SOLAR PHOTOSYNTHESIS DETECTOR

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in EcE514: Undergraduate Thesis

Submitted by:Jan Rey AltivoFranch Maverick LorillaKet Justin Villasencio

Sumbitted to: Engr. Delan Zoe H. Arenga

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Sun light has a major role in terms of providing a plant as means of energy for converting the Carbon Dioxide (C2O) together with the water (H2O) in a chemical reaction to form Sugar (Glucose). This process is called Photosynthesis, which is needed by the plant to produce food in a form of chemical energy (i.e., light energy is converted to chemical energy). Because of the increasing effect of global warming the amount of heat entering the plant are now becoming more unpredictable that causes heat stress to a plants. Aside of pest control, chemical fertilization, crops variety breeding, etc., heat stress has an increasing effect on crops.Heat stress has been shown to reduce quality and yield of other major crops, affecting, for example, fertility and seed development of wheat, maize, and rice. At the same time, periods of destructively high temperature, which have occurred in the past perhaps once every century, are predicted to become much more frequent by the end of this century, occurring perhaps once or twice per decade. Clearly, therefore, understanding how plants respond to heat stress and how heat tolerance can be improved is of the highest importance. The researchers are experimenting and dealing with the solutions by making plans and constructing a new innovation of device that could somehow help farmers eliminate/reduce the effect of heat stress.

Statement of the Problem

The government is trying to resolve the problems and issues in the field of agriculture by providing a sufficient fund in the technological development and educating the farmers in the proper handling and maintenance of their agricultural works.As a concern citizens and a students of this institution we are trying to address in this problem by helping them through a thorough research and developing a device to resolve this problem. The findings of our research and of our interest suggest on the dramatic effect of climate change, as it might affect the yields in the plantation of crops.We propose a project that could somehow resolve and develop a new innovation in maintaining their production yields as much as high that will be enough for sustaining their needs. The following problems below are the main objective of this research to be addressed.1. Low production yields2. High maintenance cost3. Unpredictable weather conditions4. Crops damage

Objectives

The project focuses in providing a automation control device that can recognize the amount of heat entering to a plant specifically for crops and shrubs in the purpose of restraining the destructive heat that may detrimental to its production. It adds the feature of automatic application/ feeding of the conditioner chemicals to the crops for protection and utilizing the maximum productivity potentials of the crops. This thesis aims for maximum productivity and protection of the crops and of the following problems.1. Low production yields2. High maintenance cost3. Unpredictable weather conditions4. Crops damage

Conceptual and Theoretical FrameworkSolar Photosynthesis Detector is the name given to our device innovation. This device has the ability to sense heat condition during photosynthesis process and give accurate measurement of the degree of risk in the plantation of crops. This ability comes from the component that our device is equipped with. By knowing the degree of risk in the plantation, we can quickly response to give penetration on the heat stress condition, this may in the form of watering or spraying not only with an ordinary mixture solution but together with the new developed chemical technology called Sun Shield. Sun Shield technology is the heart of our innovation that give as direct solution after the detection of the occurrence of heat stress. Here, are the process of step by step detection and penetration of the heat stress condition.Our device is incorporated with the following components:1. LCD to display the output of the PIC MCU by real time monitoring showing the degree of temperature and intensity of light. Also LCD provide as visual option of selecting to different types of crops where the device will be applied. 2.LM35 to measure the level of temperature in degree Celsius that produces voltage levels.3Solar Panel to detect light intensity, generates power that is stored on battery.4.Battery to provide storage energy either from the solar or power supply.5.PIC MCU to convert the analog output of the solar panel and LM35 to digital signal and compare it on the data/parameter stored in the register memory and make calculation based on the instruction programmed.5.LED to provide indication level.7.Power Supply to power the device and insure the operation is not interrupted.8.GSM module to send data via sms to our android device for monitoring purposes. The android device is one/part of the HMI.9.HMI- Human Machine Interface, to enable select and control operation.

The Block Diagram below illustrate the detection process:

The output of the block diagram which is in the LCD can now be parallel inputted to the controlled system which contain the following components:1.Mixture Container a container for the mixture sun shield2.Compressor Motor to provide the mixture a driving force.*3.Solenoid Valve to provide a switching control on the time of distribution. *4.Transmission hose to assist the spray gun in any length of distribution.5.Spray Gun to provide balance distribution of the mixture Sun Shield going to the plants.| *The components are subject to change just in case it is not available or in our case we cannot afford.

