SOILpak - dryland farmers on the red soil of Central...
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SOILpak - dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Readers’ Note This document is part of a larger publication. The remaining parts and full version of the publication can be found at:
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AAPPPPEENNDDIIXXEESS
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CCOONNTTRRIIBBUUTTOORRSS
Contributor Chapter
Alison Bowman B9, B11
NSW Agriculture, Trangie
Broughton Boydell B12
Australian Centre for Precision Agriculture
The University of Sydney
Katharine Brown E1
ACLEP, CSIRO
Canberra
Stephen Cattle B3, C4, C9,
Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science E1, E4, E5,
The University of Sydney E8
N. Collis-George A1, A2, A3,
Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science B13, C3, C4
Jack Cooper B9, E7
NSW Agriculture
Trangie
Stuart Crawford B14
‘Quandong’, Narromine
Karen Elton B3, E6
NSW Agriculture
Orange; and
Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science
The University of Sydney
Jeff Esdaile B4, D3
The University of Sydney
Livingston Farm, Moree
Neil Fettell A3, B3, D8
NSW Agriculture
Condobolin
Damien Field C4
Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science
The University of Sydney
Bob Freebairn A3
NSW Agriculture
Coonabarabran
David Freebairn C9, D1, D2
Queensland Department of Primary Industries
Toowoomba
Guy Geeves C4, E3
Department of Land & Water Conservation
Cowra
Neville Gould D7
NSW Agriculture
Trangie
John and Julie Greig B14
‘Tilga’, Condobolin
Peter Hairsine D2
CSIRO Land & Water
Canberra
Appendix 1. Sources of information
App. 1-3SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
Peter Hayman C9, D1
NSW Agriculture
Tamworth
Justin Hughes C4
Department of Land & Water Conservation
Cowra
Pat Hulme C4
Sustainable Soils Management
Warren
Peter Kelly D7, B11
NSW Agriculture
Trangie
Mac Kirby E2
CSIRO Land & Water
Canberra
Paul Lukins A3, B9, E1
NSW Agriculture
Condobolin
Alex McBratney B12
Australian Centre for Precision Agriculture
The University of Sydney
Scott McCalman B14
‘Jedburgh’, Warren
Alan McGufficke A3, B9
Department of Land & Water Conservation
Condobolin
Neil McKenzie C4
CSIRO Land & Water
Canberra
Ken Motley A3, B9
NSW Agriculture
Forbes
Brian Murphy A3, B2, B4,
Department of Land & Water Conservation C4, D3, D7,
Cowra E1, E4
Ian Packer A3, B2, B4,
Department of Land & Water Conservation C4, D3, D7,
Cowra E4
Alan Palmer B5, D7
NSW Agriculture
Trangie
Dean Patton B14, E9
NSW Agriculture
Trangie
Andrew Rice A3, B9
NSW Agriculture
Forbes
Elizabeth Roesner C4
NSW Agriculture
Condobolin; and
Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science
The University of Sydney
Paco Sanchez-Bayo B13
Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science
University of Sydney
Appendix 1. Sources of information
App. 1-4SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
Pip Schiffmann B10
Hi-Fert
Trangie
Tim Schiffmann B5, B6, B11,
NSW Agriculture D7
Trangie
Geoff Sharp C3
Queensland Department of Natural Resources
Indooroopilly
Jan Skjemstad C4
CSIRO Land & Water
Adelaide
Bob Thompson A3
NSW Agriculture
West Wyalong
John Triantafilis C7
CRC for Sustainable Cotton Production
Narrabri
Brett Whelan B12
Australian Centre for Precision Agriculture
The University of Sydney
Anthony Whitbread C4
Agronomy and Soil Science
University of New England
Keith Woodlands A3, B4
NSW Agriculture
Parkes
Bob Wynne A3, B9
Department of Land & Water Conservation
Condobolin
RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS
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would like to acknowledge the editors of, and all contributors to, these
preceding SOILpak manuals published by NSW Agriculture.
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AAppppeennddiixx 22.. FFuurrtthheerr rreeaaddiinngg
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Engineers Monograph No. 4.
Batey, T. 1988, Soil husbandry: a practical guide to the use andmanagement of soils, Soil and Land Use Consultants Ltd., Aberdeen.
Charman, P.E.V. and Murphy, B.W. (eds.) 1991, Soils—theirproperties and management: a soil conservation handbook for NewSouth Wales, Sydney University Press, South Melbourne.
Division of Soils, CSIRO, 1983, Soils: an Australian viewpoint,CSIRO, Melbourne.
Gupta, V.V.S.R., Neate, S.M. and Leonard, E. 1997, Life in the soil,CRC for Soil and Land Management, Adelaide.
Hunt, N. and Gilkes, B. 1992, Farm Monitoring Handbook, University
of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA.
Lines-Kelly, R. 1994, Soil sense: soil management for NSW NorthCoast farmers, NSW Agriculture, Wollongbar.
Marshall, T.J., and Holmes, J.W. 1988, Soil Physics (2nd ed.),
Cambridge University Press.
