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SOLAR TRACKER
A PROJECT REPORT
GAUTAM BUDDHA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
By
PARUL MALHOTRA (0935231040)
RASHI BAJPAI (0935231053)
RICHA SHARMA (0935231054)
RISHU SHUKLA (0935210045)
SONAL TRIPATHI (0932531076)
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
KRISHNA GIRLS ENGINEERING COLLEGE BHAWANIPUR,
MANDHANA,
KANPUR, INDIA.
JUNE 2013
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled SOLAR TRACKER, submitted by
PARUL MALHOTRA (0935231040), RASHI BAJPAI (0935231053), RICHA
SHARMA (0935231054), RISHU SHUKLA (0935210045) , SONAL TRIPATHI
(0935231076) to the Uttar Pradesh Technical University Lucknow, in partial
fulfillment for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics &
Communication Engineering is a bonafide record of the project work carried out by them
under my supervision during the year 2012-2013.
Rajan Verma Sumit Gupta
Head Department of EC (Project Guide)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is our pleasure to acknowledge ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
DEPARTMENT, for giving us the opportunity and allowing us to do our final
project. We extend our sincere gratitude to our HOD, Mr. RAJAN VERMA,
who provided us all the lab facilities and steered in the right direction for
completing this assignment.
We sincerely convey our gratitude to our project guide Mr. SUMIT GUPTA
(Lecturer, ECE Deptt), whose continuous support and encouragement helped us to
complete our project.
We are also thankful to all the faculty and supporting staff who provided us
with adequate data information and help in spite of their hectic schedule.
Finally and most significantly we are indebted and deeply grateful to our parents
for their love, sacrifice, inspiration and valuable help that enable us to complete
this assignment.
Date:
Place: Kanpur
Parul Malhotra (0935231040)Rashi Bajpai (0935231053)Richa Sharma (0935231054)
Rishu Shukla (0935210045)
Sonal Tripathi (0935231076)
B.TECH. 4th
Year (EC)
KGEC Kanpur
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ABSTRACT
With the alarming rate of depletion of the major energy resources worldwide, it
has become an urgent necessity to seek for renewable energy resources that will
power the future. According to the worldwide market economy, the increasing
demand for energy had forced to put a huge price tag on natural combustible
sources of energies. In fact, it has been predicted that in the near future the
demand of energy will grow in such a rate that it will be completely impossible to
find out or meet the demand with the resources that we had been using for so
long, such as oil, gas, coal, etc. This issue throws a positive challenge to the
scientific community as more and more funds are being allocated for the research
and development of new alternatives.
The world is using up all the resources to meet the daily demands of energy and it
is quite expectable that in the near future we will run out of any naturally
occurring ore/mineral/petroleum. As a result, renewable energy solution has
achieved a great demand today to save the natural resources and also to tackle the
crisis of energy. Solar energy is rapidly gaining its popularity as an important
source of renewable energy.
But the efficiency of solar panel is a big factor. While the sun keeps following a
parabolic path throughout the day, the panels which are used in our country are
generally fixed to a pole or the roof of the house and hence, throughout the day,
the efficiency decreases significantly.
In this project, we have constructed a 2 axis solar tracker which can track the sun
throughout the day to obtain the maximum efficiency.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Chapter 1. Introduction.............1
1.1 Energy......1
1.2 Motivation7
1.3 Solar Energy.8
1.4 Solar Energy Supply on Earth....10
1.5 Advantages of Solar Energy...12
1.6 Solar Tracker...14
Chapter 2. Literature Review..16
2.1 Hardware Specification of the System..17
2.1.1 Resistors.....17
2.1.2 Capacitors..20
2.1.3 Diodes24
2.1.4 Potentiometer.27
2.1.5 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)...29
2.1.6 Light Emitting Diode (LED)..31
2.1.7 Crystal Oscillators..34
2.1.8 Sensors...36
2.1.9 Power Supply.39
2.1.10 Printed Circuit Board (PCB)..42
2.1.11 Regulators..45
2.1.12 Microcontroller..47
2.1.13 Global Positioning System (GPS)..48
2.1.14 Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)...50
2.1.15 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID).51
Chapter 3. Project Description.53
3.1 Block Diagram53
3.2 Flow Chart..54
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3.3 Schematic Diagram55
3.4 Specific Components Used in Circuit56
3.4.1 Resistors.....56
3.4.2 Capacitors..58
3.4.3 Temperature Sensors......60
3.4.4 DC Geared Motor......61
3.4.5 Light Emitting Diode.....63
3.4.6 Zener Diode..... ..65
3.4.7 Voltage Regulator...67
3.4.8 Push Button.........68
3.4.9 USB Port.....69
3.4.10 Solar Panel...70
3.4.11 Light Dependent Resistor....71
3.4.12 IC used....73
3.4.12.1 L293D.....74
3.4.12.2 ATMEGA 8....76
3.5 Snapshot79
3.6 Working of Solar Tracker......80
3.6.1
Connection with USB Port...803.6.2 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).80
3.6.3 Microcontroller81
3.6.4 L293D..82
3.6.5 DC Geared Motor82
3.6.6 Solar Panel...83
3.6.7 Rechargeable Battery...83
3.6.8 Graph Showing Variation of Outputs of TDR and Solar Tracker
..84
3.7 Basic Concept85
3.7.1 Solar Tracker.85
3.7.2 Types of Solar Tracker..........86
3.7.2.1Horizontal Axle Solar Tracker.86
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3.7.2.2Vertical Axle Solar Tracker.86
3.7.2.3Altitude Azimuth Solar Tracker..87
3.7.2.4Two Axis Mount Solar Tracker...88
3.7.2.5Multi Mirror Reflective Unit...88
3.7.2.6Active Tracker.89