The block diagram below illustrate the penetrating process:

In summary, after the detection of the device the data is being converted from analog to digital and then is passed to the motor and solenoid components to start the spraying process which is, in this case, the penetration process of the heat stress.The only not clear now is the specification of the sun shield and the parameters of the plants that must be considered in detecting the heat stress. Thus, the following discussion below is divided in to two main category namely; sun shield specification and plants parameters. Some of the data of sun shield are extensively copy paste in order to maintain reliable information and the plant parameters are well summarized and explained by our team.Sun Shield Specs:Intense heat and sunlight cause plants to transpire releasing heat in the form of water vapor reducing its moisture content resulting in shock and heat stress. SUN SHIELD is an organic compound derived from various desert plant extracts that helps plants survive extreme heat and sun conditions.When temperatures begin to rise, SUN SHIELD forms a protective, permeable, micro-thin protein pro polymer coating able to reflect sunlight and temporarily sealing the targeted crop throughout the day up to 120 F.When applied properly, SUN SHIELD reduces transpiration, aids to reflect sunlight reducing sun burn damage, slowing the rate of heat from entering plants resulting in cooler internal plant temperatures.After sunset, the decline in temperature causes the protein polymer seal to react and expand into a micro-screen coating allowing plants to breathe and function naturally.SUN SHIELD will not shut the plant down, will not clog or block stoma openings, and allows crops to mature properly.SUN SHIELD is the only product available that can make these statements.Plant parameters:Plant response to heat stress depend on its type as it is for tropical, cold, or moderate weather condition must be planted. Base on its type, this plant must be maintain in a temperate weather condition in order for its system to support the proper process of photosynthesis. Heat stress can occur if this threshold is exceeded (i.e., appropriate temperature level). Thus, the threshold level is the main important parameter that must be considered and the type of crops being planted as it may vary the threshold level base on its specie, variety, breading etc., this parameter is then passed to the PIC MCU for comparative purposes. The parameter of different types of crops must be carefully encoded to the PIC MCU for it to response base on its condition level. The table below shows the different parameters of different crop plants.

Table: Effects of high temperature stress in different crop species.CropsHeat treatmentGrowth stageMajor effects

Chili pepper (Capsicum annuum)38/30 C (day/night)Reproductive, maturity and harvesting stageReduced fruit width and fruit weight, increased the proportion of abnormal seeds per fruit.

Rice (Oryza sativa)Above 33 C, 10 daysHeading stageReduced the rates of pollen and spikelet fertility.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)37/28 C (day/night), 20 daysGrain filling and maturity stageShortened duration of grain filling and maturity, decreases in kernel weight and yield.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)30/25 C day/nightFrom 60 DAS to maturity stageReduced leaf size, shortened period for days to booting, heading, anthesis, and maturity, drastic reduction of number of grains/spike and smaller grain size and reduced yield.

Sorghum (Hordeum vulgare)40/30 C (day/night)65 DAS to maturity stageDecreased chlorophyll (chl) content, chlafluorescence, decreased photosystem II (PSII) photochemistry, Pn and antioxidant enzyme activity and increased ROS content, and thylakoid membrane damage, reduced yield.

Rice (Oryza sativa)32 C (night temperature)Reproductive stageDecreased yield, increased spikelet sterility, decreased grain length, width and weight.

Maize (Zea mays)35/27 C (day/night), 14 daysReproductive stageReduced ear expansion, particularly suppression of cob extensibility by impairing hemicellulose and cellulose synthesis through reduction of photosynthate supply.

Rice (Oryza sativa)2542.5 CVegetative growth stageDecrease in the CO2assimilation rate.

Soybean (Glycine max)38/28 C (day/night), 14 daysFlowering stageDecreased the leaf Pn and stomatal conductance (gs), increased thicknesses of the palisade and spongy layers, damaged plasma membrane, chloroplast membrane, and thylakoid membranes, distorted mitochondrial membranes, cristae and matrix.

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)43 C, 2 hEarly growth stageDecrease in net photosynthetic rate (Pn), stomatal conductance as well as the apparent quantum yield (AQY) and carboxylation efficiency (CE) of photosynthesis. Reduced the activities of antioxidant enzymes.