White, R.E. 1997, Principles and practice of soil science: the soil as anatural resource (3rd ed.), Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.
PPRROOPPEERRTTIIEESS AANNDD MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT OOFF HHAARRDDSSEETTTTIINNGG RREEDD SSOOIILL
Mullins, C.E., MacLeod, D.A., Northcote, K.H., Tisdall, J.H. and
Young, I.M. 1990, ‘Hardsetting soils: behaviour, occurrence, and
management’, Advances in Soil Science 2, 37–108.
So, H.B., Smith, G.D., Raine, S.R., Schafer, B.M. and Loch, R.J.
(eds.) 1995, Sealing, crusting and hardsetting soils: productivity andconservation, Australian Society of Soil Science, Qld. Branch.
CCOOMMPPAACCTTIIOONN MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT
Kuhar, J.E. (ed.) 1993, Fundamentals of machine operation—tillage,
John Deere Publishing, Moline, Illinois, USA.
Soane, B.D. and van Ouwerkerk, C. (eds.) 1994, Soil compaction incrop production, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Yule, D.F. and Tullberg, J.N. (eds.), 1995, Proceedings of NationalControlled Traffic Conference, Rockhampton, Qld, QDPI/University
of Queensland.
MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT OOFF SSOODDIICC SSOOIILL
Naidu, R., Sumner, M.E. and Rengasamy, P. 1995, Australian sodicsoils—distribution, properties and management, CSIRO, East
Melbourne.
Wallace, A. and Terry, R.E. (eds.) 1998, Handbook of soilconditioners, Marcel Dekker, New York.
Appendix 2. Further reading
App. 2-3SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
MMEEAASSUURREEMMEENNTT OOFF SSOOIILL PPHHYYSSIICCAALL CCOONNDDIITTIIOONN
ACLEP, 1997, ‘Field equipment for land resource survey’, AustralianCooperative Land Evaluation Program Newsletter, Volume 6(2).
Coughlan, K.J., McKenzie, N.J. and Cresswell, H.P. (eds.), 1998, ‘Soil
physical measurement and interpretation for land evaluation’,
Australian soil and land survey handbook series, Vol. 5., CSIRO Land
and Water, Canberra.
Hanks, R.J. and Ashcroft, G.L. 1980, Applied soil physics: soil waterand temperature applications, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Klute, A. (ed.), 1986, Methods of soil analysis part 1. Physical andmineralogical methods (2nd ed.), ASA/SSSa, Madison, WI.
Smith, K.A. and Mullins, C.E. (eds.) 1998, Soil analysis—physicalmethods (2nd ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York.
DDRRYYLLAANNDD FFAARRMMIINNGG SSYYSSTTEEMMSS
Squires, V. and Tow, P. (eds.) 1991, Dryland farming—a systemsapproach, Sydney University Press, South Melbourne.
SSAALLIINNIITTYY
Chaffey, B. (ed.) 1992, Principles of sustainable agriculture 4.Dryland salinity, Department of Food and Agriculture, Victoria.
SSOOIILL MMOONNIITTOORRIINNGG
Forge, K. 1995, Soil check, Queensland Department of Primary
Industries.
Webster, R. and Oliver, M.A. 1990, Statistical methods in soil andland resource survey, Oxford University Press.
EENNVVIIRROONNMMEENNTTAALL IISSSSUUEESS
Campbell, A. 1994, Landcare, Allen and Unwin, St. Leonards.
Lamarca, C.C. 1996, Stubble over the soil—the vital role of plantresidue in soil management to improve soil quality, American Society
of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Race, D. (ed.), 1993, Agroforestry: trees for productive farming,
Agmedia, East Melbourne.
Roberts, B. 1992, Land care manual, New South Wales University
Press.
PPRREECCIISSIIOONN AAGGRRIICCUULLTTUURREE
Kuhar, J.E. (ed.) 1997, The precision-farming guide for agriculturists,
John Deere Publishing, Moline, Illinois, USA.
Robert, P.C., Rust, R.H., and Larsen, W.E. 1996, Proceedings of theThird International Conference on Precision Agriculture, American
Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
SSOOIILL FFOORRMMAATTIIOONN PPRROOCCEESSSSEESS AANNDD SSOOIILL CCLLAASSSSIIFFIICCAATTIIOONN
Isbell, R.F. 1996, The Australian soil classification, CSIRO
Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria.
Appendix 2. Further reading
App. 2-4SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
Isbell, R.F., McDonald, W.S. and Ashton, L.J. 1997, Concepts andrationale of the Australian soil classification, ACLEP, CSIRO Land &
Water, Canberra.
Stace, H.C.T., Hubble, G.D., Brewer, R., Northcote, K.H., Sleeman,
J.R., Mulcahy, M.J. and Hallsworth, E.G. 1968, A handbook ofAustralian soils, Rellim Technical Publications, Glenside.
White, M.E. 1994, After the greening: the browning of Australia,
Kangaroo Press, Dural.
OOTTHHEERR
Glendinning, J. 1981, Fertilizer handbook, Australian Fertilizers
Limited, Sydney.
