Soft-sediment deformation structures in Late Miocene–Pleistocene sediments on the pediment of the...

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Tectonophysics 410

Soft-sediment deformation structures in Late Miocene–Pleistocene

sediments on the pediment of the Matra Hills (Visonta, Atkar,

Verseg): Cryoturbation, load structures or seismites?

Zoltan Horvath a,*, Erika Micheli b,1, Andrea Mindszenty a,2, Judit Berenyi-Uveges c,3

a Department of Applied and Environmental Geology, Eotvos Lorand University, H-1117 Budapest, Pazmany Peter s. 1/C, room: 710, Hungaryb Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Szent Istvan University, H-2103 GodollI, Pater Karoly u. 1, Hungary

c Central Service for Plant Protection and Soil Conservation, H-1118 Budapest, Budaorsi ut 141–145, Hungary

Received 18 June 2003; accepted 18 August 2005

Available online 20 October 2005

Abstract

The studied area, built up by silty clayey and partly sandy sediments and paleosols, lies on the tectonically active Northern

margins of the Pannonian Basin. Wavy, sagging load casts can be observed in the upper part of the Late Miocene alluvial complex

and larger scale sagging load casts, flame structures, drops and pillows detected in its Quaternary cover were studied in detail, in

order to understand the origins of soft sediment deformation which characterized this young sedimentary suite. Sedimentological,

paleopedological and mineralogical observations suggest that:

1. One of the reasons for the soft-sediment deformation might have been the relatively low cohesive strength of the predominantly

smectitic sediment covering a gentle slope similar to the actual landscape.

2. On such a surface, the down-slope gravitational component of the mud-blanket might easily have been sufficient to overcome its

cohesive strength.

3. Frost action traceable in the studied formations might also have contributed to the observed deformation, particularly along the

eroded top of the Late Miocene sediments.

Combined evidence from field observations and laboratory analyses support the idea that liquefaction–fluidization was of

prime importance in bringing about the observed structures. In conclusion two alternative Quaternary/Holocene scenarios are

proposed, which might have resulted in the unusual behaviour of the sediments/paleosols. One is a seismic event, the other is

the combined effect of freeze–thaw cycles and of the sloping foothill position, which might have resulted in episodic downslope

transport and the associated deformation of the eroded soil material when its water content surpassed a certain threshold. We

accept that the anomalous abundance of soft-sediment deformation in this marginal position may be causally related to paleo-

earthquakes, but the obvious complexity of the phenomenon requires caution. In case the proposed scenarios would not have

0040-1951/$ - s

doi:10.1016/j.tec

* Correspondi

E-mail addr

BerenyiUveges.1 Tel.: +36 282 Tel.: +36 1 33 Tel.: +36 1 3

(2005) 81–95

ee front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

to.2005.08.012

ng author. Tel.: +36 1 381 2129 or +36 1 209 0555/1782; fax: +36 1 381 2130.

esses: [email protected] (Z. Horvath), [email protected] (E. Micheli), [email protected] (A. Mindszenty),

[email protected] (J. Berenyi-Uveges).

410 200/1812 or 1809.

81 2129 or +36 1 209 0555/1789; fax: +36 1 381 2130.

09 1047; fax: +36 1 246 2962.

Z. Horvath et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 81–9582

been alternatives but acted simultaneously, the analysed phenomena were to be interpreted as the joint results of tectonics and

climate change.

D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Soft-sediment deformation; Pannonian basin; Late Miocene; Quaternary; Environmental change; Frost; Seismites; Calcrete

1. Introduction

There is a general consensus about the study and

interpretation of soft-sediment deformation structures

being helpful in paleoenvironmental reconstructions.

The target of the present paper is the description and

tentative interpretation of a set of unusual structures

observed in Late Miocene (Upper Pannonian)—partly

lignitiferous—alluvial sediments and their Quaternary

cover which is a pedo-sedimentary complex. The struc-

tures suggest that the soil-complex may have been

subject to soft-sediment deformation triggered either

by seismic shock-related sudden pore-pressure increase

or by frost-and-thaw induced instability on a gentle

slope. In order to decide which one of the possible

mechanisms was predominant, field and laboratory

data were collected, evaluated and combined with the

available general geological and paleoclimatological

evidence.

1.1. Soft-sediment deformation structures

Soft-sediment deformation is a general term for

altering the fabric and layering of a bed of unconsoli-

dated sediments (Ricci-Lucci and Amorosi, 2003). It

affects most commonly multilayer deposits, especially

sand-clay alternations, and can be diffused through the

whole packet or concentrated along bedding planes or

individual beds. Terms for soft-sediment deformations

in modern and ancient sediments were reviewed by

Ricci-Lucci and Amorosi (2003).

Generally it is accepted that soft-sediment deforma-

tion structures may form when the sediment has low or

zero shear resistance. This natural condition may result

in liquefaction–fluidization either in cohesionless sedi-

ments (Lowe, 1975, Allen, 1982, Owen, 1987, Alfaro

et al., 1997), or in cohesive fine sediments as a conse-

quence of smectitic clays reacting in water systems

(thixotropy, viscosity, plasticity, shrinkage). They are

determined by the individual structural features and the

type of the interlayer cation of smectites (Grim and

Guven, 1978). The driving mechanism for formation

of soft-sediment deformations is primarily pore–water

pressure in combination with liquefaction of sand-rich

sediment (Obermeier, 1996).