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)32 and 34 CThroughout the growing periodReduced yield, damages in pod quality parameters such as fibre content and break down of the Ca-pectate.

Maize (Zea mays)3340 C, 15 daysDuring Pre-anthesis and silking onwardsSevere effect on plant and ear growth rates.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)38 C, 24 and 48 hSeedling stageDecreased chl and relative water content (RWC); diminished antioxidative capacity.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)32/24 C (day/night), 24 hAt the end of spikelet initiation stageSpikelet sterility, reduced grain yield.

Significance of the Project

The research study could provide information on the issues of heat stress in the crops plantation particularly on the integrity, vulnerability and security of farm to market economy. Further this study would also be a review on the photosynthesis process and its economic effect based in the Philippines, particularly in local area. This study would be beneficial to the Department of Agriculture as well as the Department of Science and Technology in the city as this study enhance the knowledge of the government officials and the farmers about the widely increasing issues on heat stress, particularly on the age of global warming. Furthermore, this study would be beneficial to the government officials and the farmers as this study would provide the necessary information on the different threats and attacks in crops planters society. This would expectedly heighten the awareness of the government officials and the farmers to equip a counterattack to the increasing threats in plantation. To the future researchers, this study can provide baseline information on the recent status of the technological development of heat stress penetration.

Scope and limitationThis project is limited only on providing a solution in terms of heat stress problems. Others problems found in agriculture like pest control, disease infections, and fertilization are not part of the job of our device. Our project may not provide a solution and rather increase cost maintenance if one is not well acquainted on the proper use of our device instead.

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIESAs sustainably meeting increasing world food demand is a major challenge for humanity, it is important to understand factors constraining crop yields and resource use efciency. Evidence of the negative impact of heat stress on major world food crop yields is considered increasingly robust. Formerly studied in climate chambers or plastic tunnels controlling temperature during crop growth, the negative impacts of heat stress on yield has recently been conrmed for actual production conditions at large spatial scales by the interpretation of eld trials, statistical analyses of large scale observational datasets and the application of crop models (Lorenzo and Solano, 2005).Heat and drought have multiple, negative impacts on crop yields, including reducing leaf photosynthesis and enhancing leaf senescence rates. More critically for yield determination, however, are the reported effects of decreasing grain number when heat stress occurs before or around an thesis and reduced grain weight when it occurs during grain. While drought represents a process that develops and intensies slowly, heat stress can occur very abruptly and even short episodes of high temperature can cause a severe decline in grain yields. This reality that both heat stress and drought occur together, makes it difcult to assess the unique impact of heat stress on crop yields under eld conditions and bares the risk of confounding effects. Previous work, has used statistical methods to analyse the relationship between high temperature and crop yields for different crops and regions, though such methods are not able to identify nor explain the specic processes responsible for yield losses. Process-based crop models are increasingly used to quantify the impact of heat and drought on crop yield but differ with respect to the stresses and processes considered (Colcombet and Hirt, 2008). Paper from Ginsberg and colleagues published in this issue reminds us that heat stress is already a problem of economic significance (Ginzberg et al., 2009). The paper describes the effects of heat stress on potato tuber skin quality: a soil temperature of 33 C causes russeting in which the skin thickens, then cracks, resulting in a rough skin texture and a reduced value of the crop. It is another example of how the application of modern techniques such as transcriptomics can reveal that something like the roughening of the skin of potato tubers may be the visible indicator of quite dramatic changes in gene expression occurring within a plant as it responds to a stress (Ginzberg et al., 2009). The results of the study add to the growing evidence that stress signalling pathways are not independent, but interact to form networks. Hence, many of the genes that showed changes in expression in this study in response to heat stress have previously been shown to be involved in other stress responses (Ginzberg et al., 2009).A failing of a number of studies on the effects of heat stress has been to assume that heat and drought stress are synonymous. In temperate countries, of course, periods of hot weather are often also dry, while the effects of drought in winter, when it is cold, are minimized by the fact that plants are dormant or semi-dormant. However, in many parts of the world, plants have to cope with hot, wet conditions, and where plants do have to endure periods of dry weather they may not be affected even by severe drought if they are able to control water loss effectively and access water sources from deep in the soil. Such plants may be affected by abnormally high temperatures much more quickly than they are affected by drought. It is notable that Ginzberg and colleagues report that three transcription factors associated with drought responses were actually down-regulated in heat-stressed tubers. It is important that this is taken on board so that genuine heat stress tolerance markers can be identified. Otherwise, new genotypes may be developed to cope with high temperatures and fail because the wrong markers have been selected for(Ginzberg et al., 2009).