Oades, J.M., Lewis, D.G. and Norrish, K. (eds.) 1981, Red-brownearths of Australia, Waite Agricultural Institute, CSIRO.
Russell, J.S. and Greacen, E.L. (eds.) 1977, Soil factors in cropproduction in a semi-arid environment, University of Queensland
Press.
Turner, N.C., Perry, M.W., Gregory, P.J. and Belford, R.K. (eds.)
1992, Crop production problems on duplex soils, CSIRO, East
Melbourne.
Weir, R.G. and Cresswell, G.C. 1994, Plant nutrient disorders 4.Pastures and field crops, Inkata Press.
Yeomans, P.A. 1978, Water for every farm using the keyline plan,
Murray Books, Ultimo.
AAGGFFAACCTTSS FFRROOMM NNSSWW AAGGRRIICCUULLTTUURREE
AC.10 Improving soil structure with gypsum and lime
AC.14 Boron in agriculture
AC.15 Liming materials
AC.16 Zinc deficiency in field crops
AC.19 Soil acidity and liming
E4.17 Broadacre tillage implements
P1.E.1 Moisture seeking for sowing winter crops
P1.2.1 Cropping on raised beds in southern NSW
P3.M.8 Calculating costs of growing wheat
P3.2.2 Oats
P3.2.3 Barley growing
P5.2.1 Canola.
Appendix 2. Further reading
App. 2-5SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
AAppppeennddiixx 33.. MMoorree ccaassee ssttuuddiieess aarree nneeeeddeedd
OOppttiioonnss iinn tthhiiss mmaannuuaall
‘Red SOILpak’ provides you with options for overcoming soil
related problems under dryland crops and pastures on red soil of
Central Western NSW.
However, it is the responsibility of farmers and their advisers to
actually select an option (or series of options) that is appropriate to
their operation.
RReeffiinniinngg tthhee sseelleecctteedd ooppttiioonn((ss))
Fine-tuning of a soil management program to maximise
profitability is likely to take several years.
Strip trials of the various options at different rates/settings will be
necessary.
Often this fine-tuning process will be of great value to subsequent
managers, and to other growers in the district. Therefore, it is
important to document these trial experiences.
RReeppoorrttiinngg tthhee rreessuullttss
Where soil management trials are established, aim to record more
than just crop yield and quality.
Record:
• all costs and benefits associated with the various options;
• the weather conditions under which the observations were made;
and
• changes in soil condition, e.g. severity of soil compaction under
the plant lines.
The trial report information can then be incorporated into the next
version of ‘SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central
Western NSW’.
An individual within each district should be nominated to collate
this information, and to ensure that the trials are carried out properly.
Appendix 3. More case studies needed
App. 3-3SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
App. 4-3SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
Appendix 4. Unit conversion
Table 2. Conversions between electrical conductivity units and approximations to salt concentration
To S m-1 dS m-1 mS m-1 mmS m-1 mS cm-1 mmS cm-1 TDI m.equivmg L-1 L-1
From multiply by
S m-1 1 10 103 106 10 104 2/3x104 100
dS m-1 0.1 1 100 105 1 103 2/3x103 10
mS m-1 10-3 0.01 1 103 0.01 10 20/3 0.1
mS m-1 10-6 10-5 10-3 1 10-5 0.01 2/3x10-2 10-4
mS cm-1 0.1 1 100 105 1 103 2/3x103 10
mS cm-1 10-4 10-3 0.1 100 10-3 1 2/3 0.01
TDI
mg L-1 1.5x10-4 1.5x10-3 1.5x10-1 1.5x102 1.5x10-3 1.5 1 1.5x10-2
m.equiv
L-1 0.01 0.1 10 104 0.1 100 2/3x102 1
Source: Shaw, 1985
Example: 1 mS m-1 = 10-5 dS m-1
AAppppeennddiixx 55.. GGlloossssaarryy
App. 5-3SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
SSOOIILL MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT TTEERRMMIINNOOLLOOGGYY
A, A1, A2 horizon See soil profile.
acid soil Soil with a pH value less than 7.0.
adsorbed Held on a surface; in soil, cations are held on clay surfaces due to a difference in
charge between the cations and the surfaces (similar to the attraction of oppositely
charged ends of two magnets).
aerobic Soil conditions in which there is sufficient oxygen for plant roots and (generally)
soil organisms that carry out processes beneficial to plant nutrition and soil
structure.
aggregate A group of primary soil particles that cohere to each other more strongly than to
other surrounding particles. See ped.
air-filled porosity The fraction of the bulk volume of soil that is filled with air at the time of
measurement.
alkaline soil Soil with a pH value greater than 7.0.
allelopathy Production of a substance by one organism that inhibits the growth of one of more
other organisms.
alley farming Production of crops between regularly spaced, parallel strips where trees and/or
perennial shrubs and grasses are grown.
alluvial soil A soil developed from recently deposited alluvium, usually too young to show the
effects of soil forming processes. Any layers in the soil profile are successive
deposits rather than soil horizons.
alluvium Unconsolidated gravel, sand, silt and clay deposited by water flow; typical of
floodplains.
ameliorate To make or become better.
anaerobic Soil conditions in which there is a lack of oxygen, usually because water has
replaced soil air (the soil is waterlogged). Substances harmful to plants (e.g.
ethylene and hydrogen sulfide) may accumulate.
anion An ion with negative charge.
apedal Soil material without peds, i.e. structureless.
aquifer A water-bearing rock formation capable of yielding useful quantities of water to
bores or springs.
