Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances in a single phase.

Solute – substance being dissolvedSolvent – dissolving medium

Solutions and

Colligative Properties

Solute Solvent Example

Gas Gas Oxygen in nitrogenGas Liquid CO2 in H2O (carbonated beverages)

Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water, ethylene glycol in water (antifreeze), acetic acid in

water (vinegar)

Liquid Solid Hg in Ag and Sn (dental amalgam)

Solid Liquid Sugar in water, ocean water (salt in water)

Solid Solid Copper in nickel (Monel™ alloy)

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

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Heterogeneous mixtures are suspensions and colloids.Brownian motion is the erratic movement of colloid particles. The Tyndall effect (named after John Tyndall) is when light is scattered by colloidal particles dispersed in a transparent medium. For example: car headlights in fog.

http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/pdavies/Tyndall.jpg

Solutions Colloids Suspensions

Homogeneous Heterogeneous HeterogeneousParticle size: 0.01- 1 nm; can be atoms,

ions, molecules

Particle size: 1-1000 nm, dispersed; can be

aggregates of large molecules

Particle size: over 1000 nm, suspended; can be large particles

or aggregatesDo not separate on

standingDo not separate on

standingParticles settle out if not constantly stirred

Cannot be separated by filtration

Cannot be separated by filtration

Can be separated by filtration

Do not scatter light Scatter light (Tyndall effect)

May scatter light, but are not transparent

COMPARISON OF SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS AND SUSPENSIONS

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Class of colloid Phases ExampleSol Solid dispersed in liquid Paints, mudGel Solid network extending

throughout liquidGelatin

Liquid emulsion Liquid dispersed in liquid Milk, mayonnaiseFoam Gas dispersed in liquid Shaving cream,

whipped creamSolid aerosol Solid dispersed in gas Smoke, airborne

particulate matter, auto exhaust

Liquid aerosol Liquid dispersed in gas Fog, mist, clouds, aerosol spray

Solid emulsion Liquid dispersed in solid Cheese, butter

CLASSES OF COLLOIDS

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Solutes are classifiedaccording to theextent they dissociateinto ions in aqueoussolutions.• Strong electrolyte:

substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electricity. (i.e. salt – NaCl)

Weak electrolyte: less than 50% of dissolved solute exists as ions. (i.e. – acetic acid[vinegar])

• Nonelectrolyte: < 0.01% exists as ions; does not conduct electricity when solute is dissolved in water. (i.e. sugar – C12H22O11)

Factors that affect the rate of dissolution–increasing the surface area of

the solute–stirring–heating the solvent

The Solution Process

• Solubility is the maximum quantity of solute that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at a particular temperature. It is usually expressed in g of solute per 100 g of solvent at a given temperature. • The three interactions that determine

the solubility are solute-solute, solute-solvent, and solvent-solvent interactions.

Temperature effects on solubility

http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/education/outreach/8thgradesol/images/solubility.jpg

• Solution equilibrium is the physical state in which the opposing processes of dissolution and crystallization of a solute occur at equal rates.

• Saturated solution: a solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute.

• Unsaturated solution: a solution that contains less than a saturated solution under the current conditions.

• Supersaturated solution: a solution that contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution contains under the same conditions.

• Nature of solute and solvent (polarity, etc.) Solute-solvent interactions - “like dissolves like”

• Temperature (for gases an increase in T decreases solubility). For the majority of solids in liquids, increasing T increases their solubility. The degree of solubility can differ greatly and in some cases, even decrease a solid’s solubility.

• pressure (for solids and liquids has no effect; for gases an increase in P increases solubility)

gas + solvent solution

Henry’s Lawthe solubility of a gas in a liquid is Directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas on the surface of the liquid.

S1 = S2

P1 P2

In carbonated beverages forcing it into solution at pressure of 5-10 atm increases CO2 solubility. The containers are then sealed. When opened, the CO2 gas escapes as the pressure returns to 1 atm. The rapid escape of a gas from a liquid in which it is dissolved is called effervescence.

• The net amount of heat energy absorbed or released when a specific amount of solute dissolves in a solvent is the heat of solution.

http://www.4college.co.uk/a/O/solution.gif

http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/0/07cf18f888c9c21f4b45687743b63ac3/solnform.gif

When two liquids dissolve in each other at all proportions they are said to be miscible (i.e. alcohol and water); when they do not they are called immiscible (i.e. water and oil). You can separate immiscible liquids with a piece of equipment called a separatory funnel (shown at right

http://images.scran.ac.uk/RB/images/thumb/0934/09343276.jpg

Fractional Distillation Apparatus

knowledgerush.com

Paper Chromatography ljcreate.com

Chromatogram Development (KB)

Put a pencil mark to locate where the pigment goes

Draw a line to indicate the height of the solvent front

X the pigments to find the center

A B C

Calculate the Rf = B/A and C/A

Gas chromatography (GC) is an analytical technique for separating compounds based primarily on their volatilities. Compounds move through a GC column as gases. The compounds partition between a stationary phase, which can be either solid or liquid, and a mobile phase (gas). The differential partitioning into the stationary phase allows the compounds to be separated in time and space.

http://www.cee.vt.edu/ewr/environmental/teach/smprimer/gc/gc.html

cee.vt.edu

• Solvation: process of surrounding solute particles with solvent particles. A solute particle that is surrounded by solvent molecules is said to be solvated.