Among the ever-changing components of the environment, the constantly rising ambient temperature is considered one of the most detrimental stresses. The global air temperature is predicted to rise by 0.2 C per decade, which will lead to temperatures 1.84.0 C higher than the current level by 2100. This prediction is creating apprehension among scientists, as heat stress has known effects on the life processes of organisms, acting directly or through the modification of surrounding environmental components. Plants, in particular, as sessile organisms, cannot move to more favorable environments; consequently, plant growth and developmental processes are substantially affected, often lethally, by high temperature (HT) stress (Semenov, 2007;Semenov and Halford, 2009).Heat stress causes multifarious, and often adverse, alterations in plant growth, development, physiological processes, and yield (Figure 1). One of the major consequences of HT stress is the excess generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which leads to oxidative stress. Plants continuously struggle for survival under various environmental stress conditions including HT. A plant is able, to some extent, to tolerate heat stress by physical changes within the plant body and frequently by creating signals for changing metabolism. Plants alter their metabolism in various ways in response to HT, particularly by producing compatible solutes that are able to organize proteins and cellular structures, maintain cell turgor by osmotic adjustment, and modify the antioxidant system to re-establish the cellular redox balance and homeostasis. At the molecular level, heat stress causes alterations in expression of genes involved in direct protection from HT stress. These include genes responsible for the expression of osmoprotectants, detoxifying enzymes, transporters, and regulatory proteins. In conditions such as HT, modification of physiological and biochemical processes by gene expression changes gradually leads to the development of heat tolerance in the form of acclimation, or in the ideal case, to adaptation. In recent times, exogenous applications of protectants in the form of osmoprotectants (proline, Pro; glycine betaine, GB; trehalose, Tre, etc.), phytohormones (abscisic acid, ABA; gibberellic acids, GA; jasmonic acids, JA; brassinosterioids, BR; salicylic acid, SA; etc.), signaling molecules (e.g., nitric oxide, NO), polyamines (putrescine, Put; spermidine, Spd and spermine, Spm), trace elements (selenium, Se; silicon, Si; etc.) and nutrients (nitrogen, N; phosphorus, P; potassium, K, calcium, Ca; etc.) have been found effective in mitigating HT stress-induced damage in plants (Halford and Hey, 2009).