3.7.2.7Passive Tracker89
3.7.2.8Chronological Tracker.89
3.7.3 Photoelectric Effect ..90
3.7.4 Emission Mechanism.....90
3.7.5 How Solar Cell generate Electricity..91
3.8 Source Code.93
Chapter 4..95
4.1 Advantages.95
4.2 Disadvantages.....96
4.3 Applications.....97
4.4 Future Scope....98
4.5 Conclusion...99
4.6 References.100
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List Of Figures
Figure Name Page
1.1 Mechanical Energy....1
1.2 Electrical Energy....2
1.3 Chemical Energy....2
1.4 Nuclear Energy...3
1.5 Hydro Energy......3
1.6 Solar Energy....4
1.7 Biomass Energy...5
1.8 Ocean & Tidal Energy.....5
1.9 Geothermal Energy..6
1.10 Wind Energy........6
1.11 Breakdown of Solar Energy.9
1.12 Utilization of Solar Energy....11
1.13 Gaseous Emission...12
1.14 Solar Barn...13
1.15 Solar Tracker..152.1 Characteristics of Resistor.17
2.2 Fixed Resistor.18
2.3 Variable Resistor.....18
2.4 Characteristics of Capacitor....20
2.5 Ceramic Capacitor...21
2.6 Film Capacitor.21
2.7 Electrolytic Capacitor......22
2.8 Super Capacitor....22
2.9 Variable Capacitor........23
2.10 Characteristics of Diode................24
2.11 LED.......24
2.12 Avalanche Diode.......25
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2.13 Laser Diode.....25
2.14 Schottky Diode....26
2.15 Potentiometer.......27
2.16 Characteristics of Potentiometer.......28
2.17 LDR......29
2.18 Characteristics of LDR......30
2.19 Characteristics of LED......31
2.20 Miniature LED.......32
2.21 High Power LED...33
2.22 Crystal Oscillator...34
2.23 Characteristics of Crystal Oscillator..35
2.24 Sensors...36
2.25 Optical Sensor....37
2.26 Microwave Sensor.37
2.27 Temperature Sensor...38
2.28 Power supply..39
2.29 Battery....40
2.30 Printed Circuit Board.....42
2.31
Single sided PCB...432.32 Double sided PCB..43
2.33 Multilayered...44
2.34 Battery Regulator...45
2.35 Pressure Regulator.....45
2.36 Dividing Regulator.46
2.37 Voltage Regulator..46
2.38 Microcontroller......47
2.39 Global Positioning System.48
2.40 GSM...50
2.41 Radio Frequency Identification..51
2.42 Radio Frequency Identification..52
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3.1 Block Diagram...53
3.2 Flowchart Showing Working of Solar Tracker..54
3.3 Schematic Of Solar Tracker...55
3.4 Some low power Resistors.....56
3.5 High power Resistors and Rheostats.56
3.6 Symbol of Resistors...57
3.7 Color coding of Resistor57
3.8 Capacitors..58
3.9 Electrolytic Capacitor....59
3.10 External Structure of DC Geared Motor....61
3.11 Lateral view of DC Geared Motor.....62
3.12 LED Characteristics...63
3.13 LED as an indicator...64
3.14 Symbol of Zener Diode..65
3.15 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode65
3.16 Voltage Regulator 7805.67
3.17 Push Button....68
3.18 USB Port....69
3.19
Solar Panel.703.20 LDR...71
3.21 L293D....73
3.22 Pin Description...74
3.23 Pin Description of ATMEGA8..77
3.24 Solar Tracker..79
3.25 USB Cable.80
3.26 LDR, its internal structure & Stamplot of LDR....81
3.27 Master circuit.82
3.28 Audrino Circuit..82
3.29 L293D Circuit....82
3.30 DC Geared Motor..83
3.31 Solar Panel.....83
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3.32 Rechargeable Battery.84
3.33 Stamplot of TDR & Solar Tracker.84
3.34 Solar Tracker..85
3.35 Horizontal Axle Solar Tracker...86
3.36 Vertical Axle Solar Tracker...87
3.37 Altitude azimuth Solar Tracker..87
3.38 Two axis mount Solar Tracker...88
3.39 Multi mirror reflective unit88
3.40 Active Tracker...89
3.41 Photoelectric Effect.......91
3.42 Generation of electricity by Solar Tracker.....92
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CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 ENERGY
Energy is a crucial input in the process, social and industrial development. Energy
plays a vital role in our daily life. The degree of development and civilization of a
country is measured by the utilization of energy by human beings for their needs.
Day by day the energy consumption is increasing very rapidly. The worlds fossil-
fuel supply i.e, coal, petroleum and natural gas will be depleted in few hundred
years. The rate of energy consumption is increasing, supply is depleting resulting
in inflation and energy shortage. This is called the energy crisis.
Energy is available in different forms like
1. Mechanical energy: Mechanical energy is available in two forms: Kineticenergy and potential energy. The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by
the amount of work which has been done in bringing the body from rest position
to its present position and vice-versa. The energy in a body due to its position is
called the potential energy.
Fig 1.1 Mechanical Energy
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2. Electrical Energy: In generator mechanical energy is very flexible andmultipurpose form of energy is electrical energy. It is clean, non-polluting, and
easily transportable form of energy.
Fig 1.2 Electrical Energy
3. Chemical Energy: In fuel cells, batteries, etc. chemical energy isconverted into electrical energy. Also during combustion of fuels the atoms-
carbon, hydrogen etc combine with oxygen with liberation of heat.
Fig 1.3 Chemical Energy
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4. Nuclear Energy: Uranium, plutonium and thorium isotopes are nuclearfuels. In their nuclei, the energy is released in the form of heat by nuclear fission
chain reaction.
Fig 1.4 Nuclear Energy
5. Hydro Energy: When water drops through a height, then its energyrotates the turbines which are coupled with alternator, which delivers the
electrical energy.
Fig 1.5 Hydro Energy
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The non conventional energy resourcesare:
1. Solar Energy: The earth receives the energy from Sun in the form ofelectromagnetic radiations. Solar energy is cheap and free from pollution.
