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Sonata 1 Sonata Ludwig van Beethoven's manuscript sketch for Piano Sonata No. 28, Movement IV, Geschwind, doch nicht zu sehr und mit Entschlossenheit (Allegro), in his own handwriting. The piece was completed in 1816. Sonata (  /səˈnɑːtə/; Italian: pl., Sonate Italian pronunciation: [soˈnaːta]; from Latin and Italian: sonare, "to sound"), in music, literally means a piece played as opposed to a cantata (Latin and Italian cantare, "to sing"), a piece sung. The term, being vague, naturally evolved through the history of music, designating a variety of forms prior to the Classical era. The term took on increasing importance in the Classical period, and by the early 19th century the word came to represent a principle of composing large scale works. It was applied to most instrumental genres and regarded alongside the fugue as one of two fundamental methods of organizing, interpreting and analyzing concert music. Though the musical style of sonatas has changed since the Classical Era, most 20th- and 21st- century sonatas still maintain the same structure. Usage of sonata In the Baroque, the term "sonata" was applied to a variety of works for solo instrument such as keyboard or violin, and for groups of instruments. In the transition from the Baroque to the Classical period, the term sonata underwent a change in usage, coming to mean a chamber-music genre for either a solo instrument (usually a keyboard), or a solo melody instrument with piano. Increasingly after 1800, the term applied to a form of large-scale musical argument, and it was generally used in this sense in musicology and musical analysis. Most of the time if some more specific usage was meant, then the particular body of work would be noted: for example the sonatas of Beethoven would mean the works specifically labeled sonata, whereas Beethoven sonata form would apply to all of his large-scale instrumental works, whether concert or chamber. In the 20th century, sonatas in this sense would continue to be composed by influential and famous composers, though many works which did not meet the strict criterion of "sonata" in the formal sense would also be created and performed. The term sonatina, literally "small sonata", is often used for a short or technically easy sonata. Instrumentation In the Baroque period, a sonata was for one or more instruments almost always with continuo. After the Baroque period most works designated as sonatas specifically are performed by a solo instrument, most often a keyboard instrument, or by a solo instrument together with a keyboard instrument. In the late Baroque and early Classical period, a work with instrument and written-out keyboard part was referred to as having an obbligato keyboard part, in order to distinguish this from use of an instrument or instruments as continuo, though this fell out of usage by the early 19th century. Beginning in the early 19th century, works were termed sonata if, according to the understanding of that time, they were part of the genre, even if they were not designated sonata when originally published, or by

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Sonata 1

Sonata

Ludwig van Beethoven's manuscript sketch for Piano Sonata No.28, Movement IV, Geschwind, doch nicht zu sehr und mit

Entschlossenheit (Allegro), in his own handwriting. The piecewas completed in 1816.

Sonata (  /səˈnɑːtə/; Italian: pl., Sonate Italian

pronunciation: [soˈnaːta]; from Latin and Italian: sonare, "tosound"), in music, literally means a piece played asopposed to a cantata (Latin and Italian cantare, "to sing"),a piece sung. The term, being vague, naturally evolvedthrough the history of music, designating a variety offorms prior to the Classical era. The term took onincreasing importance in the Classical period, and by theearly 19th century the word came to represent a principleof composing large scale works. It was applied to mostinstrumental genres and regarded alongside the fugue asone of two fundamental methods of organizing,interpreting and analyzing concert music. Though themusical style of sonatas has changed since the ClassicalEra, most 20th- and 21st- century sonatas still maintain thesame structure.

Usage of sonata

In the Baroque, the term "sonata" was applied to a varietyof works for solo instrument such as keyboard or violin,and for groups of instruments. In the transition from theBaroque to the Classical period, the term sonataunderwent a change in usage, coming to mean achamber-music genre for either a solo instrument (usuallya keyboard), or a solo melody instrument with piano.Increasingly after 1800, the term applied to a form oflarge-scale musical argument, and it was generally used in this sense in musicology and musical analysis. Most ofthe time if some more specific usage was meant, then the particular body of work would be noted: for example thesonatas of Beethoven would mean the works specifically labeled sonata, whereas Beethoven sonata form wouldapply to all of his large-scale instrumental works, whether concert or chamber. In the 20th century, sonatas in thissense would continue to be composed by influential and famous composers, though many works which did not meetthe strict criterion of "sonata" in the formal sense would also be created and performed. The term sonatina, literally"small sonata", is often used for a short or technically easy sonata.

