone's high end. A stronger magnet also increases a pickup's output, but it can

add high-end harshness. For this reason, Alnico-magnet pickups are preferred toceramic-magnet pickups when a warmer tone is desired. In some cases, stronger

magnets are used to offset the loss of high-end caused by using smaller gauge wire.

What Are Some Ways A Guitarist Can Use Hard-Disk Recording Software?

A guitarist can use hard-disk recording software like a word processor, to copy, cut,and paste recorded parts. The sounds themselves can be modified, from adding

some signal processing to transforming them beyond recognition.

Effects processing is available in most recording software, either as a part of theprogram or via plug-ins. All of the traditional effects are available, as well as many

that are new and unique. A recording guitarist can use software processors instead

of a rack of multi-effects.

If you prefer to use an external processor, you can add one to a prerecorded guitar

part. Mute all tracks except the guitar, connect the output of the audio card to theinput of the processor, route the signal back into the computer, and record. This

method adds relatively little signal degradation when converting from digital to

analog and back to digital.

Picking up some amp hum? Noise reduction software is even more effective thanhardware. In some programs, a sample of the amp hiss can be fed to the software,

and the software will then remove that particular sound everywhere on therecording. Software noise gates are also available.



It's easy to make a composite track of the best takes of your guitar solo. Record asmany takes as you want (or have room for on your hard disk). Pick your favorite

parts and bounce them onto a single track. On-screen visual editing lets you find thebeginnings and endings of phrases with precision.

Some audio editing programs can change the dynamics of your playing using

amplitude envelopes. An amplitude envelope determines how quickly a note achievesits full volume, how fast it fades into silence, and what happens to the volume in-between. You can use these envelopes for swells, fades, or sharp percussive attacks,

just by drawing some lines on the screen over the waveform. You can also alter therelative volumes of specific parts, or drop the volume completely to eliminate

unwanted notes.

Many of these procedures are also possible on some of the stand-alone hard-disk

recorders currently available.

What Is "Just Intonation"?

Just Intonation, abbreviated JI, does not refer to a single tuning or scale. Rather, itrefers to "any system of tuning in which all of the intervals can be represented by

whole-number frequency ratios." (David B. Doty, The Just Intonation Primer).

To illustrate, the often-used tuning note, A440, vibrates 440 times a second, and its

frequency is said to be 440 Hertz. An octave above A440 is A880, which vibrates 880times a second, or 880 Hertz. The ratio between 880 and 440 is 2 to 1, written 2:1.

A just-tuned perfect fifth above A440 is E660, a ratio of 3:2. The interval betweenany two notes in a just-tuned scale can be represented as a whole-number ratio. A

major third is 5:4, a minor third is 6:5, and so on. Most musicians who use just-tuned scales prefer lower prime number ratios - numbers divisible by 2, 3, 5, 7, less

often 11, 13, 17, 19, and higher.

Almost all popular and classical music from American and European countries is

tuned in 12-note equal temperament, which is based on the twelfth root of two, anirrational number used to divide the octave (2:1) into twelve equal parts. So, other

than the perfect octave, none of the intervals in 12-note equal temperament can beexpressed as a whole number ratio, and these intervals sound different than their

just-tuned counterparts. For example, the interval between the two notes in a 12-note equal-tempered major third is significantly wider than the interval between the

two notes of a just-tuned major third.

Another difference between JI and 12-note equal temperament is that JI has an

infinite number of pitches to draw from, whereas 12-note equal temperament hasonly 12 (granting expressive pitch inflections). JI is open-ended, and many

possibilities remain to be discovered.

Just tunings are available in most keyboards and sound modules that are user-tunable. One or two just tunings may be included among the tuning presets, labeled

"pure major", "pure minor", or similar.

What Can Be Done To Adapt An Electric Guitar For Playing Slide?



When you play with a slide, heavier gauge strings sound better and provide moreresistance for a better feel. Gauges 11-54 or 12-54 are good. If you also want to

bend strings some of the time, you can compromise by using strings one gaugehigher than you usually play. If your guitar is manufactured to use light gauge

strings, you may need to widen the nut slots enough to fit the heavier strings.