Fig 1.6 Solar Energy
2. Bio-Gas and Bio-mass: Bio gas plant is a device for conversion offermentable organic matter, in particular cattle dung, into combustible gas and
fully matured organic manure. Biomass is organic matter derived from plants,
algae, animals, etc.
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Fig 1.7 Biomass Energy
3. Ocean Energy and Tidal Energy: The ocean contains the vast energypotential in its waves, in its tides and in the temperature difference between cold
deep waters and warm surface water.
Fig 1.8 Ocean and Tidal Energy
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4. Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is another energy source thatcan be harnessed for power generation and thermal applications in the near future.
Fig 1.9 Geothermal Energy
5. Wind Energy: Winds are caused by the pressure gradient. The kineticenergy of wind can be changed into mechanical or electrical energy.
Fig 1.10 Wind Energy
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1.2 MOTIVATION
With the rapid depletion of the natural resources of the world, we would soon
meet a great demand for alternative source of energy. In the very near future,
experts are predicting that we will be bound to move to renewable sources ofenergy, solar being one of them.
As long as our earth exists, the sun is there to give us unlimited solar energy. It is
completely up to us how we are going to utilize this abandoned energy. Every
hour, sun gives the same amount of energy to the world that the whole world uses
in an entire year.
Not only the world but our country is in a severe crisis of electricity. There are
many rural areas which are still deprived from the wonder of electricity. Due to
the geographical location of our country, we get sun almost 300 days a year.
Compared to many other countries like Canada and Norway, we are in a much
better location for utilizing solar energy. It can be used in areas where there is no
grid connection also.
Considering all the above things and the environmental friendliness, economically
sound and the ease of implementation, we thought of working on it as we believe
that in the near future, our country along with the whole world will be benefited
from this source of renewable energy.
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1.3 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy and
if only a small amount of this form of energy could be used, it will be one of the
most important supplies of energy specially when other sources in the countryhave depleted.
Energy comes to the earth from the sun. This energy keeps the temperature of the
earth above that in colder space, causes current in the atmosphere and in ocean,
causes the water cycle and generates photosynthesis in plants.
The solar power where sun hits atmosphere is 1017
watts, whereas the solar power
on earths surface is 1016
watts. The total world-wide power demand of all needs
of civilization is 1013
watts. Therefore, the sun gives us 1000 times more power
than we need.
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (isolation) at
the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the
rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at
the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges
with a small part in the near-ultraviolet
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises
their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises,
causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high
altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which
rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water
condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as
wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land
masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 C. By photosynthesisgreen plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food,
wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy
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in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures
approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The technical potential available
from biomass is from 100300 EJ/year. The amount of solar energy reaching the
surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will
ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil,
natural gas, and mined uranium combined.
Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly
depending on distance from the equator.
Fig 1.11 Breakdown of incoming Solar Energy
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1.4 SOLAR ENERGY SUPPLY ON EARTH
At the outer boundaries of the earths atmosphere, about 2.0 cal of energy
strikes, every minute, one square centimeter of the earths cross section. This is
the so called solar constant; its value means that about 1.25*10
24
cal of solarenergy are received anually by the earth as a whole. Only about 40 percent of this
energy, or 5*1020
Kcal, reaches the surface of earth. The rest is either absorbed by
the atmosphere or scattered into space
Despite these losses, if an economic method could be found to catch, store
and utilize the sunlight falling on our roof, it could easily cover all our domestic
energy needs, while sunlight falling on large open areas could easily run all the
wheels of human industry. Many attempts have been made to concentrate the
energy of sunlight, for example by means of giant concave mirrors, in order to
utilise it for industrial purposes; but only minor economic success have been
achieved so far.
It is also thoretically possible to convert light energy directly into
chemical energy, but as yet no effective and cheap way of doing this has beeen
found. The problem is not only to find a cheap photochemical system that would
store a substantial proportion of light absorbed in it; in addition, storage would
have to be in a convenient form, permitting easy removal of stored energy as
needed. The answer could be a light-produced explosive mixture, a light-produced
fuel, or a light-charged storage battery. None of these devices has been yet
developed successfully.
To satisfy its energy needs-foods, fuel, and industrial power-mankind now
depends almost entirely on plants. These organisms have solved the problem of
converting light energy into chemical energy with a rather low average yield, but
on a vast scale. Reserves of this energy, stored in past geological areas, areavailable to man as fossil fuels (coal, oil, peat). Amounts currently accumulated
by growing plants provide all human food (either directly, as vegetables, or
indirectly, as meat or milk or animals fed on plants) ; a small fraction of fuel is
provided in the same way, as wood or dung.
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The utilisation of energy stored by plants occurs by reversing
photosynthesis-rapidly, in furnaces and explosion motors, or slowly , in respiring
cells of plants and animals.
The plants store less than 1 percent of total solar energy reaching the
surface of earth. Man could easily live from this energy income of the earth, if we
are able to improve significantly on plants way to store it. One possible approach
is breeding more efficient plants; another is growing existing plants in a way that
would increase their natural rate of energy storage; the third is developing non
living systems for solar energy storage, as effective-and cheaper-than the present-
day solar batteries.
Fig 1.12 Utilization of Solar Energy
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1.5 ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY
1. No green house gases: The first and foremost advantage of solar energy is that itdoes not emit any green house gases. Solar energy is produced by conducting the
suns radiation a process void of any smoke, gas, or other chemical by-product.This is the main driving force behind all green energy technology, as nations
attempt to meet climate change obligations in curbing emissions.
Fig 1.13 Gaseous Emissions
2. Infinite Free Energy: Another advantage of using solar energy is that beyondinitial installation and maintenance, solar energy is one hundred percent free.
Solar doesnt require expensive and ongoing raw materials like oil or coal, and
requires significantly lower operational labor than conventional power
production.