InstrumentationIn the Baroque period, a sonata was for one or more instruments almost always with continuo. After the Baroque period most works designated as sonatas specifically are performed by a solo instrument, most often a keyboard instrument, or by a solo instrument together with a keyboard instrument. In the late Baroque and early Classical period, a work with instrument and written-out keyboard part was referred to as having an obbligato keyboard part, in order to distinguish this from use of an instrument or instruments as continuo, though this fell out of usage by the early 19th century. Beginning in the early 19th century, works were termed sonata if, according to the understanding of that time, they were part of the genre, even if they were not designated sonata when originally published, or by

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the composer. A related term at the time was "Fantasia" (Italian), "Fantaisie" (French), Phantasie (German), orFantasy (English), which was applied to movements or works which had a much freer form than the Sonata (forexample Schubert's Wanderer Fantasy).In the Classical period and afterwards, sonatas for piano solo were the most common genre of sonata, with sonatasfor violin and piano or cello and piano being next. However, sonatas for a solo instrument other than keyboard havebeen composed, as have sonatas for other combinations of instruments, and for other instruments with piano.

Brief history of the usage of sonata

The Baroque sonataIn the works of Arcangelo Corelli and his contemporaries, two broad classes of sonata were established, and werefirst described by Sébastien de Brossard in his Dictionaire de musique (third edition, Amsterdam, ca. 1710): thesonata da chiesa (that is, suitable for use in church), which was the type "rightly known as Sonatas", and the sonatada camera (proper for use at court), which consists of a prelude followed by a succession of dances, all in the samekey. Although the four, five, or six movements of the sonata da chiesa are also most often in one key, one or two ofthe internal movements are sometimes in a contrasting tonality, according to Brossard (Newman 1972a, 23–24).The sonata da chiesa, generally for one or more violins and bass, consisted normally of a slow introduction, a looselyfugued allegro, a cantabile slow movement, and a lively finale in some binary form suggesting affinity with thedance-tunes of the suite. This scheme, however, was not very clearly defined, until the works of Johann SebastianBach and George Frideric Handel, when it became the essential sonata and persisted as a tradition of Italian violinmusic – even into the early 19th century, in the works of Boccherini.The sonata da camera consisted almost entirely of idealized dance-tunes, but by the time of Bach and Handel such acomposition drew apart from the sonata, and came to be called a suite, a partita, an ordre, or, when it had a preludein the form of a French opera-overture, an overture. On the other hand, the features of sonata da chiesa and sonatada camera then tended to be freely intermixed. Bach is also cited as being among the first composers to have thekeyboard and solo instrument share a melodic line, whereas previously most sonatas for keyboard and instrumenthad kept the melody exclusively in the solo instrument. Although nearly half of Bach's 1,100 survivingcompositions, arrangements, and transcriptions are instrumental works, only about 4% are sonatas (Newman 1972a,266).The term sonata is also applied to the series of over 500 works for harpsichord solo, or sometimes for other keyboardinstruments, by Domenico Scarlatti, originally published under the name Essercizi per il gravicembalo (Exercises forthe Harpsichord). Most of these pieces are in one binary-form movement only, with two parts that are in the sametempo and use the same thematic material, though occasionally there will be changes in tempo within the sections.Many of the sonatas were composed in pairs, one being in the major and the other in the parallel minor. They arefrequently virtuosic, and use more distant harmonic transitions and modulations than were common for other worksof their time. They are admired for their great variety and invention.The genre—particularly for solo instruments with just the continuo or ripieno—eventually influenced the solomovements of suites or concerti that occurred between movements with the full orchestra playing, for example in theBrandenburg Concerti of Bach. Both the solo and trio sonatas of Vivaldi show parallels with the concerti he waswriting at the same time. Vivaldi composed over 70 sonatas, the great majority of which are of the solo type; most ofthe rest are trio sonatas, and a very small number are of the multivoice type (Newman 1972a, 169–70).The sonatas of Domenico Paradies are mild and elongated works of this type, with a graceful and melodious littlesecond movement included. The manuscript on which Longo bases his edition of Scarlatti frequently shows a similarjuxtaposition of movements, though without any definite indication of their connection. The style is still traceable inthe sonatas of the later classics, whenever a first movement is in a uniform rush of rapid motion, as in Mozart's violinsonata in F (K. 377), and in several of Clementi's best works.