It helps to raise the action. Adjust the bridge saddles until the strings are highenough that they won't rub against the frets under pressure from the slide. On someelectrics, the action is already as high as it will go, so check out the guitar first, to

make sure it's appropriate for slide playing. Raising the strings also helpscompensate for having a curved fretboard.

If the heavier gauge strings put too much tension on the neck, you may need totighten the trussrod for more support. If you use lighter gauge strings and raise the

action, you may need to loosen the trussrod to relieve the neck.

If the slide you use isn't curved, flattening the string radius slightly can compensate

for a rounded fretboard.

After raising the action, lower the bridge pickup a little if the strings get too close tothe pole pieces of the bridge pickup when you press down hard with the slide.

What Are Some Tunings For Slide Guitar?

Some slide guitarists use the standard tuning - EADGBE. It provides a minor triad on

strings 1,2, & 3, as well as a major triad on strings 2, 3, and 4. It's good for playingrock.

Most blues players use open tunings, such as open G: DGDGBD, and open D:

DADF#AD. Both tunings can be raised up a step, to open A: EAEAC#E, and open E:EBEG#BE. Many of the great acoustic blues players used open tunings, such as

Charley Patton, Robert Johnson, Son House, Blind Willie Johnson, and so manyothers, as well as electric slide masters from Elmore James to Bonnie Raitt.

For more modern styles, any tuning can be used, and there are many alternatetunings you can explore. Here are a couple of slide tunings used by experimental

music guitarist Ted Killian: CGDGBD (Ted raises this a half-step on electric guitar),and C#GDGBbD. Explore, and enjoy.

What Are Some Alternative Playing Techniques Using An Ebow With A Guitar?

Ebows are best known for providing infinite sustain and simulating feedback at any

volume. For standard Ebow techniques, see the instructions and demo tape that areincluded with it, as well as Ebow's Website: www.ebow.com.

Many volume effects are available. To fade in a note, start the tone with the Ebowcontacting the string a short distance away from the pickup, and gradually slide it

closer; fadeouts can be accomplished by sliding the Ebow further away from thepickup. Increasing or decreasing the pressure of the Ebow on the string can also

control volume changes.



Use the Ebow with a slide for an ethereal, Theremin-like effect. Steel guitar legendBuddy Emmons uses an Ebow on his pedal steel.

Finger a chord and arpeggiate by moving the Ebow rapidly over different strings.

Use two Ebows at once - one for a drone, one for melodic lines.

Experiment with different Ebow attacks. For example, slapping the Ebow lightly onthe strings creates a sound similar to hitting the strings with a violin bow.

Grasp the Ebow with your 4th and 5th fingers, hold it over a string for a drone, andfingerpick with the thumb and other three fingers.

Bend strings with your left hand and follow the sideways motion of the string withthe Ebow as you keep the Ebow in contact with the support strings.

Hold the Ebow backwards, facing the bridge pickup rather than the neck pickup. Onsome guitars, this changes the tonal quality.

Experiment with a variety of tone control settings and hold the Ebow over various

pickups.

Ebows can be used on steel-stringed acoustic instruments as well. John Cage wrote apiece using ten Ebowed harps.

What Compression Settings Are Appropriate For Recording Electric Bass?

Since the electric bass has a wider dynamic range than many instruments,

compression is often applied in order to maintain a more even volume level and tomatch the dynamics of the kick drum. When peaks are reduced, the entire bass part

can be boosted in the mix without adding distortion.

The settings depend upon both the music and the playing style of the bassist. It's

necessary to listen to the part and adjust the compression settings to obtain thesound you want. If the compressor has an input level, adjust it to get a nice hot

signal, but not loud enough to clip.

The threshold level determines the maximum level - signals louder than the

threshold are reduced in volume. At 0dB, only the loudest signals (peaks) arecompressed, retaining most of the natural dynamics of the player. Settings between

-2dB and -5dB are often used; when even more compression is desired, a thresholdof as much as -10dB or even -15dB might be chosen.

The ratio setting determines how much the signal is reducSince the electric bass has

a wider dynamic range than many instruments, compression is often applied in orderto maintain a more even volume level and to match the dynamics of the kick drum.When peaks are reduced, the entire bass part can be boosted in the mix without

adding distortion.The settings depend upon both the music and the playing style of the bassist. It's necessary to listen to the part and adjust the compression settings to

obtain the sound you want.If the compressor has an input level, adjust it to get anice hot signal, but not loud enough to clip.