3. Decentralization of power:Solar energy offers decentralization in most (sunny)locations, meaning self-reliant societies. Oil, coal, and gas used to produce
conventional electricity is often transported cross-country or internationally.
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4. Solar jobs: A particularly relevant and advantageous feature of solar energyproduction is that it creates jobs. The EIAA states that Europes solar industry has
created 100,000 jobs so far. Solar jobs come in many forms, from manufacturing,
installing, monitoring and maintaining solar panels, to research and design,
development, cultural integration, and policy jobs.
5. Solars avoidance of politics and price volatility:One of the biggest advantagesof solar energy is the ability to avoid the politics and price volatility that is
increasingly characterizing fossil fuel markets. The sun is an unlimited
commodity that can be adequately sourced from many locations, meaning solar
avoids the price manipulations and politics that have more than doubled the price
of many fossil fuels in the past decade.
6. Solar barn: Going off grid is a huge advantage of solar power for people inisolated locations. Solar energy can be produced on or off the grid. On grid means
a house remains connected to the state electricity grid. Off grid has no connection
to the electricity grid, so the house, business or whatever being powered is relying
solely on the solar orsolar-hybrid.The ability to produce electricity off the grid is
a major advantage of solar energy for people who live in isolated and rural areas.Power prices and the cost of installing power lines are often exorbitantly high in
these places and many have frequent power-cuts.
Fig 1.14 Solar Barn
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1.6 SOLAR TRACKER
Despite the unlimited solar energy, harvesting it is a challenged mainly because of
the inefficiency of the panels. Recent works shows that different types of
methodology have been proposed to improve the efficiency of solar panels.
Most of the panel installations that are done in our country are all fixed arrays. As
the day passes, the sun moves away from the facing position of the panel and thus
the power output of the panel decreases. The easiest way to overcome this
problem is to adapt a moveable solar panel using sun tracking mechanism. We
have adopted this system to improve the efficiency for photovoltaic cell
applications.
A solar tracker is a device for orienting solar photovoltaic panel towards the sun.
The suns position in the sky varies both with season and time of dayas the sun
moves across the sky. Solar powered equipment works best when pointed at or
near the sun, so the solar tracker can increase the effectiveness of such equipment
over any fixed position, at the cost of additional system complexity.
A solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the sun. Payloads can
be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices.
In flat-panel photovoltaic (PV) applications, trackers are used to minimize the
angle of incidence between the incoming sunlight and a photovoltaic panel. This
increases the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power
generating capacity. In standard photovoltaic applications, it is estimated that
trackers are used in at least 85% of commercial installations greater than 1MW
from 2009 to 2012.
In concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar thermal (CSP)
applications, trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and
CSP systems. The optics in concentrated solar applications accept the direct
component of sunlight light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to
collect energy. Tracking systems are found in all concentrator applications
because such systems do not produce energy unless pointed at the sun.
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Fig 1.15 Solar Tracker
All the solar arrays that are currently being installed in our countries are fixed on
the rooftop or any favorable open space at approximately 230
inclination with the
surface. We went to BRAC Solar project and get to know that all the BRAC SolarHome System (SHS) are arranged in such a way that the battery will be charged
within 5 hours in a day and at night, the people can use the battery to run home
appliances accordingly. This seemed a lot inefficient since the sun in our country
is high up in the sky for around 104 hours every day. So with this system, 50% of
the sun energy are not being utilized and also this SHS does not allow the
consumers to use electricity during day time.
In many developed countries, solar trackers are already being used commercially.Importing and maintaining those in our country would be very expensive,
especially for the people in the rural areas who are the main consumers of solar
energy. So we thought of adopting the sun tracking mechanism to see how much
more energy we can utilize.
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CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
Energy is a crucial input in the process of economic, social and industrial
development. Energy plays a vital role in our daily life. The degree of
development and civilization of a country is measured by the utilization of energy
by human beings for their needs. Energy is available in different forms like
electrical energy, mechanical energy, chemical energy, heat energy and nuclear
energy etc.
Day by day the energy consumption is increasing very rapidly. The worlds fossil
fuel supply i.e. coal petroleum and natural gas will be depleted in few hundred
years. The rate of energy consumption is increasing; supply is depleting resulting
in inflation and energy shortage. This is called the energy crisis. Alternative or
non-conventional or renewable energy resources are very essential to develop for
future energy requirements.
Energy can be extracted from various resources i.e. bio-energy, human energy,
mechanical energy, kinetic energy and animal energy.
Energy has many properties. According to law of conservation of energy Energy
can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one
form to another form. Energy can be transported from one place to another
place.
The energy demand increases day by day because of increasing population,
increasing industrialization and inflation of means of transport etc.
To overcome with the problems of increasing demands of conventional energy the
use of non-conventional energy in more emphasized in this project. This is done
with the help of various technical equipments in order to save our conventional
resources.
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2.1HARDWARE SPECIFICATIONS OF THE SYSTEM2.1.1 RESISTORS:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct
proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is
represented by Ohm's law:
I=V/R
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the
potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the
resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.
Fig 2.1 Characteristics Of Resistor
Types:
Resistors can be classified into two,
Fixed resistors:Fixed resistors are further classified into:
a) Carbon composition type resistors:This is the most common type of low
wattage resistor. The resistive material is of carbon-clay composition and
the leads are made of tinned copper.
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b) Wire wound resistors: These resistors are a length of wire wound an
insulating cylindrical core. Usually wires of material such as constantan
(60% copper and 40% nickel) and manganin which have high resistivities
and low temperature coefficients are employed.
c) Metalized resistors: It is constructed using film deposition techniques of
depositing a thick film of resistive material onto an insulating substrate.
Fig 2.2 Fixed Resistor
Variable resistors: For circuits requiring a resistance that can be adjusted
while it remains connected in the circuit, variable resistors are required.