Pore–water pressure may increase as a result of

melting ice in the soil (Van Vliet-Lanoe, 1985, 1998).

Involutions are surficial manifestations of frost-related

stirring (cryoturbations) and are generally characterized

by distortion and mixing of the uppermost meters of the

ground (Obermeier, 1996). Load casting during melt-

ing, pressure-development in water trapped between

freezing fronts and pressures and heaving during freez-

ing could be correlated to the genesis of involutions

(Vandenberghe, 1988).

Seismic shock is another important liquefaction pro-

cess (e.g. Munson et al., 1995; Van Vliet-Lanoe et al.,

1997).

Obermeier (1996) called attention to features of

nonseismic or unknown origin (artesian flow, stream-

banks landslides, ground disturbance by trees, load

structures in muds, water escape structures in granular

sediments, etc.).

Swelling and shrinking in Vertisol type paleosols

(rich in smectitic clays) may generate wavy formations

which are usually called bmukkaraQ or bgilgaiQ (Paton,1974). Soft-sediment deformation (converging forms)

may be significantly enlarged due to differential swell-

ing and shrinking of clayey soils (Knight, 1980).

1.2. Tectonic framework

Subsidence and sedimentation in the greater part of

the Pannonian Basin were interrupted in the early Qua-

ternary; extensional basin formation had come to an end

and compressional inversion had started (Horvath and

Cloetingh, 1996). From that time on the Pannonian

lithosphere has been bent. As a result of increasing

intraplate stress, the peripheral areas of the basin expe-

rienced uplift, while subsidence of some of the internal

sectors accelerated (Fig. 1) (Bada et al., 1999).

According to earlier geomorphological analyses

(Franyo, 1982; Pecsi, 1992) and our latest observations

(Horvath et al., 2001) the Matra Hills could have been

uplifted at least 100–200 m from the beginnings of the

Quaternary. However taking into consideration the re-

cent vertical movement (average 1–2 mm/year uplift in

the hills and a subsidence of similar magnitude in the

basins after Joo, 1992) and the proven 1–1.5 km

Middle–Late Miocene and Pliocene paleoburial of the

Fig. 1. The studied Matra Foreland is situated on the Northern margins of the subsiding Great Hungarian Plains, in front of the uplifting Matra Hills

(modified after Horvath and Cloetingh, 1996).

Z. Horvath et al. / Tectonophysics 410 (2005) 81–95 83

adjacent tectonic Unit called Bukkium (Dunkl et al.,

1994; Dunkl and Frisch, 2002) permits to suppose that

the uplift of the Matra Hills during the Quaternary

might have been some hundred meters. In addition

the studied area is close to the Mid-Hungarian linea-

ment system (comprising the Vatta-Maklar line next to

the Matra Foreland), which has shown compressional

reactivations during Quaternary times (Csontos and

Nagymarosy, 1998). This geodynamic position has ob-

viously resulted in numerous earthquakes during the

Quaternary. In historical times more than 20,000 earth-

quakes were registered from 456 AD up to our days

which sometimes caused even substantial damage (Toth

et al., 2002).

1.3. Quaternary climatic change in the Carpathian

Basin

In the beginning of the Quaternary, cooling is trace-

able by the spread of the so called bArctotercierQ spe-cies and the gradual impoverishment of the flora. All

tropical genera almost fully disappeared from Europe

(Andreanszky, 1941; Jarai-Komlodi and Vida, 1983).

The rate of cooling, the duration of glacial periods and

the extension of ice-cover showed occasional and areal

diversity. In the Pleistocene, the Carpathian Basin was a

periglacial area without continuous ice-cover. Depen-

ding on the presence of the available moisture, ground-

water permafrost formed in patches. During the last

glaciation (about 20,000–18,000 year B.P.) the central

part of the Carpathian Basin (including Hungary) was

part of the area of discontinuous and sporadic perma-

frost (Frenzel et al., 1992).

Due to frost-action the slopes of mountainous areas

of Hungary are covered by periglacial sediments of

varying grain-size. According to Pinczes (1982) and

others, these sediments have evolved during Pleisto-

cene times. Cryoplanational processes resulted in a

number of characteristic degradational and depositional

forms: frost-riven cliffs and block fields (Csorba, 1982).

On the forelands of the Matra Hills latest research

has detected frost features on the eroded, uppermost


part of the Late Miocene sediments (Horvath, 1999;

Horvath et al., 2002; Berenyi Uveges et al., 2003).

1.4. Geological history, geomorphology and soils

The studied area is situated at the Southern foothills

of the eroded remnants of the Miocene volcanic mas-

sif of the Matra Hills. It is part of the Neovolcanic

chain, along the northern boundary of the Great Plains

sector of the Neogene Pannonian Basin. Geomorpho-

logically, it forms a part of an ancient pediment con-

necting the surface of the uplifted mass of the Matra

Hills with the adjoining lowlands of the still partly

subsiding Great Hungarian Plains (Fig. 2). Volcanics

on this margin are covered by shallow marine to

terrestrial sediments (including lignite) deposited in

an alluvial depositional environment landward from

a prograding delta. This contributed to the filling up

of the basin in Late Miocene times (Csilling et al.,

1985).