The threshold level determines the maximum level - signals louder than thethreshold are reduced in volume. At 0dB, only the loudest signals (peaks) are



compressed, retaining most of the natural dynamics of the player. Settings between-2dB and -5dB are often used; when even more compression is desired, a threshold

of as much as -10dB or even -15dB might be chosen.

The ratio setting determines how much the signal is reduced. The higher the ratio,

the more the signal is compressed. A 2:1 ratio cuts the output of any signal above

the threshold in half; a 3:1 ratio reduces a signal above the threshold by 2/3. A ratioof 3:1 is a good place to begin in your search for the optimum ratio. 4:1 is alsowidely used, but occasionally a ratio as high as 10:1 will suit the sound.

The attack setting determines how quickly the peak is reduced. Slower attack timesallow the initial transient of the note to come through, for a punchier sound. If the

attack is fast, all sharp peaks will be cut, and the part will be smoother. A mediumattack time of 20ms to 40ms is a good starting place.

The decay time determines how quickly the compression goes away. If it's set toolow, it may compress a quieter note that rapidly follows an above-the-threshold

note. A medium setting is good - fast enough to be ready for a quiet note, not so fastthat it boosts noise that occurs between notes. Between 125ms to 250ms is usually

appropriate for bass.

A compressor may allow you to select between hard-knee and soft-knee. Set on

hard-knee, the compressor waits until the signal crosses the threshold, then itreduces the signal at the specified ratio for a punchy sound. With soft-knee

compression, the ratio gradually increases as the signal approaches the threshold,resulting in a more natural feel and a wider dynamic range.

If the output level is equal to the level of the peaks of the uncompressed signal, the

overall loudness will be higher. However, cheap compressors may add noise whentheoutput level is raised, so it may be preferable to boost the volume at the mixing

board. Adjusting one setting affects other settings. For example, an adjustment to

the threshold may require an additional adjustment to the ratio. Keep at it until you

get the sound that fits.

What Kind Of Surge Protection Do I Need For My Gear?

A good surge protector can more than pay for itself by preventing damage to yourvaluable gear. Be sure to get as many as you need in order to protect every piece of

equipment that could be harmed by power outages, spikes, surges, and sags.

The surge protector needs to have a sufficient power rating to protect all theequipment that's plugged into it. Check the output ratings of the gear you want to

plug into it.

Make sure it has enough outlets for every piece of gear that you need to plug into it.If you plug power strips into an outlet in order to accommodate more gear, you'llprobably void your equipment protection warranty.

To ensure protection against exceptionally large power surges, get a protector with aquick-blow or thermal fuse.

A faulty wiring indicator can spot trouble before it starts.



Some power conditioners add the ability to filter RFI/EMI interference. A line voltagemeter and an ammeter may be included on some models. For guitar and bass rigs,

pullout lights can let you view the settings of your rack gear.

Line voltage regulators are even better. They maintain an even voltage regardless of

the current they receive. They also shut down equipment in the event of extremely

high voltages.

How Does A Tube Processor Warm Up A Digital Recording?

Tubes can bring out even-number harmonics, which listeners experience as warm

and full. They can also add mid- and low- frequency distortion which is characteristicof analog recordings in which high volume levels saturate magnetic tape.

Tube mics and tube mic preamps are a great way to warm up vocals and acousticinstruments. Tube dynamics processors and effects processors will add their special

character to the sound. And tube saturators introduce the frequency curves presentin hot-level analog recordings.

Processors and saturators can be used either as the track is recorded or duringmixdown.

Can I Use Headphones For Mixing?

Headphones can be helpful in getting a good mix, but don't rely on them exclusively.

Near-field reference monitors are generally preferable, although there are timeswhen headphones must be used - to keep things quiet or to prevent sound from

bleeding into an open mic in the control room. Also, headphones are good forhearing certain kinds of sonic details that you might miss when you're listening

through speakers.

Headphone speakers are very close to your ears, so a mix will sound a lot different

through them than through monitors. Headphones can exaggerate effects like reverband delay, so it's easy to use insufficient amounts and wind up with a mix that's too

clean. Makes and models of headphones vary a lot. Be aware of the soundcharacteristics of the headphones you are working with, or your mix might sound a

lot different than you expect when you hear it through speakers.