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The sonata in the Classical periodThe practice of the Classical period would become decisive for the sonata; the term moved from being one of manyterms indicating genres or forms, to designating the fundamental form of organization for large-scale works. Thisevolution stretched over fifty years. The term came to apply both to the structure of individual movements (seeSonata form and History of sonata form) and to the layout of the movements in a multi-movement work. In thetransition to the Classical period there were several names given to multimovement works, including divertimento,serenade, and partita, many of which are now regarded effectively as sonatas. The usage of sonata as the standardterm for such works began somewhere in the 1770s. Haydn labels his first piano sonata as such in 1771, after whichthe term divertimento is used very sparingly in his output. The term sonata was increasingly applied to either a workfor keyboard alone (see piano sonata), or for keyboard and one other instrument, often the violin or cello. It was lessand less frequently applied to works with more than two instrumentalists; for example piano trios were not oftenlabelled sonata for piano, violin, and cello.

Initially the most common layout of movements was:1. Allegro, which at the time was understood to mean not only a tempo, but also some degree of "working out", or

development, of the theme. (See Charles Rosen's The Classical Style, and his Sonata Forms.)2. A middle movement which was, most frequently, a slow movement: an Andante, an Adagio, or a Largo; or, less

frequently, a Minuet or Theme and Variations form.3. A closing movement was generally an Allegro or a Presto, often labeled Finale. The form was often a Rondo or

Minuet.However, two-movement layouts also occur, a practice Haydn uses as late as the 1790s. There was also in the earlyClassical period the possibility of using four movements, with a dance movement inserted before the slowmovement, as in Haydn's Piano sonatas No. 6 and No. 8. Mozart's sonatas were also primarily in three movements.Of the works that Haydn labelled piano sonata, divertimento, or partita in Hob XIV, 7 are in two movements, 35 arein three movements, and 3 are in four movements; and there are several in three or four movements whoseauthenticity is listed as "doubtful." Composers such as Boccherini would publish sonatas for piano and obbligatoinstrument with an optional third movement – in Boccherini's case, 28 cello sonatas.But increasingly instrumental works were laid out in four, not three movements, a practice seen first in stringquartets and symphonies, and reaching the sonata proper in the early sonatas of Beethoven. However, two- andthree-movement sonatas continued to be written throughout the Classical period: Beethoven's opus 102 pair has atwo-movement C major sonata and a three-movement D major sonata.The four-movement layout was by this point standard for the string quartet, and overwhelmingly the most commonfor the symphony. The usual order of the four movements was:1. An allegro, which by this point was in what is called sonata form, complete with exposition, development, and

recapitulation.2. A slow movement, an Andante, Adagio or Largo.3. A dance movement, frequently Minuet and trio or – especially later in the classical period – a Scherzo and trio.4. A finale in faster tempo, often in a sonata–rondo form.This four-movement layout came to be considered the standard for a sonata, and works without four movements, orwith more than four, were increasingly felt to be exceptions; they were labelled as having movements "omitted," orhad "extra" movements. Movements when they appeared out of this order would be described as "reversed", such asthe Scherzo coming before the slow movement in Beethoven's 9th Symphony. This usage would be noted by criticsin the early 19th century, and it was codified into teaching soon thereafter.It is difficult to overstate the importance of Beethoven's output of sonatas: 32 piano sonatas, plus sonatas for celloand piano and violin and piano, forming a large body of music which would over time increasingly be thoughtessential for any serious instrumentalist to master.

