Some important points from last Tuesday/Thursday: SOIL AND
Transcript of Some important points from last Tuesday/Thursday: SOIL AND
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Some important points from last Tuesday/Thursday:
• Practice all definitions / Recap Japan Earthquake Movie
• List / discuss examples of all internal & external processes
• Understand general concepts of Plate Tectonics: SFS, plate boundaries, locations, examples, associated geologic hazards and resources
• Discuss / describe 5 common Geologic Hazards (focus on E-quakes, Tsunamis and Mass Wasting)
• What can we do to reduce damage? Make a list here for each one.
• Describe all types of E-Quake Waves: how are they useful?
• Damage from E-Quakes, a function of what?
• What causes Tsunamis? Where most likely to occur?
• Main causes of Mass Movement? How do humans make things worse? Why Santa Cruz Mountains so susceptible?
• Also look over Volcanoes and Coastal Processes
SOIL AND SOLID NON-FUEL MINERAL RESOURCES
Au Cu SnO2
Marble
Gabbro
Slate
Fig. 1.11, p. 11
Resources
Perpetual Nonrenewable
Renewable
Freshair
Freshwater
Fertilesoil
Plants andanimals(biodiversity)
Directsolarenergy
Winds,tides,flowingwater
Fossilfuels
Metallicminerals
Non-Metallicminerals & rocks(iron, gold,
copper,aluminum)
(clay, sand,marble, slate)
or “Nonrenewable Mineral Resources”
These two are sometimes
Called: “Solid Nonfuel Mineral Resources”
What’s EnvironmentalDegradation?
Nonrenewable Mineral Resources: a definition
Concentrations of solid, liquid or gaseous materials in or on the earth’s crust that can be converted to useful materials at an affordable price.
Occurring in fixed quantities……..
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Part I: SoilA Renewable Resource
– Definition……..
– Most valuable natural resource after water?
– Although renewable, it is produced very slowly,
if topsoil erodes faster than it is renewed, soil becomes a nonrenewable resource.
– Most of the world’s crops are grown on cleared grassland (e.g. US Midwest) and deciduous forest soils.
Factors determining type of soil and rate of development:
• Parent Material
• Slope
• Climate
• Plants & Animals
• Time
Residual and Transported Soil Soil Profile:
Mature soils have distinct layers or zones called Soil Horizons; cross-sectional views of soil horizons are called Soil Profiles.
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Soil Erosion
– Natural process/rock cycle that occurs to all soils
– Causes (human activities)?
farming, logging, mining, construction, overgrazing, urbanization, clear-cutting, fires, off-road vehicles
Areas of serious concern
Areas of some concern
Stable or non-vegetative areas
Estimated Rates of Soil Erosion:Before Humans: ~9 billion metric tons/yrCurrent estimates ~24 billion metric tons/yr
Lamar, Colorado1934
Soil Erosion Continues to be a ConcernREAD this page on your own
• The US is losing soil 10 times faster -- and China and India are losing soil 30 to 40 times faster -- than the natural replenishment rate. Source: Cornell University
• Estimated that ~8.1 million Km2 (12 times size of Texas) desertifiedin the last 50 years. Each year an area the size of ~Greece.
• Human activity causes 10 times more erosion of continental surfaces than all natural processes combined.
• http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/11/041103234736.htm Web Link
• The economic impact of soil erosion in the United States costs the nation about $37.6 billion each year in productivity losses. Damage from soil erosion worldwide is estimated to be $400 billion per year.
• http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/March06/soil.erosion.threat.ssl.html Web Link
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Soil Conservation: reducing soil erosion, restoring soil fertility & producing greater yield
• Conservation tillage farming: disturb soil as little as possible; machines till subsurface soil w/out breaking up topsoil or inject seeds into unplowed soil. As of 2004 used on ~38% of US cropland. (USDA)
• Terracing: converting a slope into a series of step-like platforms; retains water and reduces erosion.
• Crop Rotation: successiveplanting of different crops in the same area to improve soil fertility and help control insects, diseases and erosion.
Soil Conservation: reducing soil erosion, restoring soil fertility & producing greater yield
• Contour farming: planting crops in rows that run perpendicular to slope of land; can reduce soil erosion by 30-50% on gentle slopes.