Figure 1: Major effects of high temperature on plants.Development of new crop cultivars tolerant to HT is a major challenge for plant scientists. Depending upon the extremity and duration, and also depending upon the plant types and other environmental factors in the surroundings, plants show dynamic responses to HT, but identification and confirmation of the traits that confer tolerance to HT still remain elusive. Plant scientists involved in research on HT stress are endeavoring to discover the plant responses that lead to heat tolerance and they are also trying to investigate how plants can be managed in HT environments. Recent widely studied molecular approaches have included omics techniques and the development of transgenic plants through manipulation of target genes. Investigation of these underlying molecular processes may provide ways to develop stress tolerant varieties and to grow agriculturally important crop plants under HT. In this chapter, we focus on these new strategies and we review the recent research into the physiological and biochemical events and the molecular responses seen in plants in response to HT stress. We also review the roles of exogenous protectants, the underlying mechanisms for transduction of HT stress signals, and transgenic approaches currently being taken to promote HT stress tolerance in plants (Halford and Hey, 2009).Plant Response to Heat Stress:Plant responses to HT vary with the degree of temperature, duration and plant type. At extreme HT, cellular damage or cell death may occur within minutes, which may lead to a catastrophic collapse of cellular organization. Heat stress affects all aspects of plant processes like germination, growth, development, reproduction and yield. Heat stress differentially affects the stability of various proteins, membranes, RNA species and cytoskeleton structures, and alters the efficiency of enzymatic reactions in the cell for which the major physiological processes obstacle and creates metabolic imbalance (Goodinget al., 2003).GrowthAmong the growth stages of plant the germination is affected first of all. Heat stress exerts negative impacts on various crops during seed germination though the ranges of temperatures vary largely on crop species. Reduced germination percentage, plant emergence, abnormal seedlings, poor seedling vigor, reduced radicle and plumule growth of geminated seedlings are major impacts caused by heat stress documented in various cultivated plant species. Inhibition of seed germination is also well documented in HT which often occurs through induction of ABA. At very HT (45 C) the rate of germination of wheat was strictly prohibited and caused cell death and embryos for which seedling establishment rate was also reduced. Plant height, number of tillers and total biomass were reduced in rice cultivar in response to HT(Semenov and Halford, 2009).High temperature causes loss of cell water content for which the cell size and ultimately the growth is reduced. Reduction in net assimilation rate (NAR) is also another reason for reduced relative growth rate (RGR) under HT which was confirmed in maize and millet and sugarcane. The morphological symptoms of heat stress include scorching and sunburns of leaves and twigs, branches and stems, leaf senescence and abscission, shoot and root growth inhibition, fruit discoloration and damage. Damage to leaf-tip and margins, and rolling and drying of leaves, necrosis, was observed in sugarcane due to HT stress. In common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) morphophysiological characteristics such as phenology, partitioning, plant-water relations, and shoot growth and extension are seriously hampered by heat stress. In some plant species growth at HTs (28/29 C) cause noteworthy elongated stems and entended leaves (hyponasty) and diminish in total biomass. Reduced number of tillers with promoted shoot elongation was observed in wheat plant under heat stress. In wheat green leaf area and productive tillers/plant were drastically reduced under HT (30/25 C, day/night). High temperatures may alter the total phenological duration by reducing the life period. Increases in temperatures 12 C than the optimum result in shorter grain filling periods and negatively affect yield components of cereal. In T. aestivum HT (28 C to 30 C) reduced the germination period, days to anthesis booting, maturity that is ultimate the total growth duration. At extreme heat stress plants can show programmed cell death in specific cells or tissues may occur within minutes or even seconds due to denaturation or aggregation of proteins, on the other hand moderately HTs for extended period cause gradual death; both types of injuries or death can lead to the shedding of leaves, abortion of flower and fruit, or even death of the entire plant (Semenov and Halford, 2009)PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis is one of the most heat sensitive physiological processes in plants. High temperature has a greater influence on the photosynthetic capacity of plants especially of C3 plants than C4 plants. In chloroplast, carbon metabolism of the stroma and photochemical reactions in thylakoid lamellae are considered as the primary sites of injury at HTs. Thylakoid membrane is highly susceptible to HT. Major alterations occur in chloroplasts like altered structural organization of thylakoids, loss of grana stacking and swelling of grana under heat stress. Again, the photosystem II (PSII) activity is greatly reduced or even stops under HTs. Heat shock reduces the amount of photosynthetic pigments (Wilhelmet al., 1999).The ability of plant to sustain leaf gas exchange and CO2 assimilation rates under heat stress is directly correlated with heat tolerance. Heat markedly affects the leaf water status, leaf stomatal conductance (gs) and intercellular CO2 concentration. Closure of stomata under HT is another reason for impaired photosynthesis that affects the intercellular CO2. The decline in chl pigment also is a result of lipid peroxidation of chloroplast and thylakoid membranes as observed in sorghum due to heat stress (40/30 C, day/night). Photosystem II photochemistry (Fv/Fm ratio) and gs were also reduced under the same stress condition. All these events significantly decreased the photosynthesis compared with OT in sorghum. In soybean, heat stress (38/28 C) significantly decreased total chl content (18%), chl a content (7%), chl a/b ratio (3%), Fv/Fm ratio (5%), Pn (20%) and gs (16%). As a result decreased in sucrose content (9%) and increased reducing sugar content (47%) and leaf soluble sugars content (36%) were observed. In rice plants, HT (33 C, 5 days) decreased the photosynthetic rate by 16% in the variety Shuanggui 1 and 15% in T219. Greer and Weedon observed that average rates of photosynthesis of Vitis vinifera leaves decreased by 60% with increasing temperature from 25 to 45 C. This reduction in photosynthesis was attributed to 15%30% stomatal closure (Wilhelmet al., 1999).Some other reasons believed to hamper photosynthesis under heat stress are reduction of soluble proteins, Rubisco binding proteins (RBP), large-subunits (LS), and small-subunits (SS) of Rubisco in darkness, and increases of those in light. High temperature also greatly affects starch and sucrose synthesis, by reduced activity of sucrose phosphate synthase, ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, and invertase. Heat imposes negative impacts on leaf of plant like reduced leaf water potential, reduced leaf area and pre-mature leaf senescence which have negative impacts on total photosynthesis performance of plant. Under prolonged heat stress depletion of carbohydrate reserves and plant starvation are also observed (Wilhelmet al., 1999).Reproductive DevelopmentAlthough all plant tissues are susceptible to heat stress