ASC See Australian Soil Classification.
ASWAT test A measure of soil dispersion in water (Aggregate Stability in WATer) that takes
between 2 and 4 hours to complete.
Australian soil classification The system by which we classify soil in Australia; replaces ‘Great Soil Groups’
(ASC) and ‘The Factual Key’.
available water capacity See plant available water capacity.
B horizon See soil profile.
bed A raised pair of ridges of soil (usually 2 m wide, furrow to furrow, and sometimes
flat on top) into which a row crop is planted.
biological drilling Using taprooted plants to penetrate through a hard layer of soil or into a hard
subsoil; when the plants die, the root channels are available for use by subsequent
crops.
biological fertility See fertility.
biological ripping Using plants to dry and crack the soil; cycles of swelling and shrinking improve
soil structure in cracking clays.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-4SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
biopore A macropore created by biological activity in the soil, e.g. old root channels,
chambers created by earthworms and ants.
bleached A pale colour (for example, of an A2 horizon); see soil profile.
bolus A ball of moist soil which is kneaded to determine soil texture.
bulk density A measure of compactness; the more compact a soil is, the more solids in a given
volume; it is calculated as the weight of oven-dry soil divided by the field volume
of the sample; compacted soil has a high bulk density.
C horizon See soil profile.
Ca/Mg ratio Ratio of exchangeable calcium to exchangeable magnesium; a ratio of less than 2
aggravates dispersion problems.
calcareous A soil containing significant amounts of naturally occurring calcium carbonate
(lime—CaCO3), such as to fizz with dilute acid.
calcium A cation that promotes flocculation; an essential plant nutrient.
cation exchange capacity (CEC) See exchange capacity and exchangeable cations.
capillary rise The upward movement of water caused by the molecular attraction between soil
particles and water; capillary rise causes the wetting of soil above a watertable.
cation An ion with a positive charge.
CEC See cation exchange capacity.
chemical fertility See fertility.
chiselling Chisel ploughing (using tined implements); deep tillage at depths < 30 cm.
Chromosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification; a soil with a clear or abrupt textural
B horizon (duplex texture profile), and in which the major part of the upper 0.2 m
of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it is less than 0.2 m
thick) is not strongly acid and is not sodic.
clay Soil particles smaller than 0.002 mm (effective diameter). These particles are
involved in swelling and shrinking of soil. They hold water and exchangeable
cations; the term ‘clay’ also refers to soil with sufficient clay content (more than
35%) to exhibit clay behaviour.
clod A unit of soil modified by human activity. It often contains smaller clods; see
aggregate and ped.
coefficient of linear extensibility The percentage shrinkage in one dimension of a moulded soil between two water
(COLE) contents.
COLE See coefficient of linear extensibility.
colloid Material consisting of very finely divided particles that consequently have a large
surface area per unit volume and are therefore very reactive; clay and humus are
colloids.
compaction Compression of soil into a smaller volume so that bulk density is increased and air-
filled porosity is decreased. See smearing, remoulding and pulverisation.
conchoidal ‘Ball and socket’ morphology associated with severely compacted and remoulded
soil.
controlled traffic The confinement of traffic over a paddock to the same wheel tracks, the position of
which is fixed for several years.
conventional tillage Describes traditional systems where mechanical tillage is the sole method used for
seedbed preparation and weed control; normally involves 3 to 6 tillage operations.
See no-till and minimum tillage.
cracking clays Black, grey or brown (occasionally, but rarely, red) clay soil that is distinguished
by seasonal cracking and a lack of distinct horizons; see Vertosol.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-5SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
crop water use The water used by a crop from sowing to harvest; it includes transpiration (through
the crop) and evaporation (directly from the soil) and is usually expressed as mm
of water.
crop water use efficiency See water use efficiency.
(CWUE)
crusting Occurs when the soil surface ‘melts’ together when wet, and then sets hard and
impermeable when dried. If a thin (up to 10 mm) surface layer is affected, and
cannot be readily separated from and lifted off the underlying soil, it is called
crusting; if thicker, (particularly when the whole topsoil is affected) it is called
hardsetting; see hardsetting and flaking.
CWUE See crop water use efficiency.
