Some Malfunctions of Communications

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Some Malfunctions of Some Malfunctions of CommunicationsCommunications

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Objective of the ChapterObjective of the Chapter

Focusing on some malfunctions Focusing on some malfunctions that stem from:that stem from:

1. Language imperfections and1. Language imperfections and

2. Incorrect thinking patterns2. Incorrect thinking patterns

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Organization of the Organization of the ChapterChapter

Two valued ThinkingTwo valued Thinking Fact-inference ConfusionFact-inference Confusion The Blocked MindThe Blocked Mind The Static ViewpointThe Static Viewpoint Failure to DiscriminateFailure to Discriminate Miscommunication SummarizedMiscommunication Summarized

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General semanticists General semanticists believe that Aristotelian believe that Aristotelian logic is the cause of the logic is the cause of the five malfunctions that are five malfunctions that are discussed herediscussed here

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Two-valued ThinkingTwo-valued Thinking

Two valued thinking exists when we Two valued thinking exists when we consider only two possibilities in a consider only two possibilities in a situation.situation.

The True DichotomyThe True DichotomySome situations may properly be Some situations may properly be

“either/ or’s”“either/ or’s”(“You will pass this course or fail”)(“You will pass this course or fail”)Many business examples illustrate Many business examples illustrate

two-valued logic(buy or not buy; two-valued logic(buy or not buy; invest or not invest)invest or not invest)

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Two-valued Thinking Two-valued Thinking (contd.)(contd.)

Multivalued SituationsMultivalued Situations Some situations are multi valued, Some situations are multi valued,

with values between extreme with values between extreme positions ( not all people are fat or positions ( not all people are fat or skinny, intelligent or stupid).skinny, intelligent or stupid).

In English, we have many either/or In English, we have many either/or words and few in-between words. Our words and few in-between words. Our language forces much two-valued language forces much two-valued thinking.thinking.

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The Danger InvolvedThe Danger Involved

Use two-valued words when appropriate, Use two-valued words when appropriate, but remember that they may not always but remember that they may not always fit readily.fit readily.

Are workers lazy or industrious?Are workers lazy or industrious? Are political leaders good or bad? Are political leaders good or bad?

Liberal or conservative? Liberal or conservative?

Any subject involving viewpoints is a Any subject involving viewpoints is a topic for two-valued thinking.topic for two-valued thinking.

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Value of Specific ReferenceValue of Specific Reference

Overcoming two-valued thinking is Overcoming two-valued thinking is possible by:possible by:

1. Being aware of the problem1. Being aware of the problem

2. Using words precisely2. Using words precisely

In using words precisely, consider In using words precisely, consider quantitative measures ( She has a quantitative measures ( She has a 4.0 GPA)4.0 GPA)

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Also, use more middle-gerund Also, use more middle-gerund words (exceptionally good, words (exceptionally good, moderately good, as well as moderately good, as well as candied, sugary, etc. ).candied, sugary, etc. ).

Avoid know-it all statements by Avoid know-it all statements by using less definite and more using less definite and more qualifying words.qualifying words.

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Applications in Business Applications in Business CommunicationCommunication

Two-valued thinking applies to Two-valued thinking applies to reports, letters and speaking.reports, letters and speaking.

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Fact-inference confusionFact-inference confusion

Communication about our Communication about our experiences is true communication experiences is true communication as it fits reality.as it fits reality.

Factual communication is not Factual communication is not always possible as we must often always possible as we must often infer (communicate about the infer (communicate about the unknown).Confusing inferences with unknown).Confusing inferences with facts creates miscommunication.facts creates miscommunication.

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Fact-inference confusion Fact-inference confusion (contd.)(contd.)

Need for InferencesNeed for Inferences Inferences are necessary for all Inferences are necessary for all

types of communication. We must types of communication. We must evaluate, interpret and predict. evaluate, interpret and predict. These are inferences.These are inferences.

Inferences involve risks. To live, we Inferences involve risks. To live, we must calculate risks and make must calculate risks and make inferencesinferences..

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Effect on communicationEffect on communication

We must make both inferences and We must make both inferences and factual statements. But we must factual statements. But we must not confuse the two.not confuse the two.

Because inferences are not facts, Because inferences are not facts, communication that uses them may communication that uses them may not be true.not be true.

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Calculating the ProbabilitiesCalculating the Probabilities We must calculate the probability of We must calculate the probability of

correctness of our inferences.correctness of our inferences. With odds of a thousand to one of With odds of a thousand to one of

an inference being incorrect, think an inference being incorrect, think about the one.about the one.

Be aware of reality, and check Be aware of reality, and check inferences against it.inferences against it.

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Importance in Business Importance in Business CommunicationCommunication

Fact-inference confusion has many Fact-inference confusion has many consequences for business consequences for business communication.communication.

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The Blocked MindThe Blocked Mind

The blocked mind is closed to The blocked mind is closed to reality.it considers only limited reality.it considers only limited information.information.

A Result of Opinions, Attitudes, A Result of Opinions, Attitudes, and Beliefsand Beliefs

Our tendency to reject ideas that Our tendency to reject ideas that oppose our viewpoints is a cause oppose our viewpoints is a cause of the blocked mind.of the blocked mind.

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The Blocked Mind (contd.)The Blocked Mind (contd.)