at almost all the gowth and developmental stages, the reproductive tissues are the most sensitive, and a few degrees elevation in temperature during flowering time can result in the loss of entire grain crop cycles. During reproduction, a short period of heat stress can cause significant decrease in floral buds and flowers abortion although great variations in sensitivity within and among plant species and variety exists. Even heat spell at reproductive developmental stages plant may produces no flowers or flowers may not produce fruit or seed. The reasons for increasing sterility under abiotic stress conditions including the HT are impaired meiosis in both male and female organs, impaired pollen germination and pollen tube growth, reduced ovule viability, anomaly in stigmatic and style positions, reduced number of pollen grains retained by the stigma, disturbed fertilization processes, obstacle in growth of the endosperm, proembryo and unfertilized embryo (Jagadishet al., 2007).HT treatment (>33 C) at heading stage significantly reduced anther dehiscence and pollen fertility rate, leading to reduction in the number of pollens on the stigma which were the causes of reduced fertilization and subsequent spikelet fertility and sterile seed in rice where the sensitive varieties were more susceptible to this occurrence compared to the tolerant varieties. High night temperatures (32 C) increase in spikelet sterility (by 61% compared to control) in rice which was resulted from decreased pollen germination (36%) of rice. High temperature often causes excessive ethylene (Eth) production and leads to male sterility of rice pollens. The Eth is hypothesized to inhibit the key enzymes in sugarstarch metabolism which weaken sink strength and restrict grain filling and ultimately produce sterile grain. Due to late sowing-induced heat stress the ear length, number of spikelet main stem1, no. of fertile floret main stem1 were reduced significantly in wheat plant those resulted in reduced grain yield. Edreira and Otegui observed that heat stress at flowering periods, more specifically at pre-silking and silking stages resulted higher yield reduction relative to the heat stress at grain filling stage of maize. High temperature stress resulted in abscission and abortion of flowers, young pods and developing seeds, resulting in lower seed numbers in soybean. High temperatures at flowering are known to decrease pollen viability in soybean (Jagadishet al., 2007).YieldElevated temperatures are raising apprehension regarding crop productivity and food security. Its affect is so terrible that even a small (1.5 C) increase in temperature have significant negative effects on crop yields. Higher temperatures affect the grain yield mostly through affecting phenological development processes. Heat induced yield reduction was documented in many cultivated crops including cereals (e.g., rice, wheat, barley, sorghum, maize), pulse (e.g., chickpea, cowpea), oil yielding crops (mustard, canola) and so on (Semenov, 2007;Semenov and Halford, 2009).It was demonstrated that increase of the seasonal average temperature 1 C decreased the grain yield of cereals by 4.1% to 10.0%. The sensitive crop varieties are more severely affected by heat stress relative to tolerant varieties. At heat stress of 3540 C the 1000-grain weight was reduced by 7.0%7.9% in sensitive Shuanggui 1 and 3.4%4.4% in tolerant Huanghuazhan variety of rice. The higher yield reduction was also observed in heat-sensitive rice cultivar Shuanggui 1 (35.3% to 39.5%) compared to heat tolerant cultivar Huanghuazhan (21.7% to 24.5%). High night temperature (32 C) decreased grain length (2%), width (2%), and weight in O. sativa and increased spikelet sterility (61%). It also increased grain nitrogen (N) concentration (44%) which was inversely related to grain weight. All of these factors contributed to reduced yield (90%). Heat stress modifies the early dough and maturity stage shorten the kernel desiccation period and cause grain yield loss in wheat. Heat also reduces the single kernel weight and it is the major contributor to the yield loss. Compared to OT late sowing mediated heat stress (2830 C) caused significant reduction of yield in different wheat varieties, viz. 70% reduction in Sourav, 58% in Pradip, 73% in Sufi, 55% in Shatabdi and 53% in Bijoy. In sorghum, due to heat stress, filled seed weight and seed size were reduced by 53% and 51% respectively, which ultimately reduced the yield. In canola (Brassica spp.), seed yield on the main stem was reduced by 89%, but all branches contributed to overall yield loss of 52% at HT of over 30 C. The cause of this yield decline was due to heat induced infertile pods, reduced seed weight and seeds per pod (Semenov, 2007;Semenov and Halford, 2009).Loss of productivity in heat stress is chiefly related to decreased assimilatory capacity which is due to reduced photosynthesis by altered membrane stability and enhanced maintenance respiration costs, reduction in radiation use efficiency (RUE, biomass production per unit of light intercepted by the canopy). These occurrences were documented in wheat and maize. High temperature (3340 C) in maize negatively affected light capture, RUE, biomass and gain yield, harvest index although heat at the flowering stage resulted higher yield reduction than at grain filling period. Elevated temperature affects the performance and crop quality characteristics. Grain quality characteristics in barley significantly changed under heat stress. In barley grain several proteinogenic amino acids concentrations and maltose content increased, where the concentrations of total non-structural carbohydrates, starch, fructose and raffinose, lipids and aluminum were reduced. Damages in pod quality parameters such as fibre content and break down of the Ca pectate were found in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) at HT stress (Semenov, 2007;Semenov and Halford, 2009).Oxidative StressDifferent metabolic pathways are depended upon enzymes which are sensitive to various degrees of HTs. It has been suggested that, like other abiotic stress, heat stress might uncouple enzymes and metabolic pathways which cause the accumulation of unwanted and harmful ROS most commonly singlet oxygen (1O2), superoxide radical (O2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydroxyl radical (OH) which are responsible for oxidative stress. The reaction centers of PSI and PSII in chloroplasts are the major sites of ROS generation though ROS are also generated in other organelles viz. peroxisomes and mitochondria. A linear relationship exists between maximal efficiency of PSII and the accumulated ROS. It is suggested that because of thermal damage to photosystems under such HTs less absorbtion of photon occurs. In such stress conditions, if photon intensity is absorbed by PSI and PSII, the excess of which is required for CO2 assimilation are considered as surplus electrons, those serve as the source of ROS. Among the ROS, O2 is formed by photooxidation reactions (flavoprotein, redox cycling), through Mehler reaction in chloroplasts, during mitochondrial ETCs reactions and glyoxisomal photo respiration, by NADPH oxidase in plasma membranes, xanthine oxidase and membrane polypeptides (Figure 2). Hydroxyl radical is formed due to the reaction of H2O2 with O2 (Haber- Weiss reaction), reactions of H2O2 with Fe2+ (Fenton reaction) and decomposition of O3 in apoplastic space (Figure 2). Singlet oxygen is formed during photoinhibition, and PS II electron transfer reactions in chloroplasts. Hydroxyl radical is not considered to have signaling function although the products of its reactions can elicit signaling responses, and cells sequester the catalytic metals to metallochaperones efficiently avoiding OH (Semenov, 2007;Semenov and Halford, 2009).