Due to the growing relief and frequent changes in

climate the rate of sediment transport and erosion has

increased. A complex system of colluvial and alluvial

fans built up by gravels, sand, clay, red-clayey paleosol

and other paleosols were formed in the foreland of the

Matra Hills (Franyo, 1982; Kretzoi et al., 1982). Some

of the red paleosols were formed on the eroded and

reworked sediments originating in the Matra Hills

(Berenyi Uveges et al., 2002). Loess and bloess-likeQsediments of the Weichselian age also occur in this area

as vestiges of a once continuous loess-blanket (Fukoh,

Fig. 2. Simplified geological profile across the M

1999; Krolopp, 2002). The surface soils are Luvic

Chernozems (Micheli et al., 1999).

As a result of the intricate intergrowth of pristine

and pedogenically modified sediments with the paleo-

sols, the collective term bpedo-sedimentary complexQwas proposed for the entire Post Pannonian part of

the section (Horvath, 1999; Berenyi Uveges et al.,

2003).

1.5. The problems of the stratigraphy

The stratigraphy of the studied area is best known at

the Visonta site. However, the stratigraphy of the whole

Matra-Foreland is yet far from being understood, main-

ly because of the efficient coverage of the terrain by the

terrestrial alluvial fan systems.

Important key formations in the stratigraphy are

the red silty clays. Litho-, bio- and magnetostrati-

graphic data show that they formed in different per-

iods. The oldest one the bpurplish-red soilQ is of

Early Pleistocene age (Lower Villanyium). The

other one was formed probably in the Gilbert or in

the previous epoch (4.0–5.5 My) under warm-semi-

arid climatic conditions (Kretzoi et al., 1982; Pecsi,

1992; Schweitzer and SzoIr, 1997). Based on sedi-

mentological and pedological observations and on the

traces of frost features on the eroded surface of the

Late Miocene alluvial formations just below the red

silty clays, it was proposed that at least a part of the

red silty clays is resedimented at Visonta (Horvath,

1999; Horvath et al., 2002).

atra Foreland (modified after Varga, 1985).

Plate I. 1. Photo: Overview of the Matra pediment and the Visonta

lignite quarry. All the reported profiles are on the margin of a paleoval

ley indicated by arrow. 2. Photo: Secondary CaCO3 (powdery calcrete

forms flames, drops or isolated patches in the yellowish brown silty

clay. The red clay occurs as droplets. Biogalleries are abundant. The

white coloured spade-stem is about 50 cm. 3. Photo: Irregular flames

are seen on the top of the Late Miocene alluvial formation. Note the

asymmetry of the flames dipping to the north and also partly to the

south. They may be convergent and divergent flames as well.


2. Methods

Sedimentological and pedological characters of the

studied formations were recorded in the field. Colours

were established by using Munsell Soil Colour Charts

(1990). The morphological terms used to described the

observed soft-sediment deformations were those by

Alfaro et al. (1997). The observed soils and sediments

were grouped into units based on the presence or

absence of the red clay, and other sedimentary and

pedological characters.

Micromorphological investigations were carried out

on 30 thick thin-sections under the standard petro-

graphic microscope. Broken surfaces were studied

with AMRAY-Scanning electron microscope (the lat-

ter equipped with an EDAX PV 9800 ED X-ray

spectrometer).

2.1. Descriptions of sites

At these margins of the Matra Hills (1014 m) im-

mediately on the northern edge of the Great Hungarian

Plains (Fig. 1), the present elevation of the studied area

is between 120 and 140 m. The soft sediment deforma-

tions are listed in a separate chapter.

2.2. Visonta site

This is an open-pit lignite mine (South Quarry of the

Matra Power Station) near Visonta village (Fig. 2, Plate

I. 1. Photo). Sitting on the top of the ancient pediment of

the Matra Hills, this site offers the best opportunity to

study sediments, soils and related paleolandforms. Here

the studied section is 1.5 km long, and about 30 m high.

The quarry exposes the Late Miocene lignite bearing

alluvial complex, divided by an erosional unconformity

from the overlying Plio-Pleistocene paleosol-bearing

colluvial and alluvial formations. The thickness of the

Post Miocene, mostly Quaternary pedo-sedimentary

complex, varies between a few meters to 60 m. Both

formations are penetrated by different types of second-

ary CaCO3 precipitations (nodules, lenses, various

infillings in cracks) (Fig. 3a–d).

Three main pedo-lithostratigraphical units distin-

guished at the Visonta site are as follows:

Unit 1 Unit 1 comprises the Late Miocene (Upper

Pannonian) formations which are characterised

by alternating cross-stratified sand, clay, silty

clay and coal bearing clay as part of the Late

Miocene alluvial fan covering the coal beds in

the Matra Foreland. The thickness of these

-

)

sediments in the Matra Foreland varies between

200 and 300 m (Csilling et al., 1985). The

exposed thickness of Unit 1 varies normally

between 1 and 100 m. On the top of Unit 1

platy soil-structure is obvious in the studied

profiles. Soft-sediment deformations are pre-

sent in the uppermost part of this unit.