• Strip cropping: alternating rows of two or more crops; keeps soil covered and reduces erosion, legumes restore soil fertility.
• Intercropping: planting two or more crops in an area to produce greater yield.
11:40pm?
How are Solid Non-Fuel Mineral Resources formed and concentrated?
Plate Tectonics / Rock Cycle / Hydrologic Cycle
Rock Cycle(Web Link: please read about this: http://imnh.isu.edu/digitalatlas/geo/basics/diagrams.htm)
A series of events through which a rock changes between igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic forms. Cycle takes millions of years and is responsible for concentrating
Earth’s Nonrenewable Mineral Resources.
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How are solid non-fuel mineral resources formed and concentrated?
Most of the world’s major metal deposits occur at past or present plate boundaries. Surface processes also play an important role in concentrating nonmetallic minerals and rocks.
• Internal Processes (magma generation, hot water circulation, pressure & heat)– Magmatic deposits– Hydrothermal deposits– Metamorphism
• External Processes (weathering, erosion, transport and deposition by wind and water; evaporation)– Sedimentary deposits: wind, water, placers– Evaporites– Secondary Enrichment
Fig. 12-19a, p.351
Magmatic Rocks & Mineralsgranite, diorite, quartz, feldspar, chromite,
Common Magmatic Rock / Mineral Resources & Their Use (Read later)
• Granite / Diorite / Gabbro: building materials, dimension stone, roads, shoulders, furniture, counter tops, interior/exterior surfaces
• (FeMg)Cr2O4 Chromite: important ore of chromium, used to harden and manufacture steel, coloring agent, making bricks, tanning leather, dyes, also used in common materials such as cars, planes, engines, satellites, weapons, home appliances (form from basaltic magmas)
• Opal (Quartz): gems, abrasives, mortar, glass, silica brick, porcelain, paints, sandpaper, scouring soaps, wood filler, radios, watchesl
• Platinum, Magnetite, Cobalt and Manganese: also used in manufacturing cars, planes, engines, satellites, weapons, home appliances (form from basaltic magmas)
Hydrothermal Deposits
Metallic chemical elements, Sulfides and Oxides form in association with magma and water.
Hydrothermal deposits often occur in “veins”
Disseminated deposits / gangue
e.g. Au rich deposits of CA Sierra Nevada.
Black Smokers (undersea hot springs) form at Oceanic Ridges (divergent plate boundaries) and at undersea hot spots.
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Fe
Au, CuPb, Zn, Ag, Cu
Sn
FeAu, Cu
Pb, Zn, Ag, Cu
SnIronChromiumNickel
Formation of Metals: Hydrothermal and MagmaticRead this Figure over very carefully
Know these symbols / names:Fe = IronAu = GoldNi = NickelCu = CopperPb = LeadZn = ZincAg = SilverSn = TinCr = Chromium
IronCopper Zinc Lead
DivergentPlate Boundary
Convergent Plate Boundary
Common Hydrothermal Mineral Resources & Their UseRead later
• Fe / Iron: bikes, cars, bridges, magnets, machines, nails, tools, food supplements
• Fe / Hematite (Fe2O3 ): ore of iron, pigments, polishing powder, jewelry
• Au / Gold: circuit boards, electronics, jewelry, planes, space shuttles, compact discs, cameras, telephones
• Cu / Copper: electrical purposes, circuit boards, wire, sculpture, brass = Cu and Zn, bronze = Cu + Sn and some Zn, German silver
• Pb / Galena (PbS): lead sulfide, major source of lead, used in making metals, pipe, sheets, solder, glass
• Zn / Sphalerite (ZnS): ore of zinc, important metal alloy used in making brass, paint, zinc oxide, batteries
• Ag / Silver: photographic film and paper, photosensitive glass, mirrors, batteries, silverware
• Sn / Tin: metals, coins, cups, plates, cans, solder, opalescent glass, enamel,
weather resistant vinyl siding
How are solid non-fuel mineral resources formed and concentrated?