When you mix with headphones, your ears are likely to fatigue sooner than when

you mix with reference monitors. Give yourself plenty of breaks to rest your ears.

For the best of both worlds, refer to both monitors and headphones when you mix.

What Are The Differences Between Disc-At-Once, Track-At-Once, AndSession-At-Once (Multisession) Cd-R Writing Modes?

Disc-at-once (DAO) mode writes all of the data to CD at one time, in one continuouspass. No interruptions of the data stream are possible. The lead-in, program data,

and lead-out areas are all written in this pass. Additional data can't be added later.

Masters for mass production must be written in disc-at-once.



Track-at-once (TAO) mode allows various tracks to be written in multiple passes,although they are burned in the same session. The laser is stopped and restarted,

which leaves run-out and run-in blocks between the tracks. Usually these are notnoticeable, but certain hardware/software combinations could leave some "junk" in a

gap, resulting in slight click. Also, CD mastering plants may not accept track-at-oncerecorded CDs, because the gaps between tracks might be read as errors. After all of

the tracks are written, the lead-in, program data, and lead-out areas are added toenable the disc to be read by a CD or CD-ROM drive.

Session-at-once (SAO) mode, like track-at-once, writes data to the CD in multiplepasses. However, the disc can be removed and reinserted into the burner. Each

session contains its own lead-in, program data, and lead-out, enabling data to bewritten onto free space of a CD that has some previously recorded data on it (but not

written over the data already on the disc). Not all CD readers can read a multisessiondisc; audio players can only read the first session. For this reason, if you are making

an audio CD, it's safer to make a disc-at-once to be sure that it can be played byanyone.

How Is An Audio Patch Bay Used?

A patch bay enables you to change the signal flow among the devices in your studio

without having to crawl behind all your gear and unplug/replug your cables. Inaddition to eliminating the hassle, patch bays save wear and tear on the jacks of

your equipment. Audio patch bays are switchboards for rerouting audio signals;

there are also MIDI patch bays for - you guessed it - rerouting MIDI signals.

An audio patch bay is a panel which contains rows of input and output jacks. Onrack-mountable patch bays used in home and project studios, there are typically two

rows of jacks on the rear-panel and two rows of jacks on the front-panel. Devicessuch as mixing consoles, processors, and recorders can be plugged into the patch

bay.

Patch bay jack sizes include 1/4" (balanced TRS or unbalanced), RCA, and TT (Tiny

Telephone, used in some commercial studios to save space).

Patch bay jacks are arranged in vertical pairs. A jack on the upper row of the rear of

the patch bay receives a signal from the output of a device. The jack immediatelybelow it, on the bottom row of the rear of the patch bay, sends the signal to the

input of a device.

A pair of patch bay jacks can be normalled, half-normalled, or de-normalled. Next

week we'll describe each of these patch bay modes.

What Does It Mean When A Pair Of Audio Patch Bay Jacks Is Normalled, Half-

Normalled, Or De-Normalled?

When a pair of jacks is normalled, with no front-panel connections, the signal passes

from an upper rear jack to the rear jack immediately below it. However, when acable is plugged into a corresponding front-panel jack, the normal signal flow is

broken. A device plugged into the front-panel upper jack would receive the signalfrom the device connected to the corresponding rear-panel upper jack. A device



plugged into the front-panel lower jack sends its signal to the device connected tothe corresponding rear-panel lower jack.

NORMALLED - NOTHING IN FRONT PANELSignal enters rear panel input and exits rear panel output

______________________________| |

| |signal--> in ]--->I [ out

| I || I |

<- out]<----I [ in| |

| | ______________________________

Rear-panel front-panel

NORMALLED - DEVICE PLUGGED INTO UPPER FRONT-PANELSignal enters rear-panel input, exits front panel output, no signal rear-panel output.