Fig 2.3 Variable Resistor
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Applications: Many electrical devices are based on electrical resistance and
Ohm's law, even if they do not have little components in them that look like the
usual resistor. The following are some examples.
Lightbulb: It can be made by cutting a narrow waist into a metallic gumwrapper and connecting wrapper across the terminals of a 9-volt battery.
Polygraph: The polygraph, or "lie detector," is really just a set of meters
for recording physical measures of the subject's psychological stress, such
as sweating and quickened heartbeat.
Fuse: A fuse is a device inserted in a circuit tollbooth-style in the same
manner as an ammeter. It is simply a piece of wire made of metals having
a relatively low melting point.
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2.1.2 CAPACITORS:A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separatedby a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of
metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Fig 2.4 Characteristics of Capacitor
Types: Capacitors can be classified as :
Ceramic Capacitors:It is a non-polarized fixed capacitor made out of
two or more alternating layers of ceramic and metal in which the ceramic
material acts as the dielectric and the metal acts as the electrodes.
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Fig 2.5 Ceramic Capacitor
Film Capacitor: Film capacitors or plastic film capacitors are non-
polarized capacitors with an insulating plastic film as the dielectric. The
dielectric films are drawn to a thin layer, provided with metallic electrodes
and wound into a cylindrical winding.
Fig 2.6 Film Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitors: Electrolytic capacitors are polarized. Three
families are available, categorized according to their dielectric.
a). Aluminum electrolytic capacitors withaluminum oxide as dielectric
b). Tantalum electrolytic capacitors withtantalum pentoxide as dielectric
c). Niobium electrolytic capacitors withniobium pentoxide as dielectric.
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Fig 2.7 Electrolytic Capacitor
Super capacitors: Super capacitors, a new type of electrochemical
capacitor are also called ultra capacitors. Super capacitors are divided into
three families, according to the relative amounts of capacitance in the
double layers v/s pseudo capacitance:
a).Double-layer capacitors
b).Pseudocapacitors
c).Hybrid capacitors
Fig 2.8 Super Capacitor
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Variable Capacitors: Variable capacitors may have their capacitance
changed by mechanical motion. Two variable capacitors are:
a) Tuning capacitor variable capacitor for intentionally and repeatedly tuning
an oscillator circuit in a radio or another tuned circuit
b) Trimmer capacitor small variable capacitor usually for one-time
oscillator circuit internal adjustment.
Fig 2.9 Variable capacitor
Applications:
Capacitor has many uses in electronics and electrical system:
Energy storage: A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from
its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery.
Power Conditioning: Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where
they smooth the output of a full or half waverectifier.
Signal Processing: The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent
information,either in binary form, as in DRAMs,or in analogue form, as in
analog sampled filters andCCDs
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2.1.3 DIODESA diode is a two-terminal device, having two active electrodes, between which it
allows the transfer of current in one direction only. Diodes are known for their
unidirectional current property.
Fig 2.10 Characteristics of Diode
Types:
Light Emitting Diode (LED): It is one of the most popular type of diodes
and when this diode permits the transfer of electric current between the
electrodes, light is produced.
Fig 2.11 LED
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Avalanche Diode: This type of diode operates in the reverse bias, and
used avalanche effect for its operation. The avalanche breakdown takes
place across the entire PN junction, when the voltage drop is constant and
is independent of current.
Fig 2.12 Avalanche Diode
Laser Diode: This type of diode is different from the LED type, as it
produces coherent light. These diodes find their application in DVD and
CD drives, laser pointers, etc.
Fig 2.13 Laser Diode
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Schottky Diodes: These diodes feature lower forward voltage drop as
compared to the ordinary silicon PN junction diodes.
Fig 2.14 Schottky Diode
Applications:
Radio Demodulation: The diode (originally a crystal diode)rectifies the
AM radio frequency signal, leaving only the positive peaks of the carrierwave.
Power Conversion:Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are
used to convertalternating current (AC) electricity intodirect current
(DC).
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2.1.4 POTENTIOMETERA potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminalresistor with a sliding
contact that forms an adjustablevoltage divider. If only two terminals are used,
one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.
Apotentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a voltage divider used for
measuringelectric potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the
same principle.
Potentiometers comprise a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves
along the element, making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical
terminals at each end of the element, a mechanism that moves the wiper from one
end to the other, and a housing containing the element and wiper.
Fig 2.15 Potentiometer
Many inexpensive potentiometers are constructed with a resistive element formed
into an arc of a circle usually a little less than a full turn, and a wiper rotating
around the arc and contacting it. The resistive element, with a terminal at each
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end, is flat or angled. The wiper is connected to a third terminal, usually between
the other two.
Fig 2.16 Characteristics of Potentiometer
Applications:
Audio Control: Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to
control audio equipment, changing loudness, frequency attenuation and other
characteristics of audio signals.
Television: Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness,
contrast, and color response. A potentiometer is often used to adjust "vertical
hold", which affected the synchronization between the receiver's internal
sweep circuits.
Transducer: Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of
displacement transducers because of the simplicity of construction and
because they can give a large output signal.
Motion Control: Potentiometers can be used as position feedback devices in
order to create "closed loop" control, such as in a servomechanism.
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2.1.5 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)A Photoresistor or a light dependent resistor (LDR) is
aresistor whoseresistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in
other words, it exhibitsphotoconductivity.
A photo resistor is made of a high resistancesemiconductor.If light falling on the
device is of high enoughfrequency,photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
boundelectrons enough energy to jump into theconduction band. The resulting
free electron (and its holepartner) conduct electricity, thereby
loweringresistance.
Fig 2.17 LDR
Extrinsic devices have impurities, also calleddo pants,added whose ground state
energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to
jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and lower frequencies)
are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available
for conduction.
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Fig 2.18 Characteristics Of LDR
Applications:
Photo resistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulphide cells
can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, street
lights, clock radios,alarm devices,outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and
solar road studs, etc.