Figure 2: Sites of production of reactive oxygen species in plants.

Various physiological damages occur in plants upon exposures to varying levels of heat stress. Hydroxyl radicals can potentially react with all biomolecules, like pigments, proteins, lipids and DNA, and almost with all constituents of cells. Singlet oxygen can directly oxidize protein, polyunsaturated fatty acids and DNA. Thermal stress can induce oxidative stress through peroxidation of membrane lipids and disruption of cell membrane stability by protein denaturation. Functional decrease in photosynthetic light reaction even under moderate HTs was documented to induce oxidative stress through ROS production caused by increased electron leakage from the thylakoid membrane. The HT increased leaf temperature which reduced the antioxidant enzyme activities that increased malondialdehyde (MDA) content in leaves of rice plant. Heat stress (33 C) induced oxidative stress was observed to damage membrane properties, protein degradation, enzyme deactivation in wheat that reduced the cell viability remarkably. Heat stress induced oxidative stress also significantly increased the membrane peroxidation and reduced the membrane thermostability by 28% and 54% which surprisingly increased electrolyte leakage in wheat. Populations of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) when were exposed to moderate (36 C) and severe HT stress (40 C), oxidative stress was prominent which was proved by the presence of higher H2O2 level, and it was responsible for remarkable physiological damage of maximal efficiency of PS II, destroyed cell membrane stability and caused lipid peroxidation. High temperature stress provoked membrane lipid peroxidation and aggravated membrane injury was also observed in cotton, sorghum and soybean. In sorghum relative to control heat stress (40/30 C, day/night) increased membrane damage and MDA content by 110% and 75%, respectively which was accompanied by increased H2O2 and O2 content (124% and 43%, respectively). Moreover, the ROS produced by HT stress are involved in proteolysis of protein or degradation of polymeric protein into simple soluble forms those are the cause of premature leaf senescence in cotton. In wheat 2 days of heat exposure resulted root growth inhibition which was correlated with powerful oxidative stress as evidenced by a significant increase (68%) of O2 production in root cells. The MDA content also increased by 27% in the first leaf 2 days after exposure at the early stages of seedling development, and this trend also continued during the later stages of development (by 58%) (Semenov, 2007;Semenov and Halford, 2009).Continual heat stress causes the ROS accumulation at the plasma membrane outer surface which can cause membrane depolarization, activation of Ca-induced RBOHD (the ROS-producing enzyme RBOHD located at the plasma membrane). In such extreme cases, ROS accumulation in cells can trigger programmed cell death. Although the ROS have tremendous destructive effects on plant metabolic processes they have also hypothesized to have signaling behaviors to trigger the heat shock responses towards the development of heat tolerance in plant which are inexplicable and should be divulged (Semenov, 2007;Semenov and Halford, 2009).