Unit 2 This unit (the bpaleosolQ) consists of a red silty

clay soil-sedimentary complex that varies be-


tween 1 and 15 m in thickness. Large and small

biogalleries, and the soil structure indicate that

in situ pedogenesis contributed to the formation

of this clay complex. Faecal pellets of insects

found at depths far below their normal habitat in

soils show that pedogenesis was repeatedly


interrupted by sedimentation (Horvath, 1999).

The source of this red silty clay can be Matra

Hills that still bear occasional remnants of a

former red soil blanket. Mineralogical compar-

ison of the two red clays reinforces this idea

(Berenyi Uveges et al., 2002).

The following forms of carbonates were ob-

served in Unit 1: nodular calcretes in the

lower part, powdery calcrete in the upper part

and rhizoconcretions in some places of the up-

permost part. We have observed conspicuous

soft-sediment deformations in Unit 2.

Unit 3 Unit 3 contains the recent soil which is a cher-

nozem brown forest soil (Luvic Chernozem, soil

horizons: A, B, BC). The average thickness of

the recent soil horizon is about 1–1.5 m. The

colour of this unit varies from the very dark

greyish brown to yellowish brown. The texture

is silty clay. The soil structure is platy in the top

part of the sediments and it is granular and

prismatic in the sediments situated lower in

this unit. No soft-sediment deformations were

observed in this unit.

2.3. Verseg site

Verseg is situated in the south-western part of the

Matra Foreland. The present elevation of the studied

profile is about 138 m. The section is exposed close to

the top of a gentle hillock. From the bottom to the top

the section is built up by:

Unit 1 Pale yellowish brown silty clay penetrated by

abundant crotovine. By its particle size and

colour it is interpreted as loess-like sediment.

The thickness observed is about 1 m, but in

some places in the quarry the thickness exceeds

3 m. The upper part of this unit is strongly

cemented by calcium-carbonate. The calcrete

is powdery. The matrix is calcareous.

Unit 2 Reddish brown silty clay, is about 100 cm thick.

Its horizon consists of flames of secondary

CaCO3 precipitates (powdery calcrete). The ma-

trix is calcareous.

Fig. 3. (a)–(d) Location of the studied profiles in the Visonta South Quarry o

represent pedo-lithostratigraphic Units (1,2,3). Boxes in the profile consist

paleo-valley, flames, pillows and drops of CaCO3 rich material are visible on

irregular flames dipping to the south and also to the north on the top of the La

as well. (c) Cracked, brecciated structure visible just below the wavy erosi

formation and the Post Miocene red clay. In the upper part of the profile crac

Greenish grey, black clay on top of the Late Miocene alluvial formation form

traceable for tens of meters.

Unit 3 150 cm thick, dark brown silty clay. Calcareous.

Recent soil (Luvic, Chernozem).

2.4. Atkar site

The present elevation of the studied profile is about

132 m. The geology of Atkar is similar to that of

Visonta. As described by Micheli and Mindszenty

(2002) the following stratigraphic units could be distin-

guished:

Unit 1 The Late Miocene alluvial sequence is about

50 cm thick here with no particular soil struc-

ture except on the top of this unit, where

platy, lenticular structure was detected. This

unit is penetrated by abundant powdery cal-

crete, but the matrix of the clayey sediment is

non-calcareous.

Unit 2 Above Unit 1 the mixed zone of white, finely

divided CaCO3, red silty clay, yellow clay loam

and some gray clay can be found. The red silty

clay material appears within the matrix as tubu-

lar fillings (5–15 cm in diameter) and as elon-

gated drops or as streaks. In some areas, thin

layers of contrasting white (calcrete), red and

grey, form cm to dm sized wavy bands, pillows

and drops. They appear compressed and bend

from the horizontal up into flames. Powdery

calcrete shows more deformations than red

silty clay. The whole horizon is impregnated

with calcium-carbonate including numerous

hard and powdery concretions ranging in size

from 1 mm to 10 cm.

Unit 3 The top soil horizon is a chernozem brown forest

soil (Luvic, Chernozem). It is a very dark greyish

brown (10YR 3/2) silty clay with granular soil

structure. The top soil is truncated due to mining

activities. Unit 3 is non-calcareous.

2.5. Particle size distribution and mineralogy of the

above described Units at Visonta and at Atkar

Data on particle size distribution are presented in

Table 1. At the Visonta and Atkar profiles the sand

f the Matra Power Station. Boxes on the left hand side of the profiles

of the soft-sediment deformations. (a) On the Western margin of the

the top of the Late Miocene formations. (b) Secondary CaCO3 forms

te Miocene formations. They may be convergent and divergent flames

onal unconformity surface between the Late Miocene lignite bearing

ks are filled by powdery calcrete and they are dipping slopewards. (d)

s asymmetric waves with 5 cm amplitude and 10 cm wave-length. It is

Table 1

Analysis data of the Visonta site (colour, CaCO3 content, particle size distribution)

Visonta units Horizons Munsell color

code

CaCO3

content (%)

Clay %

b0.002 mm

Total silt %

0.002–0.2 mm

Sand %

N0.2 mm

Texture

Unit 1 Recent soil A horizon 10YR 3/2 0.5 44.3 51.8 3.9 Silty clay

Recent soil B horizon 10YR 6/3 1 52.6 43.4 4.0 Silty clay

Recent soil BC

(carbonate accumulation)