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The sonata in the Romantic periodIn the early 19th century conservatories of music were established, leading to a codification of the practice of theClassical period. In this setting, our current usage of the term sonata was established, both as regards form per se,and in the sense that a fully elaborated sonata serves as a norm for concert music in general, which other forms areseen in relation to. Carl Czerny declared that he had invented the idea of sonata form, and music theorists began towrite of the sonata as an ideal in music. From this point forward, the word sonata in music theory as often labels theabstract musical form as well as much as particular works. Hence there are references to a symphony as a sonata fororchestra. This is referred to by William Newman as the sonata idea, and by others as the sonata principle.Among works expressly labeled sonata, some of the most famous were composed in this era. Among piano sonatasalone, there are the three of Frédéric Chopin, those of Felix Mendelssohn, the three of Robert Schumann, FranzLiszt's Sonata in B Minor, and later the sonatas of Johannes Brahms and Sergei Rachmaninoff.In the early 19th century the sonata form was rigorously defined, from a combination of previous practice and theworks of important Classical composers, particularly Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, but composers such as Clementialso. Works not explicitly labeled sonata were nevertheless felt to be an expression of the same governing structuralpractice. Because the word became definitively attached to an entire concept of musical layout, the differences inClassical practice began to be seen as important to classify and explain. It is during this period that the differencesbetween the three- and the four-movement layouts became a subject of commentary, with emphasis on the concertobeing laid out in three movements, and the symphony in four. Many thought that the four movement form was thesuperior layout. The concerto form was thought to be Italianate, while the four-movement form's predominance wasascribed to Haydn, and was considered German.The importance of the sonata in the clash between Brahmsians and Wagnerians is also of note. Brahms represented,to his advocates, adherence to the form as it was strictly construed, while Wagner and Liszt claimed to havetranscended the Procrustean nature of its outline. For example Ernest Newman wrote, in the essay "Brahms and theSerpent":[1]

That, perhaps, will be the ideal of the instrumental music of the future; the way to it, indeed, seems at last to beopening out before modern composers in proportion as they discard the last tiresome vestiges of sonata form.This, from being what it was originally, the natural mode of expression of a certain eighteenth century way ofthinking in music, became in the nineteenth century a drag upon both individual thinking and the freeunfolding of the inner vital force of an idea, and is now simply a shop device by which a bad composer maypersuade himself and the innocent reader of textbooks that he is a good one. (Newman 1958, 51)

This view, that the sonata is truly only at home in the Classical style, and had become a road block to later musicaldevelopment, is one that has been held at various times by composers and musicologists, including recently byCharles Rosen. In this view the sonata called for no explicit analysis in Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven's era, in thesame sense that Bach "knew" what a fugue was and how to compose one, whereas later composers were bound by an"academic" sense of form that was not well suited to the Romantic era's more frequent and more rapid modulations.

The sonata after the Romantic periodThe sonata was closely tied in the Romantic period to tonal harmony and practice. Even before the demise of thispractice, large-scale works increasingly deviated from the four-movement layout that had been considered standardfor almost a century, and the internal structure of movements began to alter as well. The "sonata idea," along withthe term sonata itself, continued to be central to musical analysis, and a strong influence on composers, both inlarge-scale works and in chamber music. The role of the sonata as an extremely important form of extended musicalargument would inspire composers such as Hindemith, Prokofiev, Shostakovich to compose in sonata form, andworks with traditional sonata structures continue to be composed and performed.

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The piano sonatas of Scriabin began from standard forms of the late Romantic period, but progressively abandonedthe formal markers that had been taught, and were usually composed as single-movement works.Charles Ives's massive Concord Sonata (1920) for piano bore little resemblance to the traditional Sonata. It had fourmovements (though not with the usual tempos), very few barlines, and the tonality, where present, is fleeting or oftencompounded with polytonality. It even contained optional (and very minor) parts for viola and flute.Still later, Pierre Boulez would compose three sonatas in the early 1950s, which, while they were neither tonal norlaid out in the standard four-movement form, were intended to have the same significance as sonatas. Elliott Carterbegan his transition from neo-classical composer to avant-garde with his Cello Sonata (1948).