They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small
incandescent lamp orlight emitting diode to control gain reduction and are
also used in bed lamps, etc.
Lead sulphide (PbS) andindium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light dependent
resistor) are used for the mid infrared spectral region. Ge:Cu
photoconductors are among the best far-infrared detectors available, and
are used forinfrared astronomy andinfrared spectroscopy.
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2.1.6 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)A light-emittingdiode (LED) is asemiconductor light source. LEDs are used as
indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible,
ultraviolet,andinfrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is switched on,electrons are able to recombine with
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.This effect is
calledelectroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy
of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. An
LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components
may be used to shape its radiation pattern.LEDs present many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
Fig 2.19 Characteristics Of LED
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Types:
The main types of LEDs are miniature, mid range and high power leds.
Miniature: These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they
come in various sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface
mount packages. They usually do not use a separate heat sink. Typical
current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small size
sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused
by the high current density and need for a heat sink.
Fig 2.20 Miniature LED
Mid-range: Medium-power LEDs are often through-hole-mounted and
mostly utilized when an output of just a few lumen is needed. They
sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode leads, two
anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An
example of this is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds.
High-power: High-power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from
hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA
for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens. LED power
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densities up to 300W/cm2 have been achieved. Since overheating is
destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat
dissipation.
Fig 2.21 High Power LED
Applications:
LED uses fall into four major categories:
Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning. Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response
of these objects.
Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.
Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and
respond to incident light, instead of emitting light.
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2.1.7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORSA crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical
resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical
signal with a very precise frequency.This frequency is commonly used to keeptrack of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for
digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and
receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz
crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal
oscillators.
Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens ofkilohertz to
tens of megahertz. More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually.
Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios,
computers,andcellphones.
Fig 2.22 Crystal Oscillator
Acrystal is asolid in which the constituentatoms,molecules,orions are packed
in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
When a crystal ofquartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in
anelectric fieldby applying avoltage to anelectrode near or on the crystal. This
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property is known aspiezoelectricity.When the field is removed, the quartz will
generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a
voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an
inductor,capacitor andresistor,with a precise resonant frequency.
Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in
such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The
specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at
which the quartz is cut.
Fig 2.23 Characteristics of Crystal Oscillator
Applications:
Military and Aerospace
Research and measurement
Industrial
Automotive
Consumer
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2.1.8 SENSORSA sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical quantity
and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an (today
mostlyelectronic)instrument.
Fig 2.24 Sensors
Types :
The various types of sensors are
Optical Sensors:
a) Visible/Near Infrared Remote Sensing: The observation method to acquire
visible light and near infrared rays of sunlight reflected by objects on the ground.
By examining the strength of reflection, we can understand a conditions of land
surface.
b) Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing: The observation method to acquire
thermal infrared rays, which is radiated from land surface heated by sunlight.
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Fig 2.25 Optical Sensors
Microwave Sensors: Microwave sensors receive microwaves, which is
longer wavelength than visible light and infrared rays, and observation is not
affected by day, night or weather.
a) Active type: The sensor aboard earth observation satellite emits
microwaves and observes microwaves reflected by land surface.
b) Passive type: This type observes microwaves naturally radiated from land
surface. It is suitable to observe sea surface temperature, snow accumulation,
thickness of ice.
Fig 2.26 Microwave Sensor
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Temperature Sensors: These sensors use a solid-state technique to
determine the temperature.
a) Mechanical temperature Sensors: Thermometer, bimetal.
b) Electrical Temperature Sensors: Thermister, thermocouple, resistance
thermometer.
Fig 2.27 Temperature Sensor
Applications:
In industry: On the factory floor, networked vibration sensors warn that a
bearing is beginning to fail.
For safety and security: Firefighters scatter wireless sensors throughout a
burning building to map hot spots and flare-ups.
In classroom: Sensor technology provides teachers with an exciting
alternative to the time consuming task of manually logging and observing science
experiments.
In education: Sensor technology provides students with a means of
seeing, interpreting, exploring and communicating relationships graphically.
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2.1.9 POWER SUPPLYA power supply is a device that supplieselectric power to anelectrical load.The
term is most commonly applied toelectric power converters that convert one form
of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convertanother form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A
regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a
specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in
either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any
energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending
on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:
Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include
power supplies that convertAC line voltage toDC voltage.
Energy storage devices such asbatteries andfuel cells.
Electromechanical systems such asgenerators andalternators.
Solar power.
Fig 2.28 Power Supply
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Types:
BATTERY: Battery is a device that converts stored chemical energy to electrical
energy. Batteries are commonly used as energy sources in many household and
industrial applications. There are two types of batteries: primary batteries
(disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and
secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged
and used multiple times.
Fig 2.29 Battery
DC POWER SUPPLY: AnACpowered unregulated power supply usually usesa transformer to convert the voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different,
nowadays usually lower, voltage.
AC power supply:An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall
outlet (mains supply)and lowers it to the desired voltage. Some filtering may take
place as well.
Linear regulated power supply: The voltage produced by an unregulated powersupply will vary depending on the load and on variations in the AC supply
voltage.
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AC/DC supply: In the past, mains electricity was supplied as DC in some
regions, AC in others. Transformers cannot be used for DC, but a simple, cheap
unregulated power supply could run directly from either AC or DC mains without
using a transformer. The power supply consisted of a rectifier and a filter
capacitor.
Uninterruptible power supply:An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its
power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is usually powered directly
from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should there
be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the
load never experiences an interruption.
High-voltage power supply: High voltage refers to an output on the order of
hundreds or thousands of volts. High-voltage supplies use a linear setup to
produce an output voltage in this range.
Voltage multipliers:A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC
electrical power from a lower voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically by means
of a network of capacitors and diodes. The input voltage may be doubled (voltage
doubler), tripled (voltage tripler), quadrupled (voltage quadrupler), and so on.
These circuits allow high voltages to be obtained using a much lower voltage AC
source.