10 YR 4/6 14 43.0 53.7 3.3 Silty clay

Unit 2 Red paleosol part I 10YR 4/6 11 49.9 47.8 2.4 Silty clay

Red paleosol part II 10 YR 5/8 15 42.1 56.0 3.2 Silty clay

Unit 3 Grey clay 5Y 5/3 0-1 62.0 37.7 0.3 Clay


content in Units 2 and 3 is less than 5%. The clay

content is between 41% and 62%. The grey clay layers

(Unit 1), differ from the sediments in other units. The

sand content is less then 0.3% and the clay content is

slightly higher (N55%). Based on XRD and DTA inves-

tigations, quartz, feldspars, calcite and clay minerals

occur throughout the red clay profile and the predom-

inant clay mineral is smectite. Kaolinite, illite, vermic-

ulite, chlorite, illite/smectite and chlorite/vermiculite

can also be identified in minor amounts in most of

the samples. Smectites in the red paleosol have a pri-

marily high layer charge. According to the origin of the

layer charge both montmorillonitic and beidellitic char-

acter is present. FTIR data also support the presence of

beidellite and the iron-rich nature of smectite. The same

features were observed in several present day Vertisols

(Righi et al., 1995, 1998; Wilding et al., 1983). The red

silty clay was subject to pedogenesis and, by mineral-

ogy and clay content in its present state, according to

the WRB soil classification system (FAO/ISRIC/ISSS,

1998), it is closest to a Vertisol (Nemeth et al., 1999;

Berenyi-Uveges, 2000).

2.6. Soft sediment structures

2.6.1. Visonta site

2.6.1.1. Soft sediment deformation structures

A) In Unit 2, powdery calcrete forms dm to m scaled

flames (c.f. with Cooper, 1943) and 2 to 4 dm

diameter drops, pillows or isolated patches (irreg-

ular pseudo-nodules) within the overlying yel-

Table 2

Analysis data of the Verseg site (colour, CaCO3 content, particle size distri

Verseg units Horizons Munsell colour

code

C

c

Unit 1 Recent soil 7.5RY 4/3 2

Unit 2 Reddish brown paleosol (deformed) 7.5YR 4/6 2

Unit 3 CaCO3 impregnated loess 10YR 6/4 4

lowish brown silty clay, Unit 1 (Fig. 3a, Plate I.

2. Photo). Crotovine are abundant. They criss-

cross even the underlying Late Miocene sedi-

ments (Unit 1). Their shape is rounded to sub-

rounded. Sometimes they form drop like

channels. They are filled by red or greyish

brown clay according to the kind of paleosol

immediately overlying the bioturbated layer.

B) Irregular dm to m scale flames are also seen on

the top of Unit 1. The material of the flames is

powdery calcrete surrounded by a rusty brown

silty clay matrix. The flames are asymmetric,

dipping to north and also partly to the south.

They may be convergent and divergent (Fig. 3b.

Plate I. 3. Photo).

C) Deformed greenish grey to black clay on top of

Unit 1. It forms asymmetric waves with 5 cm

amplitude and 10 cm wave-length. It is traceable

for tens of meters (Fig. 3d, Plate II. 4. Photo).

2.6.1.2. Brittle-deformation structures

A) Immediately under the red clay paleosol (Unit 2)

the Late Miocene greyish green clay (Unit 1) is

fragmented into a fitted-breccia. The matrix of this

clay-clast breccia is rich in calcium-carbonate. The

amount and size of the conspicuously flat (platy)

greenish gray clay clasts (5Y 5/6) decrease gradu-

ally towards the boundary with the overlying

sandy-silty layer. Platy-lenticular structure is relat-

ed to this brecciated structure (Fig. 3d, Plate II. 5.

Photo). Field evidence shows that soft-sediment

deformation of this layer was parallel to the (slo-

bution)

aCO3

ontent

Clay %

b0.002 mm

Total silt %

0.002–0.2 mm

Sand %

N0.2 mm

Texture

2 43 41 16 Silty clay

9 45 46 9 Silty clay

9 37 27 36 Clay loam


ping) ground surface. Platy, lenticular structure

shows deformation and suggesting creep along

the slope of the paleovalley. (Plate II. 6. Photo).

B) The platy, lenticular, fitted breccia structure (at the

bottom) is connected to involutions and flames.

The laminae of this structure follow the curve of

involutions. Accepting that the platy, lenticular

structure could be a good evidence for frost-action

(Van Vliet-Lanoe, 1985; Becze-Deak, 1997), this

observation suggests that frost played a role in the

formation of the involutions (Plate II. 7. Photo).

2.6.2. Verseg site

The visible extent of the deformed unit is 20 m in

length and 1.5 m in height (Plate III. 8. Photo). Platy-

blady structure is related to the elongate flames (Table 2).

2.6.2.1. Soft sediment deformation structures. 0.5–1

m long, 5–20 cm thick parallel flames of powdery

calcrete (the top of Unit 1) are tilted NE parallel to

the slope direction. The boundary of the flames is

sharp. 1–10 mm thick, zig-zag shaped cracks are visible

in flames of powdery calcrete. The cracks are parallel to

each other and the boundaries of the flames (platy

structure).