A Result of AllnessA Result of Allness

Allness Allness is the tendency to judge the is the tendency to judge the whole by a part. It contributes to whole by a part. It contributes to the blocked mind.the blocked mind.

Knowing all about reality is Knowing all about reality is impossible. We select (abstract) impossible. We select (abstract) parts about which to communicate.parts about which to communicate.

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Concentrating on one characteristic in the Concentrating on one characteristic in the belief that it is the whole produces belief that it is the whole produces miscommunication.miscommunication.

We need to make specific inferences, but We need to make specific inferences, but they should not block our minds to other they should not block our minds to other references.references.

Emphasizing only one characteristic leads Emphasizing only one characteristic leads to stereotyping.to stereotyping.

Stereotypes do not accord with reality.Stereotypes do not accord with reality.

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Extreme Effects of the Blocked MindExtreme Effects of the Blocked Mind Extreme forms of blocked minds prevent Extreme forms of blocked minds prevent

good communication.good communication. ““Know-it-allness” results from blocked Know-it-allness” results from blocked

minds.minds. Arguments generally stem from two Arguments generally stem from two

blocked minds. Parties in an argument blocked minds. Parties in an argument usually defend their blocked minds rather usually defend their blocked minds rather listen.listen.

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Unblocking the MindUnblocking the Mind We must unblock our minds to improve We must unblock our minds to improve

communication.communication. Thinking human beings have tried to be Thinking human beings have tried to be

rational for years. Most have not rational for years. Most have not succeeded.succeeded.

We can be aware of how viewpoints are We can be aware of how viewpoints are formed and how they affect thinking.formed and how they affect thinking.

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We can add We can add etc.etc. to our thoughts to to our thoughts to remind us that we communicate about remind us that we communicate about only a small part of realityonly a small part of reality

Effects in Business CommunicationEffects in Business Communication The blocked mind can be a problem in The blocked mind can be a problem in

any business communication situation any business communication situation and it can involve any or all of the people and it can involve any or all of the people concerned.concerned.

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The Static ViewpointThe Static Viewpoint

We often view reality as static. Because the We often view reality as static. Because the reality is always changing, such a view reality is always changing, such a view causes miscommunication.causes miscommunication.

The Unstatic Nature of ThingsThe Unstatic Nature of Things Communication must reflect changes in Communication must reflect changes in

reality.reality. We must have up-to-date references of We must have up-to-date references of

people and places. The reality changes, but people and places. The reality changes, but the symbols remain the same.the symbols remain the same.

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The Static Viewpoint The Static Viewpoint (contd.)(contd.)

The Contributing Factor of The Contributing Factor of LanguageLanguage

Language contributes to static Language contributes to static thinking.Even tenses, dates and thinking.Even tenses, dates and time references do not permit time references do not permit language to account for all language to account for all changes in reality.changes in reality.

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The Static Viewpoint The Static Viewpoint (contd.)(contd.)

The Static Viewpoint in The Static Viewpoint in

Business CommunicationBusiness Communication

Written and oral communication in Written and oral communication in business must reflect time business must reflect time

changes. If they do not, changes. If they do not, miscommunication will occur.miscommunication will occur.

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Failure to DiscriminateFailure to Discriminate

When we see similarities rather When we see similarities rather than differences in reality, we than differences in reality, we miscommunicate.miscommunicate.

Language, built on broad Language, built on broad categories, forces us to view categories, forces us to view similarities.similarities.

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Failure to Discriminate Failure to Discriminate (contd.)(contd.)

Miscommunication from Miscommunication from StereotypesStereotypes

Focusing on similarities forces to form Focusing on similarities forces to form stereotypes which are not totally true.stereotypes which are not totally true.

Stereotypes emphasize one thing Stereotypes emphasize one thing common to a group (“Professors teach common to a group (“Professors teach in universities”), but many differences in universities”), but many differences exist.exist.

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We hold many stereotypes, but all We hold many stereotypes, but all distort reality.distort reality.

Stereotyped images in our filters Stereotyped images in our filters become part of the total meaning become part of the total meaning we give to statements. (Image of we give to statements. (Image of Professor X = stereotype of Professor X = stereotype of Professor X + person X)Professor X + person X)

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Judgements by CategoryJudgements by Category

Making common judgements to Making common judgements to cover all elements in a category is cover all elements in a category is an extreme form of discrimination an extreme form of discrimination failure.failure.

Most category judgements result Most category judgements result from limited observation and from limited observation and emotional reaction.emotional reaction.

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A more rational approach A more rational approach considers differences within a considers differences within a category.category.

Extreme judgements by category Extreme judgements by category are incorrect in reality. They are incorrect in reality. They miscommunicate.miscommunicate.

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Developing an Awareness of Developing an Awareness of DifferencesDifferences

One way to solve the failure-to-One way to solve the failure-to-discriminate problem is to be discriminate problem is to be continually aware of differences continually aware of differences within category.within category.

Another way is to index references.Another way is to index references.

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Discrimination Failure and Discrimination Failure and

Business CommunicationBusiness Communication

We need precision in selecting We need precision in selecting words for our letter writing, report words for our letter writing, report writing, and business speaking writing, and business speaking tasks.tasks.

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Miscommunication Miscommunication SummarizedSummarized

The five malfunctions cause The five malfunctions cause major problem in business major problem in business communication.communication.To correct for each To correct for each malfunction, keep in touch malfunction, keep in touch with reality.with reality.

Some Malfunctions of Communications

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