Most of the world’s major metal deposits occur at past or present plate boundaries. Surface processes also play an important role in concentrating nonmetallic minerals and rocks.
• Internal Processes (magma generation, hot water circulation, pressure & heat)
– Magmatic deposits Rare Earth Elements– Hydrothermal deposits– Metamorphism
• External Processes (weathering, erosion, transport and deposition by wind and water; evaporation)– Sedimentary deposits: wind, water, placers– Evaporites– Secondary Enrichment
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The Rare Earth Elements“REE”
Web LinkThe 17 Rare Earth Elements
Ru Ruthenuim Os OsmiumRh Rodium Ir IridiumPd Palladium Pt Platinum
Se Selinium
Samarskite(YFe3+Fe2+U,Th,Ca)2(Nb,Ta)2O8
Most common Rare EarthElements originate in Granitic Magmas or through Hydrothermal Activity.
Some are mined out of placer deposits.
Bastnäsite: a fluorocarbonate mineral(Ce,La,Y)CO3F
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Monazite: a phosphate mineral, 4 different typesmonazite‐Ce (Ce, La, Pr, Nd, Th, Y)PO4
monazite‐La (La, Ce, Nd, Pr)PO4
monazite‐Nd (Nd, La, Ce, Pr)PO4
monazite‐Sm (Sm, Gd, Ce, Th)PO4
Wide Variety of uses: medical, military, missiles, clean energy technology, catalytic converters, magnets, transportation. Consumer Products: cell phones, computer hard drives, monitors, power tools, sun glasses, wine bottles, fluorescent light bulbs, TVs, automobiles, SUV’s
• Also used in Cell Phones
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Until the mid 1980’s, US led the world in REE production; has ~13% of world reserves.
China has ~48% of world reserves, but supplies ~97% of the world’s needs. Russia, Canada and Australia also have large deposits.
Mountain Pass Rare Earth Mine in Mountain Pass California, Mojave Desert.
Closed in 2002, re‐opened in August 2012
Web Link: The Only American Mine for Rare Earth Metals
http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/02/a-visit-to-the-only-american-mine-for-rare-earth-metals/253372/
Environmental Concerns• Need to excavate a lot of earth / dig huge holes / takes a lot of
energy + a lots of solid waste rock.
• Some elements associated with the REE are radioactive such as Uranium and Thorium. They end up in slurry pools and can enter groundwater.
• Toxic acids and chemicals are required during the refining process, often end up in slurry pools and can enter groundwater.
• Baotou, a city in China where ~80% of REE are mined produces ~10 million tons of wastewater/year.
• Birth defects and Leukemia have been linked to rare earth refinery in Malaysia and China
• In 2008, ~1/3 of REE in China were mined illegally by heavy polluting, violent criminal gangs.
The Lynas Plant in Malaysia is setto become the world's largestprocessing facility of rare earths.
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Metamorphism How are solid non-fuel mineral resources formed and concentrated?
Most of the world’s major metal deposits occur at past or present plate boundaries. Surface processes also play an important role in concentrating nonmetallic minerals and rocks.
• Internal Processes (magma generation, hot water circulation, pressure & heat)– Magmatic deposits– Hydrothermal deposits– Metamorphism
• External Processes (weathering, erosion, transport and deposition by wind and water; evaporation)– Sedimentary deposits: wind, water, placers– Evaporites– Secondary Enrichment
Sand Mining in Monterey Bay has been occurring since 1906, ~150,000 – 250,000 cubic yards/yr, with no regulation until 1960s.
3 companies for ~80 years, only one is left.
A connection between mining and shoreline erosion
was determined in the mid
1980s, but still 1 company
mines ~235,000 cubic yards
each year.
Sand Mining in Monterey Bay (web link)
Sedimentary Deposits: Sand and gravel accumulate in river channels and bars, coastal offshore bars, sand dunes, beaches and glacial outwash plains.
After deposition sediments lithify by compaction and cementation.Materials used for: road beds, cement production, bricks, tiles, abrasives, water filtration, glass production…..
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Placer DepositsRead this slide over very carefully.
“Point Bars”
Evaporites: (Salts: halite, gypsum, borates) water evaporates from shallow inland seas or lakes in warm arid climates.