2.6.3. Atkar site

The exposed extent of the deformation horizon is

about 30 m in length and 1.5 m in height (Plate III. 9.

Photo; Table 3).

A) Sagging load casts (sensu Allen, 1982) are very

common, mainly in the upper and middle part of

the deformed horizon. These are 0.1 to 0.5 m

sized bands in which former stratification and

pedogenic horizons are discernible. The material

of sagging load casts is red clay and lime pre-

cipitations. These bands are more or less contin-

uous and have a downward convex shape.

B) Drops which are dm scaled, rounded, ellipsoidal

bodies built up by red clay and yellowish interme-

diate silty clay. They occur in the upper and middle

part of the deformed horizon but occasionally are

traceable also at the lower levels. We observed

several examples of drop-like structures which

Plate II. 4. Photo: Greenish grey to black clay forms small, asymmet

ric waves on top of the Late Miocene alluvial formation. 5. Photo

Late Miocene greyish green clay (Unit 1) is cracked into a fitted

breccia immediately under the red clay paleosol (Unit 2). The matrix

of this clay-clast breccia is rich in calcium-carbonate. 6. Photo: In the

Late Miocene formation the platy, lenticular structure shows defor

mation and it is creeping along the slope of the paleovalley. 7. Photo

Platy, lenticular, fitted breccia structure (at the bottom) is connected to

involutions, flames. The laminas of this structure follow the curve o

involutions.

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:

f


originally had been obviously crotovinee, or pat-

ches and nodules of secondary CaCO3 and were

later on slightly modified by ductile deformation.

C) Irregular load casts do not have regular morpho-

logy. They are cm to dm sized, variegated, later-

ally or vertically thinning or thickening bodies

made up by red clay, yellowish silty clay and

powdery calcrete.

D) Pillows were observed in the upper part of the

deformed horizon. They are of 0.1 to 0.3 m size

made up by red, yellow silty clay. In normal

density gradient systems (Alfaro et al., 1997)

during the liquefaction process, a sandy layer

(here silty and consisting of powdery calcrete),

tries to break the upper clay bed, forming a water

escape structure. We suggest that here the rede-

posited, aggregated soil material of probably

greater specific density could have formed pil-

low-like structures as a consequence of sinking

into the powdery calcrete.

E) Water escape structures (flames) were observed

as dm to meter scale, steeply upward directed

structures, made up of powdery secondary

CaCO3 and red clay. They appear on the top of

the deformed horizon. The average distance be-

tween the larger (z50 cm) flames is about 1 m. In

some cases they reach the present surface. Some-

times barely visible fissures are connected to this

type of soft-sediment deformation. Unit 2 is char-

acterized by platy, lenticular structure.

3. Micromorphological observations of the top part

of Unit 1,Visonta site

The sample derived from just below the undulating

erosional unconformity surface between the red clay

paleosol (above) and the Late Miocene alluvial forma-

tion (below).

3.1. Observation

Compact aggregates of micritic carbonate and clay

organized into horizontal, subhorizontal layers and

occurring in association with the platy breccia structure.

On the margins of these aggregates forming the platy,

lenticular structure, Fe-oxide hypo-coatings are clearly

discernible (Plate III. 10. Photo).

Plate III. 8. Photo: Picture at Verseg site. The flames of powdery

calcrete (the top of Unit 1) are tilted to the slope direction (NE).

9. Photo: The view of the Atkar site. 1 m scale flames, waves, load

casts, and drops are visible in this profile. 10. Photo: Micritic aggre-

gates with Fe-oxide hypo-coatings connected to platy structure in the

upper part of the Late Miocene alluvial complex (Unit 1) (�1.5

magnitude, +N). 11. Photo: Powdery calcrete from Visonta is built

up by silt size calcite crystals (SEM image). This size of rhombohedral

calcite were found in all samples from Visonta and Atkar sites as well.

Table 3

Analysis data of the Atkar site (colour, CaCO3 content, particle size distribution)

Atkar units Horizons Munsell color

code

CaCO3

content

Clay %

b0.002 mm

Total silt %

0.002–0.2 mm

Sand %

N0.2 mm

Texture

Unit 1 Recent soil 10YR 3/2 0,3% 45.7 49.2 5.1 Silty clay

Unit 2 Red clay fillings 10YR 4/6 15% 50.0 46.8 3.2 Silty clay

Yellow clay 2.5Y 6/4 11% 45.1 52.2 2.7 Silty clay

Unit 3 Grey clay 5Y 5/3 1% 44.8 55.1 0.1 Silty clay


3.1.1. Interpretation

This platy, lenticular structure could be correlated

with segregated ice of ice lenses growing parallel to the

thermal gradient in the sediment, usually roughly para-

llel to the soil surface. Due to the suction of capillary

water induced by thermal gradient-related desiccation

of the underlying sediment, shrinkage cracks were

formed.

During freezing salt becomes concentrated in the

solution and due to suction gypsum or calcite can

precipitate (Van Vliet-Lanoe, 1985). By the orientation

of micritic aggregates associated with the platy, lentic-

ular structure, we suggest that the precipitation of

CaCO3 could be the result of dessication (oversatura-

tion) during frost as described above.