The sonata in scholarship and musicology

The sonata idea or principleResearch into the practice and meaning of sonata form, style, and structure has been the motivation for importanttheoretical works by Heinrich Schenker, Arnold Schoenberg, and Charles Rosen among others; and the pedagogy ofmusic continued to rest on an understanding and application of the rules of sonata form as almost two centuries ofdevelopment in practice and theory had codified it.The development of the classical style and its norms of composition formed the basis for much of the music theoryof the 19th and 20th centuries. As an overarching formal principle, sonata was accorded the same central status asBaroque fugue; and generations of composers, instrumentalists, and audiences were guided by this understanding ofsonata as an enduring and dominant principle in Western music. The sonata idea begins before the term had taken onits present importance, along with the evolution of the Classical period's changing norms. The reasons for thesechanges, and how they relate to the evolving sense of a new formal order in music, is a matter to which research isdevoted. Some common factors which were pointed to include: the shift of focus from vocal music to instrumentalmusic; changes in performance practice, including the loss of the continuo (Rosen 1997, 196) and the playing of allmovements of a work straight through, without "mechanical" repeats; the shift away from the idea that eachmovement should express one dominant emotion (see Affekt), to a notion of accommodating contrasting themes andsections in an integrated whole; the move from a polyphonic mode of composition to a homophonic mode; changesin the availability of instruments, and new technical developments in instruments; the obsolescence ofstraightforward binary organization of movements; the rise of more dance rhythms; and changes in patronage andpresentation.Crucial to most interpretations of the sonata form is the idea of a tonal center; and, as the Grove Concise Dictionaryof Music puts it: "The main form of the group embodying the 'sonata principle', the most important principle ofmusical structure from the Classical period to the 20th century: that material first stated in a complementary key berestated in the home key" (Sadie 1988, ).The sonata idea has been thoroughly explored by William Newman in his monumental three-volume work Sonata inthe Classic Era (A History of the Sonata Idea), begun in the 1950s and published in what has become the standardedition of all three volumes in 1972. He notes that according to his research, theorists had generally shown "a hazyrecognition of 'sonata form' during the Classical Era and up to the late 1830s" and places particular emphasis onReicha's 1826 work describing the "fully developed binary form", for its fixing of key relationships, Czerny's 1837note in the preface to his Opus 600, and Adolf Bernhard Marx, who in 1845 wrote a long treatise on sonata form. Upuntil this point, Newman argues, the definitions available were quite imprecise, requiring only instrumental characterand contrasting character of movements.William Newman also notes, however, that these codifications were in response to a growing understanding that the18th century did have a formal organization of music. Before those publications of Reicha, Czerny, or Marx, thereare references to the "customary sonata form", and in particular to the organization of the first movement of sonatasand related works. He documents the evolution of sonata analysis as well, showing that early critical works on

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sonatas, with some very notable exceptions, dealt with structural and technical details only loosely. Instead, manyimportant works belonging to the sonata genre, or in sonata form, were not analyzed comprehensively in terms oftheir thematic and harmonic resources until the 20th century.

20th century theoryTwo of the most important theorists in European musicology of the 20th century, Heinrich Schenker and ArnoldSchoenberg, both had ideas of central importance for the analysis and general understanding of the sonata. Theirideas were extremely rigorous, and placed tremendous emphasis on the long range influence of tonal materials. Bothadvanced theories of analysis of works which would be adopted by later theorists. While the two men disagreed witheach other, their ideas have often been used in combination.Heinrich Schenker argued that there was an Urlinie or basic tonal melody, and a basic bass figuration. He held thatwhen these two were present, there was basic structure, and that the sonata represented this basic structure in a wholework with a process known as interruption (Schenker 1979, 1:134). Arnold Schoenberg advanced the theory ofmonotonality, according to which a single work should be played as if in one key, even if movements were indifferent keys, and that the capable composer would reference everything in a work to a single tonic triad.For Schenker, tonal function was the essential defining characteristic of comprehensible structure in music, and hisdefinition of the sonata form rested, not on themes groups or sections, but on the basic interplay between thedifferent "layers" of a composition. For Schoenberg, tonality was not essential to comprehensibility, but he accordedsimilar importance to the structural role of notes, in "explaining" the relationships of chords and counterpoint inmusical structure. Both theorists held that tonality, and hence sonata structure in tonal form, is essentiallyhierarchical: what is immediately audible is subordinate to large-scale movements of harmony. They argued thattransient chords and events are less significant than movement between certain crucial underlying chords.As a practical matter, Schenker applied his ideas to the editing of the piano sonatas of Beethoven, using originalmanuscripts and his own theories to "correct" the available sources. The basic procedure was the use of tonal theoryto infer meaning from available sources as part of the critical process, even to the extent of completing works leftunfinished by their composers. While many of these changes were and are controversial, that procedure has a centralrole today in music theory, and is an essential part of the theory of sonata structure as taught in most music schools.

Famous sonatasFor a more comprehensive list of sonatas, see List of sonatas.