Materials used in: making glass, ceramics, metals, preservatives, cleaning agents, water softeners……..
How are solid non-fuel mineral resources formed and concentrated?
Most of the world’s major metal deposits occur at past or present plate boundaries. Surface processes also play an important role in concentrating nonmetallic minerals and rocks.
• Internal Processes (magma generation, hot water circulation, pressure & heat)– Magmatic deposits– Hydrothermal deposits– Metamorphism
• External Processes (weathering, erosion, transport and deposition by wind and water; evaporation)– Sedimentary deposits: wind, water, placers– Evaporites– Secondary Enrichment
Secondary Enrichment
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How are mineral resources found?Understand the geologic/plate tectonic history of an area
Make Maps: rock formations, faults, structure
Drill, extract and analyze rock/sediment samples
Aerial photos and satellite images,reveals outcrops and types of rock types
Seismic & gravitational surveys giveinfo about buried rock layers
Chemical analysis of water and plantsto detect minerals leached into water andabsorbed by plants
Remote sensing: (detect /analyze wavetransmitted energy) reveals outcrops andtypes of rock
Measure radiation, magnetism to detectradioactive metals, iron and other
How are Mineral Resources Extracted?
Surface Miningmachines strip away millions of tons of “Overburden” (rock/earth covering ore) and pile it up as waste material sometimes called “Spoil”
1) Open-pit mining:
commonly used surface mining technique; used for mining most major metal deposits, also sand, gravel and stone.
The Palabora open pit in NE South Africa. The hard rock allows the pit walls to be cut much steeper than is
normal in open-pit Copper mining.
More Surface Mining2) Hydraulic Mining: wash away overburden on hillsides; mine uplifted placer deposits. In CA huge volumes of sediment washed into SF-San Joaquin delta harming navigation and agriculture, ~ 1850’s – 1890’s.
~13 billion cubic yards of sediment have been washed away from the Sierra Nevada
3) Dredging: used on underwater mineral deposits; gold mining of CA riverbed sediments until 1960s; leaves great piles of spoil alongside channels called
spoil banks/dredge fields.
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How are ores processed?
• Remove undesired parts of ore (gangue)
• Smelting extracts metals from other elements
• Pure metal is then converted to desired product by manufacturing companies
Drawbacks? Results in air, water, soil pollution; solid and liquid hazardous wastes; safety and health hazards Start Here:
Surface Mining
Metal ore
Separationof ore fromgangue
Scattered in environment
Recycling
Discarding of product
Conversion to product
Melting metal
Smelting or “Extractive Metallurgy” is the practice of extracting metal from ore, purifying it, and recycling it
Why do we mine?Concerns? Environmental degradation from mining and processing, depletion
time, economic depletion, exhaustion, import dependence, high cost
Supply and Consumption of Mineral Resources
• Economic Depletion
– Costs more to find, extract, transport and process mineral than deposit is worth.
– Options: 1) recycle or reuse existing supplies, 2)waste less, 3) use less, 4) find substitute, 5) do without.
• Depletion Time:
– time it takes to use up 80% of reserves of a mineral at a given rate of use.
• US currently imports ~50% of its most important non-fuel minerals.
– Used faster than they can be produced here
– Foreign ores are higher grade and can be extracted cheaper than US reserves
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Present
Depletiontime A
Depletiontime B
Depletiontime C
Time
Pro
du
ctio
n
C
B
A
Recycle, reuse, reduceconsumption; increasereserves by improvedmining technology,higher prices, andnew discoveries
Recycle; increase reservesby improved miningtechnology, higher prices,and new discoveries
Mine, use, throw away;no new discoveries;rising prices
Mineral and Soil Resources
• Greatest concern about mining solid non-fuel mineral resources is environmental degradation caused by extracting, processing and manufacturing.
• As resources become depleted and lower grade ores are mined, environmental degradation increases.
• Soil is a renewable resource if sound, sustainable agricultural practices are used. When soil is depleted of its nutrients or topsoil erodes faster than it is replenished, soil becomes a nonrenewable resource.
• Soil loss seriously compromises our ability to grow food necessary to feed an expanding human population.