Chapter 3METHODS This chapter presents the methodology used in the conduct of this study and it include the discussion of the research design, respondents of the study, research locale, period of the study, data gathering procedures, sampling, instrumentation and statistical treatment.

Research Design The design of this research focuses on the gathering of data, conducting experiments and applying the results through careful procedures and guidelines. The gathering of data includes interviewing of persons highly involve with respect to the standards and knowledgeable about the study. Experiments are done at locale of sufficient and proper materials. And the application of the study includes persons of which knowledge of the safety are generally considered.

Evaluation ProcessThe research study are evaluated through the application of the experimental device and the proper procedure of gathering data are not influenced by the researchers. This device are conducted to measure the light intensity, temperature level and the time elapse of occurrence of the phenomena.The idea and technical details of this study are presented to the persons of importance Engineers, Farmers and Agriculturist, the purpose is for evaluation and to look for possible critics for the improvement of this study.

Research LocaleThe study will be conducted at place where agriculture is dominant among the other industry and in this case much of the study will be conducted at University of Southeastern Philippines, Mabini Campus and where agricultural Engineers are present (the safety of the researchers and supervision of Engineers are considered in this location). The figure below illustrate the location of USEP.

Period of the StudyThe target length of this study will cover the first semester and expected to end by October of the year 2014.Data Gathering ProceduresIn gathering the data, the microcontroller unit (MCU) will record and observe the measured value of the light sensor, temperature sensor and the time elapse of the phenomena. This is done by the Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) built-in module of the device. The gathered data will be encoded and interpreted in the programming software and display the result as a basis relative to the parameters, of the action to be taken.In interpreting the data, careful analysis and usage of the statistical procedures are considered. Sampling Systematic sampling is used as the technique in gathering and analyzing the data. Systematic sampling is applied on the whole duration of time the device is working. The exact duration of time will cover the period of one day (12 hours of observation) from day to night only.

InstrumentationThe researcher will use LCD, LM35, solar panel, battery, PIC MCU, LED, power supply, GSM module, HMI, programmer kit, compressor motor, and solenoid valve. Refer to the conceptual and theoretical framework of chapter 1 for discussions and functions of those components. The programmer kit used in this device includes the software and hardware tools of the Microchip Company. The PICkit programmer module is the hardware part and the Pic Basic Pro is the software programming part. The figure below shows the software interface and hardware module of the programmer kit.

Statistical TreatmentThe data is treated by the used of standard deviation which is the most commonly used measure of the spread or dispersion of data around the mean. The standard deviation is defined as the square root of thevariance (V).The variance is defined as the sum of the squared deviations from the mean, divided byn-1.Operationally, there are several ways of calculation:

or

or

Where:S = standard deviationsummationxi=dataX

x = mean of subsamples

n =number of subsamples

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