D horizon See soil profile.
deep banding Placement of fertiliser (often N-based) below the depth of
sowing.
deep tillage Any tillage deeper than that needed to produce loose soil for a seedbed, or deeper
than that needed to kill weeds. Its usual purpose is to loosen a compacted subsoil.
denitrification The processes by which soil microbes convert soil nitrate to nitrogen gas and
nitrous oxide gas which are unavailable to plants.
deposition Movement of particles to their present location by water and/or wind.
discharge The volume of water flowing in a stream or through an aquifer past a specific point
in a given period of time.
discharge area An area where underground water is discharged at the soil
surface.
discharge groundwater Water which leaves an aquifer by seepage into surface water bodies, by plant water
use or evaporation.
dispersion Disintegration of microaggregates into individual clay, silt and sand grains; it is the
opposite of flocculation.
dryland salinity Symptoms of salinity associated with dryland agriculture.
dry scald Erosion of topsoil, exposing subsoil which is inhospitable to plants because of high
clay content and sodicity; a dry scald is therefore bare; see saline scald, salineseep, scald.
duplex soil A soil which shows a sharp change in soil texture between the A and B horizons;
for example, a loam topsoil overlying a clay subsoil; red-brown earths are duplex;
see gradational soil, uniform soil.
EC1:5 The electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil:water extract.
ECe The electrical conductivity of a saturated soil paste; this measure of electrical
conductivity is not dependent on soil texture.
electrical conductivity A measure of the conduction of electricity through water, or a suspension of soil in
water, or a water extract of soil; an indicator of the concentration of dissolved salts,
and hence salinity. Units are deciSiemens/metre (dS/m), numerically equal to the
old units milliSiemens/centimetre (mS/cm).
electrochemical stability index Soil electrical conductivity (dS/m) (1:5 soil:water extract) divided by exchangeable
(ESI) sodium percentage; it is a measure of soil stability in water.
electrolyte Salty solution.
EM instruments Electromagnetic induction devices which estimate soil salinity.
equilibrium (of groundwater) A condition in which the amount of recharge to an aquifer equals the amount of
natural discharge.
erosion The wearing away of the land surface by rain or wind, causing soil movement from
one point to another; see gully erosion, rill erosion and sheet erosion.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-6SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
ESI See electrochemical stability index.
ESP See exchangeable sodium percentage.
evaporation The process by which water passes from the liquid to the vapour state and enters
the atmosphere.
evapotranspiration The sum of direct evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration.
exchange capacity The ability of the clay and humus in the soil to hold ions on charged surfaces.
Negatively charged surfaces (cation exchange sites) hold cations; positively
charged surfaces (anion exchange sites) hold anions. For cations, the capacity is
expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil (cmol (+) kg-1). For
anions, the capacity is expressed as centimoles of negative charge per kilogram of
soil (cmol (-) kg-1). Both are numerically equal to milliequivalents per 100 g of soil
(me/100g); see ion.
exchangeable cations Positively charged ions held loosely on negatively charged soil particles, and easily
exchanged with other ions in the soil solution. This mechanism reduces the
leaching of some plant-available nutrients.
exchangeable sodium The number of exchangeable sodium ions as a percentage of all exchangeable
percentage (ESP) cations held by a soil. High exchangeable sodium percentage promotes dispersion;
the critical ESP value above which dispersion occurs ranges from 2 to 15,
depending on the amount of electrolyte in soil solution.
fallow efficiency The percentage of rainfall received during the fallow that is stored in the soil. Soil
management can alter fallow efficiency.
fertility The capacity of a soil to support plant growth. It has three components—chemical,
biological and physical fertility. Chemical fertility is the ability of a soil to supply
suitable quantities and balance of nutrients to plants. Biological fertility refers to
the number and diversity of soil organisms, and their activity in the soil. Physical
fertility is the ability of a soil to supply plants with water and oxygen, to protect
their roots from temperature stress, and to allow unrestricted root penetration and
shoot emergence; it depends largely upon soil texture and structure.
field capacity The content of water, on a mass or volume basis, remaining in a soil after free
drainage is negligible (corresponds to a soil water potential of –33 kPa).
flaking Structural condition of topsoil in which the surface layer, usually less than 10 mm
thick, is hard and brittle when dry and can be easily separated from and lifted off
the underlying soil; see, crusting.
flocculation Clustering of clay particles into microaggregates; the opposite of dispersion.
fractured rocks Rocks in which spaces are created by fractures, joints and partings. These provide
groundwater storage and flowpaths.
friability The ease with which a soil sample can be crumbled.
geographic information system A method (usually computer-based) of overlaying and comparing large volumes of
(GIS) geographic data of different kinds.
gilgai A natural surface feature of humps and depressions found in some clay soil types.
GIS See geographic information system.
global positioning system (GPS) A network of satellites controlled by the US Department of Defence which is
designed to determine a radio receiver’s position in latitude, longitude and altitude.
Differential GPS (DGPS) improves accuracy of the information via the use of a
local base station.