Baroque (ca 1600 – ca 1760)• Johann Sebastian Bach

• Three Sonatas for solo violin• Giuseppe Tartini

• Devil's Trill Sonata

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Classical (ca 1760 – ca 1830)• Ludwig van Beethoven

• Piano Sonata No. 8 "Pathétique"• Piano Sonata No. 14 "Moonlight"• Piano Sonata No. 17 "Tempest"• Piano Sonata No. 21 "Waldstein"• Piano Sonata No. 23 "Appassionata"• Piano Sonata No. 29 "Hammerklavier"• Violin Sonata No. 5 "Spring"• Violin Sonata No. 9 "Kreutzer"• Cello Sonata No. 1 in F Major Op. 5• Cello Sonata No. 2 in G Minor Op. 5• Cello Sonata No. 3 in A Major Op. 69

• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart• Piano Sonata No. 8 in A Minor (K. 310)• Piano Sonata No. 11 in A Major (K. 331/300i)• Piano Sonata No. 12 in F Major (K. 332)• Piano Sonata No. 13 in B-flat Major (K. 333)• Piano Sonata No. 14 in C Minor (K. 457)• Piano Sonata No. 15 in F Major (K. 533/494)• Piano Sonata No. 16 in C Major (K. 545)• Sonata in A for Violin and Keyboard (K. 526)

Romantic (ca 1830 – ca 1900)• Johannes Brahms

• Cello Sonata No. 1• Clarinet Sonata No.1 and No.2• Violin Sonata No. 1• Violin Sonata No. 2• Violin Sonata No. 3

• Frédéric Chopin• Piano Sonata No. 2 in B♭ Minor• Piano Sonata No. 3 in B Minor

• Edvard Grieg• Three sonatas for Violin and Piano

• Franz Liszt• Sonata after a Reading of Dante (Fantasia Quasi Sonata)• Sonata in B minor

• Robert Schumann• Violin Sonata No 1 in A minor opus 105

• Johannes Brahms, Albert Dietrich, and Robert Schumann• 'F-A-E' Sonata

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20th Century (including contemporary) (ca 1910–2011)• Samuel Barber

• Cello Sonata Op. 6• Piano Sonata Op. 26 (1949)

• Jean Barraqué• Piano Sonata (1950–52)

• Béla Bartók• Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion• Sonata for Piano (1926)• Sonata for Solo Violin• Sonata No. 1 for Violin and Piano• Sonata No. 2 for Violin and Piano

• Leonard Bernstein• Sonata for Clarinet and Piano

• Pierre Boulez• Piano Sonata No. 1• Piano Sonata No. 2• Piano Sonata No. 3

• John Cage• Sonata for Unaccompanied Clarinet• Sonatas and Interludes for Prepared Piano (1946–48)

• Brian Ferneyhough• Sonatas for String Quartet (1967)

• Alberto Ginastera• Piano Sonata No. 1 (1952)• Piano Sonata No. 2 (1981)• Piano Sonata No. 3 (1982)• Sonata for Cello and Piano (1979)• Sonata for Guitar (1976, rev. 1981)

• Karel Goeyvaerts• Sonata for Two Pianos, Op. 1

• Hans Werner Henze• Royal Winter Music, Guitar Sonatas No. 1 and 2

• György Ligeti• Sonata, for solo cello (1948/1953)

• Charles Ives• Piano Sonata No. 2, Concord, Mass., 1840-60

• Leoš Janáček• 1. X. 1905 (Janáček's Sonata for Piano)

• Ben Johnston• Sonata for Microtonal Piano

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• Sergei Prokofiev• Violin Sonata No. 1 in F Minor• Violin Sonata No. 2 in D Major

• Alexander Scriabin• Piano Sonata No. 2 (Sonata-Fantasy)• Piano Sonata No. 3• Piano Sonata No. 4• Piano Sonata No. 5• Piano Sonata No. 6• Piano Sonata No. 7 "White Mass"• Piano Sonata No. 8• Piano Sonata No. 9 "Black Mass"• Piano Sonata No. 10

• Igor Stravinsky• Sonata for Piano in F♯ minor (1903–04)• Sonata for Piano (1924)• Sonata for Two Pianos (1943)

References• Mangsen, Sandra, John Irving, John Rink, and Paul Griffiths. 2001. "Sonata". The New Grove Dictionary of

Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.• Newman, Ernest. 1958. More Essays from the World of Music: Essays from the London Sunday Times [2],

selected by Felix Aprahamian. London: John Calder; New York: Coward-McCann, Inc.• Newman, William S. 1966. The Sonata in the Baroque Era, revised ed. Chapel Hill: The University of North

Carolina Press. LCCN 66-19475.• Newman, William S. 1972a. The Sonata in the Baroque Era, third edition. A History of the Sonata Idea 1. New

York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00622-0.• Newman, William S. 1972b. The Sonata in the Classic Era: The Second Volume of a History of the Sonata Idea,

second edition. A History of the Sonata Idea 2; The Norton Library N623. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN0-393-00623-9.