• Hydration: solution process in which the solvent is water.

see picture at right: http://robocup.mi.fu-berlin.de/buch/chap6/ComparisonBattery-Dateien/image002.jpg

• Dissociation is the separation of ions that occurs when an ionic compound dissolves.ex. NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

• Ionization is the process whereby ions are formed

from solute molecules by the action of the solvent. ex. HCl H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

• In water solutions, the H+ ion normally exists

attached to the water molecules in solution to form the hydronium ion (H3O+)

ex. HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Concentration of solutions: a measure of the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent or solution.

Mass percent =

mass of component in solution x 100 total mass of solution

ppmmass of component in solution x 106

total mass of solution

Molaritynumber of moles of solute in one liter of solution. Note that the total volume of the solution is 1 liter, not that you add solute to 1 liter of solvent. The symbol for molarity is “M” and usually referred to as an “X molar solution.”

Molarity (M) = moles of solute liters of solution

Dilutions of solutions M1V1 = M2V2

• Molality = number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. The symbol for molality is “m,” and is usually referred to as an “X molal solution.”• molality (m) = moles of solute

kg of solvent moles of solute 1000g of solvent

Typically when two aqueous solutions are combined and

one of the products is minimally soluble a PPT is

formed

PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

http://boomeria.org/chemlectures/textass2/tableA-7.jpg

Table 1 in your textbook page 437; Table A-12 (appendix) page 860

Na2CO3 (aq) + Ca(NO3)2 (aq)

CaCO3 (?) + 2NaNO3 (?)

Looking at your solubility table we

see that all nitrates are soluble and

most carbonates are insoluble,

except Na, K and NH4

Thus CaCO3 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

Net ionic equations

• Include only those compounds and ions that undergo a chemical change in a reaction in an aqueous solution.

• Spectator ions are those that do NOT take part in a chemical reaction and are found in solution before and after the reaction takes place

Ionic equation:2Na+ (aq) + CO3

2- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq)

CaCO3 (s) + 2Na+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq)

Net ionic equation:Do not include spectator ions.

Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) CaCO3 (s)

Colligative Properties

• properties that depend on the concentration of solute particles but not on their identity.

• Vapor pressure lowering. Boiling point is higher and freezing point of a solution is lower than that of a pure solvent. This is due to the presence of nonvolatile solutes. These are substances that have little tendency to become a gas under existing conditions.

http://www.ausetute.com.au/images/gravpl.gif

• Freezing point depression, ∆Tf, is the difference between the freezing points of the pure solvent and a solution of a non-electrolyte in that solvent, and it is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution.

∆Tf = Kf m

• Kf = the molal freezing-point constant is the

freezing-point depression of the solvent in a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solute. The value for this constant depends on the solvent used. (See a reference table for specific values)

• Boiling point elevation, ∆Tb, is the difference between the boiling points of pure solvent and a nonelectrolyte solution of that solvent, and it is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution.

∆Tb = Kb m

• Kb = molal boiling-point constant is the boiling-point elevation of the solvent in a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solute. The value for this constant depends on the solvent used. (See a reference table for specific values)

Electrolytes and colligative properties

• Keeping in mind that colligative properties depend on the number of solute particles, not their identity, we must know the extent to which electrolytes dissociate.

• The higher the degree of dissociation, the more moles of ions we have in solution, thus increasing the net effect.

Osmosisthe diffusion of solvent particles (water) across a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher solvent concentration to an area of lower solvent concentration. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure that must be applied to stop osmosis.

http://www.studentsguide.in/biology/absorption-movement-images/diagram-showing-relationship-of-osmotic-pressure-turgor-pressure-wall-pressure.jpg

IsaacsTEACH on Solutions, Colloids, Suspensions https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ti0QroYDta8

TheChemistrySolution's Video on Henry's Lawhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eM56JYel1aM

TheChemistrySolution's Video on Partial Pressure of Gases and Mole Fractionshttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=agNtq38TA6o

Another Video on Henry's Lawhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9Fo3QJ0ApE

If these links don't seem to work directly, then cut and paste the URL into a browser and they should work fine!