______________________________

| || |

signal--> in ] ------------------------> [ out ->| |

| |<---out] [ in

| || |

______________________________Rear-panel front-panel

NORMALLED - DEVICE PLUGGED INTO LOWER FRONT-PANELSignal enters front panel input, exits rear panel output. No signal enters rear-panel

input. ______________________________

| || |

-->in ] [ out| |

| |<- out] <----------------------- [ in <- signal

| || |

______________________________


In half-normalled mode, the pair of upper and lower rear-panel jack is connected,

the same as in normalled mode. However, plugging into a front-panel upper jack

splits the signal, sending it both to the device connected to the front-panel upper jack and to the device connected to the rear-panel lower jack. In this mode, the

signal-splitting is known as "multing." Plugging into the front-panel lower jack sends



that signal to the device connected to the corresponding rear-panel lower jack,breaking the connection between the rear-panel vertical pair of jacks.

HALF-NORMALLED - DEVICE PLUGGED INTO UPPER FRONT-PANELSignal enters rear-panel input, exits both rear-panel output and front-panel output.

______________________________

| || |signal--> in ]------------------------> [out ->

| I || I |

<- out] <------I [ in| |

| | ______________________________


HALF-NORMALLED - DEVICE PLUGGED INTO LOWER FRONT-PANEL

Same as normalled operation with device in lower front-panel

HALF-NORMALLED - DEVICES PLUGGED INTO BOTH FRONT-PANEL JACKS

Same as de-normalled (below)

When a pair of jacks is de-normalled, the upper and lower jacks are not connected

together internally, so a signal from a device plugged into a rear-panel upper jack isnot sent to the rear-panel jack below it. Instead, it is sent to the device connected to

the corresponding upper front-panel jack. Similarly, the rear-panel lower jack

receives its signal from the device connected to the corresponding front-panel lower jack.

DE-NORMALLED WITH DEVICES PLUGGED INTO FRONT-PANEL INPUT, OR FRONT-

PANEL OUTPUT, OR BOTH

______________________________

| || |

signal--> in ] -----------------------> [ out ->| |

| |<---out] <------------------------ [in <-- signal

| || |

______________________________Rear-panel front-panel

What's The Deal With Piezo Pickups On Solidbody Electric Guitars?

Piezo pickups use tiny crystals that generate a signal when you pluck a string. Unlike

electric sounds of magnetic single-coil and humbucking pickups, the piezo's crystalscreate a very acoustic, natural sounding tone. Some popular solidbody models sport

both piezo and magnetic pickups. Electric guitarists can easily mount piezo pickupson their solidbodies to add a warmer, acoustic sound to their magnetic array. Piezos



are typically located in the bridge, either under each saddle or as a strip that liesunder acoustic-type saddle bridges.

What Is A Humbucker?

There are two main types of electric guitar pickups: single coils and humbuckers.Single-coils were the first pickups invented. They consist of a single bobbin (spool)containing one or more magnets. Humbuckers, developed by Seth Lover while

working for Gibson in 1955, are two single coils that are wired together. By hookinga pair of single-coil pickups together, you get less noise than a typical single coil, and

you get fatter, richer tone. You also get much more output than single-coil pickups,so they overdrive amps much differently. Humbuckers usually have two bobbins

side-by-side, but there are also “stacked” humbuckers that are actually two singlecoils stacked on top of each other. Stacked humbuckers require no new holes or

modifications to a standard single-coil guitar, and they deliver the same fat tone as

side-by-side humbuckers.

Proper Care And Feeding Of Tube Amps

First, you should try to make a habit of firing up your amp in Power/Standby mode

for at least one minute before pounding the current completely to all tubes. This

way, when the tubes get the full jolt of electricity, the plates are nice and warm. Hotcurrent hitting cold tubes is one of the worst things that can happen to a tube amp.

Using the warm-up procedure can really extend the life your tubes. Switching theamp to standby for breaks also helps extend tube life. There are very good reasons

tube amp manufacturers put standby switches on their amps. Using them properly is

the best thing you can do for your amp.

You can tell if you’re firing up your amp properly when you're quietly strumming your

strings, waiting for the tubes to come on-line. If you have a fully audible signal andhear the notes clearly the instant you hit the switch, your doing the right thing.

Some players recommend changing tubes almost annually. I've owned tube amps foryears and have never yet changed or had a tube go bad. Actually, moderately worn

tubes sound better than new ones, and if properly cared for, just keep soundingbetter and better. I have to give credit to the folks at Mesa Boogie for teaching me

these tube amp tips nearly 20 years ago. (Note: Mesa Boogie still offers this advicein their new owner’s manuals).