GPS See global positioning system.
gradational soil A soil profile with a slight and gradual increase in clay content with depth. Red
earths are gradational. See duplex soil, uniform soil.
gravimetric water content The water content of the soil on a per weight basis. Grams of water per gram of
soil; also known as wetness.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-7SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
gully erosion Channels formed by water that cannot be ameliorated using ordinary farm
machinery; typically range from 0.5 m deep to as much as 25 to 30 m deep; see
erosion, rill erosion and sheet erosion.
gypsum Calcium sulfate (CaSO4.2H2O), used to reduce swelling and dispersion in sodic
soil; a naturally mined substance, and a by-product of fertiliser manufacture.
hardsetting Occurs when a layer of soil, not necessarily at the surface, ‘melts’ together when
wet, and then sets hard and impermeable when dried. Hardset layers are generally
thicker than a crust, and often contain a disconnected series of small air-filled pores
that resemble honeycomb. Hardsetting often occurs in soil with insufficient
swelling clay and organic matter; see crusting.
horizon A layer of soil in the soil profile different from layers above or below; and
recognisable by a different colour, texture and/or structure. Horizons are formed by
soil forming processes, as distinct from strata due to successive deposition or
modification caused by the passage of farming machinery; see alluvium, soilprofile.
humus Stable, large organic molecules produced by the decomposition of once-living
material.
hydraulic conductivity The rate of flow of water per unit gradient of hydraulic potential.
illite A type of clay mineral with a 2:1 layer structure.
impermeable Transmits no water or air.
infiltration Movement of water into a soil.
ion Atomic or molecular particle carrying an electrical charge.
Kandosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil which has a well-developed
B2 horizon in which the major part is massive or has only a weak grade of
structure; and has a maximum clay content in some part of the B2 horizon which
exceeds 15%.
kaolinite Variable-charged clay mineral with a 1:1 layer structure.
Kurosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil with a clear or abrupt
textural B horizon (duplex texture profile), and in which the major part of the upper
0.2 m of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it less than
0.2 m thick) is strongly acid.
leaching Downward movement of dissolved materials.
levee Recently deposited alluvium beside a river; a levee is higher than the surrounding
plains.
lime Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), occurring in rocks as limestone or chalk, and in some
soil as fine particles or small nodules. Finely-ground limestone (aglime) is used to
raise soil pH. Other forms of lime are hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) and burnt
lime (quicklime, calcium oxide).
lower plastic limit (LPL) Old name for the plastic limit.
macropore Large (greater than 0.03 mm diameter) soil pore that is drained and aerated at field
capacity; it may be a biopore or an old crack line; mainly responsible for
transmitting water and allowing exchange of gases in the soil; indicative of good
structure for plant growth; see mesopore, micropore and pore.
magnesium A cation that promotes dispersion, but less so than sodium. An essential plant
nutrient.
massive A coherent or solid mass of soil, largely devoid of natural lines of weakness.
meander plain An alluvial area built up by sediment from a slow moving and winding river.
mesopore Soil pore with a diameter 0.2 to 0.0 mm able to store plant available water
(1000 mm = 1 mm); see macropore, micropore and pore.
microaggregates Units of soil (smaller than 0.25 mm) that contain particles ranging in size from clay
(smallest) through silt to fine sand.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-8SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
micropore Soil pore with a diameter less than 0.2 mm; mainly responsible for the storage of
unavailable water in the soil; see macropore, mesopore and pore.
mineralisation The processes by which soil microbes convert organic nitrogen to ammonium; see
nitrification.
minimum tillage Or ‘reduced tillage’ describes farming practices which reduce the number of tillage
operations compared with conventional tillage. Weeds in the fallow are controlled
by herbicides, grazing and some tillage. See no-till and conventional tillage.
moisture potential See soil water potential.
moisture seeking Refers to planting implements that penetrate dry soil and place seed where there is
sufficient moisture for germination.
mole drain A tubular drain formed beneath the soil surface by pulling an expanding plug
through wet soil.
montmorillonite See smectite.
mottled Having blotches of soil with a different colour; indicative of past periods of
intermittent waterlogging.
Munsell colour system A colour designation system that specifies the relative degrees of the variables of
colour: hue, value and chroma.
mycorrhiza A fungus that associates with plant roots to the benefit of both.
nitrification The processes by which soil microbes convert ammonium to plant available nitrate.
nitrogen fixation The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into compounds that eventually
become available to plants. One such process is the fixation of nitrogen by
Rhizobium bacteria associated with the roots of legumes. Free-living soil
organisms also fix nitrogen. Industrial nitrogen fixation produces manufactured
nitrogen fertiliser.
NLWR See non-limiting water range.
nodule An accumulation of a soil material as a discreet, small lump. It may be composed
of iron or manganese compounds, or calcium carbonate (lime). A swelling on the
roots of legumes, containing symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria.
non-limiting water range The region bounded by the upper and lower soil water content over which water
(NLWR) availability, oxygen and mechanical resistance to root growth is not limiting to
plant growth.
no-till A form of conservation farming involving no mechanical soil disturbance other
than planting; or occasional strategic tillage; see conventional tillage and minimumtillage.
organic carbon One of the chemical elements making up organic matter. Organic matter is often
expressed as organic carbon because it is carbon that is measured in the laboratory.
Organic carbon multiplied by 1.75 gives an estimate of organic matter (soil organic
matter is approximately 57% carbon).
organic matter Plant and animal material, living and dead.
pan A hard soil layer which may restrict the entry of water, air and roots. If it is caused
by tillage, it is referred to as a plough pan.