Aggregates created by ice lenses are generally

very stable (Van Vliet-Lanoe, 1985). This structure

is very similar to that described by also Becze-Deak

(1997) as clear evidence of frost action in soils.

Therefore we suggest, the platy fitted-breccia should

be considered as an indication of frost effect on the

profile.

Iron oxide- and oxihydroxide precipitations on the

margins of the aggregates may be the result of ultra-

drying associated with freezing (Krivan, 1958) or of

bacterial activity (Ellis, 1983). However, the latter

would have happened at the time of thawing rather

than freezing.

3.2. Characteristics of calcretes based on SEM

investigations

3.2.1. Morphology

Calcretes from the deformed layers (Unit 1

Visonta site, Unit 2 Atkar site) are entirely built up

by 30–50 Am sized aggregates of well developed

rhombohedral calcite crystals (Plate III. 11. Photo).

Traces of biocrystallization as described by Freytet

and Verrecchia (1998) were not identified. According

to the Udden–Wentworth grain-size scale (Lewis,

1984) the 30–50 Am sized loose aggregation of cal-

cite crystals can be considered as a well sorted

medium to coarse silt.

4. Discussion

4.1. Temporal relationship between sediment deforma-

tions and the growing of calcretes

According to the classification of Netterberg (1967,

1980) and Goudie (1983) several types of calcretes

were identified in the Units of the three sites: (i) hard

nodular calcretes, (iii) hard nodules made of powdery

calcium-carbonates and (iii) laminar and irregular

shaped calcretes made of powdery calcium-carbonates

(Horvath, 1999; Micheli and Horvath, 2004). Mainly

powdery calcretes and hard nodules made from now

autocemented powdery calcium-carbonate bear rela-

tionship to soft-sediment deformations.

The huge amount and different forms of calcretes

may simultaneously have had groundwater (Horvath,

1999; Szinger et al., 2004) and/or loess origin (Micheli

et al., 1999).

Calcretes and their formation in soils have been

studied by several authors including Wieder and Yaalon

(1974), Gile et al. (1966) and Wright and Tucker

(1991). They agree that a gradual enrichment and pre-

cipitation of authigenic carbonates take place during

nodule formation. Brewer (1964) suggested that the

carbonate nodules are formed in situ by processes of

diffusion and/or crystallization in small voids due to

local variations in chemical conditions. Tandon and

Friend (1989), Hay and Reeder (1978) and Szinger et

al. (2004) concluded that the precipitation of carbonate

can replace the original material without significant

disturbance of the sediments around.

Our opinion is that the replacement mechanism (in-

cluding extruding-structures, crystal growing) could

only cause negligible shift of the surrounding material.

According to Pustonvoitov (2003) the average growth

rate of calcium-carbonate crust could reach 2 mm/year,

depending on the circumstances of soil formation. The

calcium-carbonate probably precipitated rather slowly

(20 cm sized nodule at least 50–100 years). The possible

partial dissolution as a consequence of the interaction

between sediment/soil and groundwater could change

this rate. It appears, that it could not have been a strong


enough triggering agent to cause the observed involu-

tions. However, the fact that powdery calcrete is built up

entirely by silt size calcite crystals (SEM image) indi-

cates that the porosity within the calcretes, is different

from the surrounding material (silty clays, clays). This

can make the calcrete easily subject to ductile deforma-

tion under water saturated conditions, because it has

much higher liquefaction potential than clay or silty clay.

Calcium-carbonates (calcretes) are related to most of

the observed deformations. This observation could help

in evaluating the stratigraphic importance of soft-sedi-

ment and brittle deformations (platy structure, cracked,

brecciated formations). Considering the preliminary age

dating on nodular calcretes (Leel-Hssy and Suranyi,

2002) in the red clay (Unit 2) at the Visonta site, we

may infer that the observed frost structure on the major

erosional surface just below the red clay (on the top of

Unit 1) developed earlier than 300,000 years ago.

Powdery calcretes connected to soft-sediment defor-

mations on the upper part of Unit 2 suggest that these

calcretes and the related deformation is younger than

oxygen isotope stage 10 (340–360 ka BP after Schack-

leton et al., 1991).

4.2. Formation of the studied soft sediment deformation

structures

The soft sediment structures of Unit 2 at all the 3

sites are the result of complex processes. The morphol-

ogy of involutions formed due to frost action, could be

very similar to the ones formed due to seismic shock. In

most cases deformation is limited to Unit 2 (Visonta,

Atkar, Verseg) that is the Post Miocene, mainly Qua-

ternary complex overlying the Late Miocene forma-

tions. Exceptions are small asymmetric waves in Unit

1 at Visonta site which were encountered on the very

top of the Late Miocene strata.

4.2.1. Unit 2 at Visonta site

The flames in Unit 2 are built up by powdery

calcrete and are interpreted as water escape structures.

The silt size powdery calcrete with higher liquefaction

potential under water saturated conditions broke the

silty clay material above and created symmetrical and

assymmetrical flames. The formation of water escape

structures was accompanied by the development of

drops, pillows or isolated patches (irregular pseudo-

nodules) and involutions.