Cleaning Your Cymbals

To clean or not to clean, this is the question for many drummers when it comes to

their cymbals. Some players believe that a certain amount of grime and grit andsmoky residue adds to the character of the cymbal. No doubt that a certain barroom

neglect may give your cymbals a certain roadhouse ambience. But for those who areinterested in extending the life of their cymbals and keeping them shining like

shining disks of pure sonic gold under the stage lights, here’s some helpful tips.

Many new cymbals are sprayed with a protective coating to keep them from



tarnishing in the store, so your cymbals may need less cleaning during the first 6months, depending on use. During this time, a solution of warm water and liquid

dishwasher soap will clean fingerprints, dirt and grime. As your cymbals age, werecommend a professional cleaning cream to remove stick marks and tarnish. Put a

small amount onto the surface with a soft cloth and rub in the direction of the tonalgrooves, until the metal appears through the film. After the polish has dried to a

haze, buff gently with a clean, soft cloth. Clean only a small section of the cymbal ata time. Always avoid using any abrasives, such as steel wool, wire brushes, scouring

pads or metal cleaners that contain abrasives. These products will scratch the

surface of your cymbal.

Care And Cleaning Of Guitar Strings & Fretboards

Cleaning your strings and fretboard is one of the easiest and most overlooked areas

of guitar maintenance. Take a good look at your strings. Are they accumulating a

film? (You may need to look on the underside to see all the dirt you have on them.)There are a handful of products designed to extend the life of your strings, but if you

want to go the economy route, simply wiping them down with a slightly damp clothwill be better than nothing, and you’ll find you won’t have to change your strings asmuch.

Do you see dirt and grime building up on the fretboard? You might as well clean thissurface during string changes. Use a slightly damp cloth or a good guitar cleaner.

Some people recommend using the finest grade of steel wool to abrade extra tough

dirt off your fretboard. I haven’t had to go this far yet, and would urge caution. Goeasy on the elbow grease as to not scratch the finish on the wood. Long sweat and

dirt buildup can eventually damage glue joints and warp your instrument (this wouldbe after a long period of exposure without any maintenance). An occasional cleaning

of the fretboard will extend its life and keep your solos blazing.

How Can I Keep From Breaking Strings On My Guitar?

First, always handle new strings with care. If you bend or put a kink in a new stringwhen you’re taking it out of the pack, you can create a weak spot in the string that

will snap in the middle of your first solo every time.

Breaking strings on electric guitars is usually caused by two things: technique andworn bridge saddles. When you pick the strings, they move slightly across the saddle

before sounding. The length of travel depends on where and how you pick the string.A tiny burr or groove in the bridge saddles can catch the string and cause it to break.

If you’re breaking a lot of strings at the bridge, it’s probably caused by a funky

saddle. Replacement saddles are relatively inexpensive and easy to install at home.Make sure replacement saddles are stainless steel or some other hard metal

designed to reduce string breakage. If replacement saddles don’t solve the problem,

you’ll either have to get used to busted strings or change your playing style.

On acoustic guitars, there can be sharp edges near the end of the pin that catch the

strings. Sometimes an emory board or fine sandpaper can be carefully used to fixthis problem.



Basic Guitar Maintenance TIPS:

A good, quality guitar should last a lifetime. Following these tips will help ensure

years of enjoyment from your instrument:

• If you don't already own one, get a good quality case or gig bag for your

guitar. It's the least expensive insurance you can buy for a guitar. Also, get agood guitar stand to keep it on between playing sessions.

• Keep your guitar in its case when not in continuous use. • Keep your guitar away from extreme heat, cold, or humidity changes. Avoid

placing your guitar on its stand near heat and air conditioning vents,windows, doors, outside, or in your car for long periods of time.

• Use only quality guitar care and maintenance products - not furniture polish

or abrasive dust cloths. • Never detune and remove all the strings at once. The truss rod is designed

and adjusted to provide counter tension to the strings - removing that tensionsuddenly can damage or warp a neck.