• Newman, William S. 1983a. The Sonata in the Baroque Era, fourth edition. A History of the Sonata Idea 1. NewYork: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-95275-4.

• Newman, William S. 1983b. The Sonata in the Classic Era, third edition. A History of the Sonata Idea 2. NewYork: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-95286-X.

• Newman, William S. 1983c. The Sonata since Beethoven, third edition. A History of the Sonata Idea 3. NewYork: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-95290-8.

• Newman, William S. 1988. Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way. New York: W. W.Norton. ISBN 0-393-02538-1 (cloth) ISBN 0-393-30719-0 (pbk).

• Rosen, Charles. 1988. Sonata Forms, revised edition. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-02658-2• Rosen, Charles. 1997. The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, expanded edition, with CD recording. New

York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-31712-9.• Rosen, Charles. 1995. The Romantic Generation. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-77933-9

ISBN 0-674-77934-7 (pbk).• Sadie, Stanley (ed). 1988. The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music. London: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN

0333432363 (cloth); ISBN 0393026205 (pbk).• Salzer, Felix Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music. 2 vols. New York: Dover Publications.

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• Schenker, Heinrich. 1979. Free Composition (Der freie Satz): Volume III of New Musical Theories and Fantasies,edited by Oswald Jonas, translated by Ernst Oster. 2 vols. New York: Longman. ISBN 0582280737.

• Schoenberg, Arnold. 1966. Harmonielehre, 7th edition. Vienna: Universal-Edition. ISBN 370240029X.

References[1] http:/ / www. classical. net/ music/ recs/ reviews/ c/ cos04208a. html[2] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ moreessaysfromth011270mbp

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Article Sources and ContributorsSonata  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=435749834  Contributors: A4, Adam.J.W.C., Ahoerstemeier, Akumiszcza, Alcuin, Antandrus, ArglebargleIV, Baldhur, Bemoeial,BiT, Big iron, Bishopolis, Bobhobbit, Burn, Camembert, Carbuncle, D A Patriarche, DaL33T, Dariopalermo, DavidBrooks, DavidRF, Davidovstrad, Deflective, Domelsheimer, Durova,Dysprosia, Edcolins, Edetic, Ekko, Eranb, Falcon8765, Fl295, Fransvannes, Fullertonart, Funper, Glenn, Graham87, Hephaestos, Hmains, Hyacinth, Ixfd64, Jashiin, Jerome Kohl, Jheiv, Joana,Johnnydc, Joxy, Karol Langner, Kiwibird, Knickeco, Koyaanis Qatsi, Liam ofaolain, Loren.wilton, MShefa, Magioladitis, Martial75, Martin Kozák, Marvin01, Methegreat, Michael Angelkovich,MichaelTinkler, Michelle and patrick rock, Milton Stanley, Minichu, Missmarple, MsPorterAtFHS, Munnin, Nagelfar, NathanHurst, Nerdypoo, Nik.. ., Noetica, Nonagonal Spider, Numbo3,Opus33, Patrick Loiseleur, Paul.h, Pennywisdom2099, Peter S., PuzzletChung, Quintus314, RNAi, RadRafe, Rainwarrior, Rdsmith4, Redheylin, ReiVaX, Reneeholle, Rheostatik, RobertG, Robinklein, RoyBoy, Sage Veritas, ScNewcastle, Schissel, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Shoemaker's Holiday, Sketchee, Snigbrook, Sodium, Splash, Stevouk, Stirling Newberry, Stumps,Tarquin, TheNeon, Thegrandharp, Theo10011, Timneu22, Treisijs, Troels Nybo, Trumpetrep, Umbertoumm, Uncle G, Utcursch, Violncello, Wartybliggens, Whiskey in the Jar, Wik,Woohookitty, YUL89YYZ, Ziga, Znusgy, Zoicon5, მოცარტი, 163 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Beethoven opus 101 manuscript.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beethoven_opus_101_manuscript.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ludwig vanBeethovenFile:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Myself488,Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 9 anonymous edits

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