The general presence of the platy, lenticular structure

indicating frost action on the uppermost part of the Late

Miocene sediments (Unit 1) suggest that the involutions

in the Post Miocene soil-sedimentary complex were

formed as a result of cryoturbation. Climatic conditions

favourable for this type of frost-action occurred during

the Pleistocene in the Carpathian Basin. The exact

timing of frost action is impossible at present because

in the lack of available data it cannot be correlated with

any one of the Pleistocene isotope stages.

4.2.2. Unit 2 at Atkar site

Soft sediment deformations observed at this site are

similar but more strongly expressed than the ones at

Visonta site. Traces of ice segregation on the top of the

eroded Late Miocene alluvial formations (Unit 1) just

below the mixed Unit 2, suggest that frost action played

a significant role in the formation of these involutions.

Other observations of cryogenic features in the area

(Stefanovits, 1973; Szekely, 1983; Micheli and Mind-

szenty, 2002) and the comparison of other cryogenic

features presented by Van Vliet-Lanoe et al. (1997,

1998) support the cryogenic origin.

4.2.3. Unit 2 at Verseg site

The possible frost feature (platy structure) closely

related to the flames suggests that the process of soli-

fluction must have been the major deformation mecha-

nism here. Platy-blady structure appears during frost

action due to thin ice lenses in the soil/sediment. The

formation is solidified during frost action, however dur-

ing melting, the grains of soil or sediment start to roll

downslope and the laminae of the platy structure provide

a favourable sliding surfaces for the movement.

The small asymmetric waves (Unit 1 Visonta site)

are not associated either with platy structure or with

slickensides along wedge-shaped aggregates, therefore

their deformation cannot be due to either the shrinking-

swelling of clays or to frost action. We suggest that this

structure may be the result of seismic shock.

Due to the presence of evidence indicating seismic

shock in Unit 1 the role of seismic activity cannot be

excluded as a triggering agent from the formation of the

involutions observed in Unit 2 at all the sites.

If the study sites lie in a relatively flat position, pure

seismically induced deformation (like the above pre-

sented involutions) would require that the triggering

earthquakes must have been at least 4.5=Magnitude

(calculation based on Marco and Agnon, 1995). Be-

cause the sites are found on very gentle slopes (1–28)earthquake events of lower magnitude could have gen-

erated the involutions. In other words, seismic shock

could have been responsible for the formation of the

described structures. This seismic activity might have

occurred several times from the Plio-Pleistocene times

on. Fig. 4 shows the schematic positions of the three

Fig. 4. Schematic position of the studied three sites on the margin of the Great Hungarian Plains. 1: Verseg, 2: Atkat, 3: Visonta. The map shows

how the areal distribution of the observed deformation structures fit the spatial distribution of the total seismic energy release in the Pannonian

Region (after Toth et al., 2002). Heavy lines show tectonic lineaments as defined by F. Horvath and G. Bada, (Toth et al., 2002).


studied sites (1: Verseg, 2: Atkar, 3: Visonta) and the

relationship to the spatial distribution of the total seis-

mic energy release in the Pannonian Region in histo-

rical times (after Toth et al., 2002).

5. Summary and conclusions

Soft sediment deformation structures and brittle de-

formation structures were observed in Late Miocene and

Quaternary sediments at 3 sites (Visonta, Verseg, Atkar)

on the northern margins of the Pannonian Basin (south-

ern part of the Matra Foreland). The sequences were

grouped into pedo-lithostratigraphical units.

The common factor in the formation of the soft

sediment structures is that all the original sediments

went through liquefaction–fluidization, but the trigger-

ing mechanism may be different. Evidences of both

frost action and of seismic activity can be found in

the formations. Evidence that involutions are the results

of cryoturbation was supported by the presence of platy

structure in the underlying sediment bearing the involu-

tions (Unit 2 Visonta and Atkar site). However, it could

not be excluded, that at least some of the frost features

were formed independently. In such cases the deforma-

tion structures may be interpreted as the results of

seismic shock.

The units containing the involutions do not show

evidence of shrinking-swelling phenomena due to wet-

ting and drying (wedge-shaped aggregates, slicken-

sides). Therefore this mechanism can be excluded

from triggering agents of the studied soft sediment

deformations even in the clayey parts of Unit 1 at

Visonta and Atkar site, where the clay content and

the smectitic mineralogy would support a high shrink-

swell potential.

The involutions are associated with powdery cal-

cretes (both soft and hardened) that have much higher

liquefaction potential than the surrounding clay or silty

clay in the sequence. This indicates that the presence of

this type of calcium-carbonate had an important role in

the development of the involutions.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the Matra Power Station Co.

for the permission to visit their coal-mines, and for

the logistical support in field-work. Kissne Mezei

Agnes, Kovats Andras, Stefanovits Pal, Jambor

Aron, Roger Langohr, Brigitte Van Vliet-Lanoe, Hor-

vath Erzsebet, Magyari Arpad and William F. McFee

helped us with useful discussions. SCANNING lab-

oratory works were done with Solymos Kamilla and

Ghidan Zsuzsanna. Lantos Zoltan helped technically.

Hilary Putman and Kris Vanhuesden are thanked for

having groomed the English version of the text. We

thank Bada Gabor, Kris Vanneste and the Anonym

reviewer for helpful suggestions. Kovacs Edit and the

technical crew of the Department of Applied and

Environmental Geology (ELTE University) and the

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chem-

istry (SzIE University) are also thanked for their

manyfold support.


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