• Change your strings regularly, depending on how often you play. Remove,

replace, and tune up one string at a time - constantly keeping the guitar in

tune as you go. • Keep your guitar tuned to standard pitch. You should consider purchasing an

electronic tuner if you don't already have one. • Invest in a quality guitar strap - especially if you stand while playing. • Find a reputable guitar repairman, and take your guitar in for annual

checkups coinciding with weather changes. If you're not trained andexperienced with truss rod adjustment - leave it alone and let the

professionals do the tweaking. The same goes for fret filing and crowning,

bridge and saddle work, nut adjustments, and so on. Many a guitar has beendamaged by wannabe luthiers. Either leave it to the pros, or get expert

hands-on training if you're the do it yourself type. • Play your guitar often. A fine quality instrument made from solid woods just

gets better and better the older it gets and the more its played. It's a win winfor both you and your guitar - the more you enjoy it, the better it sounds -

and the more you'll enjoy it in the future. • As an aside, every guitar sold at Musician's Friend goes through a complete

10-point quality check. This includes checking and adjusting the truss rod,neck, tuning keys, action, bridge/tremolo, finish, body, bracing, structural,

pickups, electronics, intonation, and even the case. This ensures you will receive a properly adjusted and inspected instrument - so you'llget off on the right start with your new guitar. Combine this with the tips above, and

you'll be in guitar heaven for years to come.



What's The Best Way To Hook Effects Pedals Together?

There is no absolute rule for the order effects can be linked, but there is a tried-and-

true method that is a really good place to start. First, plug your guitar into yourcompressor to give the rest of the effects a smooth, even signal. The

preamp/distortion is next because you want to put high-gain devices on a clean

signal, not a processed one. Likewise, your EQ should come before your coloringeffects. Wah, chorus, flange, and other coloring effects are next. The order doesn’t

really matter that much. The delay comes after these effects, so you can have the

chorus or flanging effects on repeats. The last effect in your chain is reverb. Thisway, your active effects can be heard in the decaying reverb. The noise gate (which

is not an effect) comes after the reverb to extinguish any noise created by otherpedals. Again, this is not the only way to link your effects but we suggest you start

with this setup, and experiment until you feel comfortable with your sound.

Getting Cool Guitar Sounds From Keyboards

If you’re a keyboard player who’d like to add some guitar sound to the mix, we havea couple of tricks to get you on the fast track. Most keyboards can deliver some

standard, sterile guitar sounds, but it’s tough to get hip, realistic guitar sounds out of a keyboard. There are two quick fixes for this problem, and both will put some phat,

living guitar tones at your fingertips.

First, score an outboard ribbon controller. A ribbon controller acts much more likereal guitar strings than a knob. You can use the ribbon controller to perform

hammer4-ons, pull-offs, and bend strings with the greatest of ease. You’ll be amazed

what a difference this makes.

Next, find an old distortion stomp box and run your sound through the distortion box

to get some really gnarly, living guitar sounds. I recommend digging through aguitarists box of junk, asking him which distortion pedal he can’t stand, and going for

it. The older, nastier, pawn-shop boxes seem to be best for getting killer guitar tone

from your keyboard.

What's The Best Way To Clean Tape Heads?

If you use your tape deck frequently and aren’t taking the time to clean the heads,

you may be losing sound quality. Grease, dirt and oxide deposits can build up around

and on cassette deck heads, and if you let them stay, can cause distortion as well assound loss.

Manufacturers recommend cleaning your heads every 20 - 30 hours of use. You can

use a couple of different methods to do this - some come packaged from the makersof the cassettes you buy, and there is a tried-and-true do-it-yourself method.

The two ways to clean the heads most manufacturers provide are using a dry tape,which rubs the dirt off the heads as it passes over them; or a wet tape, where a

cleaning solution is applied to a cassette tape (special cleaning tape), which is thenrun over the heads dissolving the grime from the heads.



If you want to do it yourself, follow these steps:

Disconnect any power source. The door to the tape well may be removable. If the

door doesn’t come of you may want to try pressing eject and then play with the dooropen to expose the tape handling areas.

Use a cotton swab dipped in tape head cleaning solution or denatured alcohol togently clean the parts (avoid applying the alcohol to the rubber belts - keep it to the

metal parts).

Once you’ve removed the film, press the stop button if you engaged the play buttonearlier.

This should greatly increase the life span and quality of your deck.

(Sound Engineering) Sound Engineering and Musician Book P1

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Transcript of (Sound Engineering) Sound Engineering and Musician Book P1