Applications :
Computer Power Supply:A modern computer power supply is a switch-
mode power supply that converts AC power from the mains supply, to
several DC voltages.
Welding Power Supply:Arc welding uses electricity to melt the surfaces
of the metals in order to join them together through coalescence. The
electricity is provided by a welding power supply, and can either beAC or
DC.
AC Adapter: A power supply that is built into anAC mains power plug is
known as a "plug pack" or "plug-in adapter", or by slang terms such as
"wall wart".
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2.1.10 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB):A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically
connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces
etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. When theboard has only copper tracks and features, and no circuit elements such as
capacitors, resistors or active devices have been manufactured into the actual
substrate of the board, it is more correctly referred to as printed wiring board
(PWB) or etched wiring board.
Fig 2.30 Printed circuit board
Types:
Single Sided Board: This is the least complex of the Printed Circuit
Boards, since there is only a single layer of substrate. All electrical parts
and components are fixed on one side and copper traces are on the other
side.
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Fig 2.31 single sided PCB
Double Sided Board: This is the most common type of board, where
parts and components are attached to both sides of the substrate.
Fig 2.32 Double Sided Board
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Multi Layered Board: Multi layered PCB consists of several layers of
substrate separated by insulation.
Fig 2.33 Multi layered
Applications:
Typical applications for Printed Circuits are as follows
General Electronics Products - includes consumer products, some
computer and computer peripherals, as well as general military hardware.
Dedicated Service Electronics Includes Communication Equipment,
sophisticated business machines, instruments and military equipment.
High Reliability Electronics Includes Military and Commercial
equipment where continued performance or performance on demand is
critical.
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2.1.11 REGULATORS:
Regulator is a device that maintains a designated characteristic, as in:
Battery Regulator:A battery balancer or battery regulator is a device in abattery
pack that performs battery balancing.
Fig 2.34 Battery regulator
Pressure Regulator :A pressure regulator is avalve that automatically cuts off
the flow of a liquid or gas at a certain pressure.
Fig 2.35 Pressure Regulator
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Dividing Regulator : A diving regulator is apressure regulator used in
scuba or surface supplied diving equipment that reduces pressurized
breathing gas to ambient pressure and delivers it to the diver.
Fig 2.36 Dividing Regulator
Voltage Regulator: A voltage regulator is designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-
forward" design or may includenegative feedbackcontrol loops.
Fig 2.37 Voltage Regulator
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2.1.12 MICROCONTROLLER :A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer
on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and
programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NORflash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small
amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in
contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such
as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote
controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded
systems.
Fig 2.38 Microcontroller
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2.1.13 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM:The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation
system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions,
anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four
or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil
and commercial users around the world. It is maintained by the United States
government and is freely accessible to anyone with aGPS receiver.
The GPS project was developed in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous
navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a
number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s.
Fig 2.39 Global Positioning System
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Basic Concept: A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the
signals sent by GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually
transmits messages that include
the time the message was transmitted
satellite position at time of message transmission
The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each
message and computes the distance to each satellite using the speed of light. Each
of these distances and satellites' locations define a sphere. The receiver is on the
surface of each of these spheres when the distances and the satellites' locations are
correct. These distances and satellites' locations are used to compute the location
of the receiver using the navigation equations. This location is then displayed,
perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation
information may be included. Many GPS units show derived information such as
direction and speed, calculated from position changes.
Application:
Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives, even in the dark or in
unfamiliar territory, and to coordinate troop and supply movement
Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential
ground and air targets before flagging them as hostile
Astronomy: Both positional and clock synchronization data is used in
Astrometry and Celestial mechanics calculations. It is also used in amateur
astronomy usingsmall telescopes to professionals observatories.
Cellular telephony: Clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is
critical for synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations tofacilitate inter-cell handoff and support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection
formobile emergency calls and other applications.
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2.1.14 GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM):GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spcial
Mobile), is a standard set developed by the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe protocols for second generation (2G)digitalcellular networks used bymobile phones.It became the de facto global standard
for mobile communications withover 80% market share.
The GSM standard was developed as a replacement for first generation (1G)
analog cellular networks, and originally described a digital, circuit switched
network optimized forfull duplex voicetelephony.This was expanded over time
to include data communications, first by circuit switched transport, then packet
data transport via GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) and EDGE (Enhanced
Data rates for GSM Evolution or EGPRS).
"GSM" is atrademark owned by theGSM Association.
Fig 2.40 GSM
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2.1.15 RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION(RFID):Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless non-contact use of radio-
frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purposes of
automatically identifying and tracking tags attached to objects. Some tags requireno battery and are powered and read at short ranges via magnetic fields
(electromagnetic induction). Others use a local power source and emit radio
waves (electromagnetic radiation at radio frequencies). The tag contains
electronically stored information which may be read from up to several meters
away. Unlike abar code, the tag does not need to be within line of sight of the
reader and may be embedded in the tracked object.
RFID tags are used in many industries. An RFID tag attached to an automobile
during production can be used to track its progress through the assembly line.
Pharmaceuticals can be tracked through warehouses.Livestock and pets may have
tags injected,allowing positive identification of the animal.
Fig 2.41 Radio Frequency Identification
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Radio frequency is a technology similar in theory to bar code identification. An
RFID system consists of an antenna and a transceiver, which read the radio
frequency and transfer the information to a processingdevice,and atransponder,
or tag, which is anintegrated circuit containing the RF circuitry and information
to be transmitted.