PAWC See plant available water capacity.
ped A unit of soil structure (e.g. a block, plate or prism) formed by natural processes (in
contrast with a clod, which is formed artificially); see aggregate.
pedal Applied to soil materials consisting mostly of peds.
percolation Movement of water through the soil.
permanent beds A tillage system where the beds and wheel tracks are left in the same place for a
number of crops; see controlled traffic.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-9SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
permanent wilting point (PWP) The largest water content of a soil at which indicator plants, growing in that soil,
wilt and fail to recover when placed in a humid environment (corresponds to a soil
water potential of –1500kPa).
permeability Ability of a soil to transmit water and gases.
pH The acidity or alkalinity of a soil is measured as pH, which is an indication of the
concentration of hydrogen ions in soil solution; pH values increase as the
concentration of hydrogen ions decreases.
pH buffering capacity The ability of a soil to resist changes in pH; it increases with clay and organic
matter content.
physical fertility See fertility.
piezometer A non-pumping shallow bore, of small diameter, to measure the pressure level of
groundwater.
PL See plastic limit.
plant available water capacity The maximum amount of water that a soil can hold and later release to plant roots.
(PAWC) Water held between field capacity and permanent wilting point is referred to as
being readily available. It is expressed as millimetres of water in the whole root
zone.
plantback period The waiting period before it is safe to sow a crop after using a herbicide.
plastic limit (PL) The water content (by weight) of a soil above which it can be remoulded (is
plastic) and below which it cannot be remoulded (is brittle).
plastic Capable of being moulded.
platy clods Soil aggregates with horizontal dimensions greater than vertical dimensions.
poaching damage Damage to soil structure caused by stock trampling wet soil. It occurs when a soil
is so soft that the hooves of grazing animals cannot be supported on the surface and
they press into the soil to leave noticeable depressions. Poaching is sometimes
called ‘puddling’.
pore Channel or cavity in a soil.
porosity The degree to which a soil is permeated with pores. The fraction of the soil volume
made up of pores, but also the size and shape of the pores and the degree of
connection between them.
profile See soil profile.
pulverisation Mechanical destruction of soil aggregates, usually when in a dry condition; see
compaction, smearing and remoulding.
PWP See permanent wilting point.
raised bed See bed.
recharge area Where surface water from rain, irrigation or streams infiltrates the soil and adds
water to the groundwater system.
red earth A soil with a loamy topsoil, and gradually becoming more clayey with depth. It is a
reddish colour, and is sometimes hardsetting.
red-brown earth A soil with a loamy topsoil (sometimes hardsetting) overlying a red coloured clay-
rich subsoil.
remote sensing Detection and/or identification of landscape features without having the sensor in
direct contact with the object.
remoulding Re-organising pore space and natural clay orientation by disturbing a soil when it is
wet; see compaction, smearing and pulverisation.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-10SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
Rhizobium Bacterium associated symbiotically with legume roots, fixing nitrogen.
rill erosion An erosion process on sloping land in which numerous and randomly occurring
small channels of only several cm in depth are formed. See erosion, gully erosionand sheet erosion.
root zone That part of a soil where the majority of live plant roots are located.
saline scald A bare, dry, salt affected area, resulting from topsoil loss exposing a naturally
saline subsoil.
saline seep A bare, damp, salt affected area, resulting from rising saline groundwater.
salinity An excess of water-soluble salts (dominantly sodium chloride in Australia) that
restricts plant growth.
sand Soil particles between 0.02 mm and 2 mm in diameter. Fine sand is 0.02–0.2 mm,
coarse sand is 0.2–2 mm.
scald A bare area, inhospitable to plants because of high clay content and either sodicity
or salinity. See dry scald, saline scald and saline seep.
sediment Particles of clay, silt and sand carried by water or wind and deposited.
sedimentary rocks Ancient soil particles carried by water or wind that have been turned into rock by
pressure and chemical bonding over time.
self-mulching Refers to cracking clay surfaces that develop a crumbly layer of loose, small
aggregates after a series of wetting and drying.
shattering Fracturing of soil aggregates or a hard layer of soil by tillage.
sheet erosion The removal of a relatively uniform thin layer of soil from the soil surface by wind
or largely unchanneled surface runoff; see erosion, gully erosion and rill erosion.
shrink-swell behaviour Ability of a soil to shrink when dried and swell when rewetted.
silt Soil particles between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm wide; intermediate between clay
and sand.
slaking Collapse of aggregates in water to form microaggregates, due to the breakage of
bonds formed, for example, by organic matter.
slickenside Shiny, striated stress surfaces found on clay-rich aggregates, formed by one mass
of soil sliding past another during swelling and shrinking cycles.
smearing Aligning of clay particles when mechanically disturbed under moist conditions,
producing a shiny, impenetrable surface overlying a thin layer with high bulk
density. See compaction, remoulding and pulverisation.
smectite Negatively charged clay mineral with a 2:1 layer structure; it swells when wet and
shrinks when dry.
sodic See sodicity.
sodicity An excess of exchangeable sodium causing dispersion to occur.
Sodosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil with a clear or abrupt
textural B horizon (duplex texture profile); and in which the major part of the
upper 0.2 m of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it less
than 0.2 m thick) is sodic and is not strongly subplastic.
soil profile The vertical sequence of layers in the soil. The three main horizons are the A
(generally referred to as the topsoil), B (generally referred to as the subsoil) and C
(the parent rock) horizons. The A horizon is the zone of leaching. It may consist of
an A1 horizon (true topsoil—higher in organic matter, darker in colour and richer
in biological activity than other horizons) and an A2 horizon (similar to A1 but
often paler in colour, poorer in structure, lower in clay content and less fertile). The
A2 horizon is not always present. The B horizon is the zone of accumulation of
materials from above—clay, iron, aluminium and organic matter (although the
organic matter content is never as high as in the A horizon). Its structure is different
from that of the A or C horizons and its colour is typically stronger. The C horizon
consists of weathered rock, little affected by soil forming processes. Soil which has
developed on alluvium does not have a C horizon—the rock below is not related to
the soil and would be termed the D horizon.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-11SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
soil structure The combination or arrangement of primary soil particles into secondary units or
peds. Naturally-formed peds (aggregates) are referred to as clods when the soil has
been disturbed by the activities of humans. See structural form, structuralresilience and structural stability.
soil solution The aqueous liquid phase of the soil and its solutes.
soil texture See texture.
soil water Water stored in, or in transit by drainage through, the soil.
soil water potential The amount of ‘suction’ that must be applied by plant roots at a particular soil
water content for water uptake to commence.
SOILpak score A semi-objective rating (on a scale of 0.0 to 2.0) of soil structural form.
SOLICON A computer-based image analysis system for the assessment of soil structural form.
splay Fan of alluvial material deposited during floods.
stubble retention Soil preparation procedures which maximise the amount of stubble that is retained
on the soil surface for soil and water conservation.
structural form A description of soil structural units (peds or aggregates) and the pore spaces
between. It includes the shape and size of peds, the nature of their faces and their
porosity (also referred to as ‘soil architecture’).
structural resiliency The ability of a soil to regain structural form by natural processes, e.g. swelling and
shrinking, after the removal of disruptive stresses such as compaction by farm
machinery.
structural stability The ability of a soil to retain its structural form under the influence of disruptive
forces (a. immersion in water; b. compaction, remoulding and smearing).
structure See soil structure.
subplastic Soil material that has an apparent increase in clay content as a bolus continues to
be manipulated.
subsurface soil Soil between the depths of 10–30 cm.
subsoil Soil between the depths 30–120 cm; it is subdivided into upper subsoil (30–60 cm),
mid subsoil (60–90 cm) and lower subsoil (90–120 cm).
surface sealing The deposition by water, orientation and/or packing of a thin layer of fine soil
particles on the immediate surface of a soil, greatly reducing its permeability.
symbiosis Two species of organism living closely together in a mutual association that
benefits both species; for example, Rhizobium bacteria form nodules in legume
roots—the bacteria fix nitrogen and the plant supplies sugars.
texture The behaviour of a small handful of soil when moistened and kneaded into a ball
and then pressed out between thumb and forefinger. It depends mainly upon the
proportions of gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, silt and clay in the soil.
texture contrast See duplex soil.
topsoil Soil between the depths 0 and 10 cm.
transpiration The process by which plants give off water vapour through their leaves.
uniform soil A soil in which texture changes very little down the soil profile. Horizons may be
distinguished by differences in organic matter content, structure or colour. Cracking
clays have a uniform texture profile. See duplex soil and gradational soil.
Vertisol Cracking clay (U.S. terminology); see Vertosol.
Vertosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil which ‘turns’ (tills) itself
(Latin verto—to turn). A Vertosol has more than 35% clay throughout the profile,
cracks greater than 5 mm at some time of the year, slickensides and/or lenticular
peds and lacks distinct horizons.
Appendix 5. Glossary
App. 5-12SSOOIILLppaakk ffoorr ddrryyllaanndd ffaarrmmeerrss oonn tthhee rreedd ssooiill ooff CCeennttrraall WWeesstteerrnn NNSSWW
volumetric water content The water content of the soil on a per volume basis; cm3 of water per cm3 of soil;
is equal to the gravimetric water content multiplied by the soil bulk density.
water potential See soil water potential.
watertable Upper surface of groundwater, below which the layers of soil, rock, sand or gravel
are saturated with water.
waterlogging Saturation of a soil with water, causing air to be displaced to the point where there
is insufficient oxygen for full root activity. See anaerobic.
water use efficiency (WUE) A measure of the conversion of water into plant products. For dryland crops,
CWUE is a measure of the yield (kg/ha) per mm of water obtained from stored
reserves in the soil and rainfall.
weathering The process whereby rock is broken down by water, wind, temperature changes
and chemical attack to small particles, perhaps eventually to form soil. Note:
weathering continues after the particles have formed soil, and this process slowly
changes the soil minerals and releases plant nutrients.
wilting point See permanent wilting point.
WUE See water use efficiency.
Appendix 5. Glossary