Applications:
RFID can be used in a variety of applications, such as:
Access management
Tracking of goods
Tracking of persons and animals
Toll collection andcontactless payment
Machine readable travel documents
Tracking sports memorabilia to verify authenticity
Airport baggage tracking logistics
Fig 2.42 Radio Frequency Identification
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/bar_code.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/T/transceiver.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/device.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/T/transponder.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/integrated_circuit_IC.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contactless_paymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_readable_travel_documentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_readable_travel_documentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contactless_paymenthttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/integrated_circuit_IC.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/T/transponder.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/device.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/T/transceiver.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/bar_code.html -
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CHAPTER 3:
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig 3.1 Block Diagram
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3.2 FLOW CHART:
Fig 3.2 Flowchart showing working of Solar Tracker
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3.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
Fig 3.3 Schematic Of Solar Tracker
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3.4SPECIFIC COMPONENTS USED IN CIRCUIT:3.4.1 RESITOR:
Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their purpose
is to create specified values of current and voltage in a circuit. A device used in
electrical circuits to maintain a constant relation between current flow and
voltage. Resistors are used to step up or lower the voltage at different points in a
circuit and to transform a current signal into a voltage signal or vice versa, among
other uses. The electrical behavior of a resistor obeys Ohm's law for a constant
resistance; however, some resistors are sensitive to heat, light, or other variables.
Variable resistors, or rheostats, have a resistance that may be varied across a
certain range, usually by means of a mechanical device that alters the position of
one terminal of the resistor along a strip of resistant material. A number of
different resistors are shown:
Fig 3.4 Some Low Power Resistor Fig 3.5High-power resistors and rheostats
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The symbol for a resistor is shown in the following diagram:
Fig 3.6 Symbol of Resistor
Color Coding: Resistance value is marked on the resistor body. Most resistors
have 4 bands. The first two bands provide the numbers for the resistance and the
third band provides the number of zeros. The fourth band indicates the tolerance.
Tolerance values of 5%, 2%, and 1% are most commonly available.
Fig 3.7 Color Coding of Resistor
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3.4.2 CAPACITORS:Capacitors are components that are used to store an electrical charge and are used
in timer circuits. A capacitor may be used with a resistor to produce a timer.
Sometimes capacitors are used to smooth a current in a circuit as they can prevent
false triggering of other components such as relays. When power is supplied to a
circuit that includes a capacitor - the capacitor charges up.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static
electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on
one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the
electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance,measured infarads.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas
of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an
early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit,
resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an
undesiredinductance andresistance.
Capacitor electron storing ability (called capacitance) is measured in Farads.
Fig 3.8 Capacitor
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A basic capacitor is made up of two conductors separated by an insulator, or
dielectric. The dielectric can be made of paper, plastic, mica, ceramic, glass, a
vacuum or nearly any other nonconductive material. Some capacitors are called
electrolytics, meaning that their dielectric is made up of a thin layer of oxide
formed on a aluminum or tantalum foil conductor.
The capacitance value of any capacitor is a measure of the amount of electric
charge stored per unit of potential difference between the plates. The basic unit of
capacitance is afarad;however, this unit has been too large for general use until
the invention of the double-layer capacitor, so microfarad (F, or less correctly
uF), nanofarad (nF) andpicofarad (pF) are more commonly used.
Electrolytic Capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses an
electrolyte (an ionic conducting liquid) as one of its plates to achieve a larger
capacitance per unit volume than other types, but with performance
disadvantages. All capacitors conduct alternating current (AC) and block direct
current (DC) and can be used, amongst other applications, to couple circuit blocks
allowing AC signals to be transferred while blocking DC power, to store energy,
and to filter signals according to their frequency.
Fig 3.9 Electrolytic Capacitor
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3.4.3 TEMPERATURE SENSORS:Temperature sensors are devices used to measure the temperature of a medium.
There are 2 kinds on temperature sensors:
Contact Sensors: Contact temperature sensors measure the temperature of
the object to which the sensor is in contact by assuming or knowing that
the two (sensor and the object) are in thermal equilibrium, in other words,
there is no heat flow between them.
Noncontact Sensors: Most commercial and scientific noncontact
temperature sensors measure the thermal radiant power of the Infrared or
Optical radiation received from a known or calculated area on its surface
or volume within it.
Table 3.1 Types of Temperature Sensor
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3.4.4 DC GEARED MOTOR:Geared DC motors can be defined as an extension of DC motor which already had
its insight details demystified. A geared DC Motor has a gear assembly attached
to the motor. The speed of motor is counted in terms of rotations of the shaft per
minute and is termed as RPM .The gear assembly helps in increasing the torque
and reducing the speed. Using the correct combination of gears in a gear motor,
its speed can be reduced to any desirable figure. This concept where gears reduce
the speed of the vehicle but increase its torque is known as gear reduction.
External Structure: At the first sight, the external structure of a DC geared
motor looks as a straight expansion over the simple DC ones.
Fig 3.10 External Structure of DC Geared Motor
The lateral view of the motor shows the outer protrudes of the gear head. A nut is
placed near the shaft which helps in mounting the motor to the other parts of the
assembly.
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Fig 3.11 Lateral view of DC Geared Motor
Working of the DC Geared Motor: The DC motor works over a fair range of
voltage. The higher the input voltage more is the RPM (rotations per minute) of
the motor. For example, if the motor works in the range of 6-12V, it will have the
least RPM at 6V and maximum at 12 V.
In terms of voltage, we can put the equation as:
RPM= K1 * V, where,
K1= induced voltage constant
V=voltage applied
The working of the gears can be explained by the principle of conservation of
angular momentum. The gear having smaller radius will cover more RPM than
the one with larger radius. However, the larger gear will give more torque to the
smaller gear than vice versa. The comparison of angular velocity between input
gear (the one that transfers energy) to output gear gives the gear ratio. When
multiple gears are connected together, conservation of energy is also
followed. The direction in which the other gear rotates is always the opposite of
the gear adjacent to it.
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3.4.5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED):A light emitting diode (LED) is known to be one of the best optoelectronic
devices out of the lot. The device is capable of emitting a fairly narrow bandwidth
of visible or invisible light when its internal diode junction attains a forwardelectric current or voltage. The visible lights that an LED emits are usually
orange, r