Socio-cultural factors affecting gender inequality in higher …rocare.org/jera/n7/11-...

Socio-cultural factors affecting gender inequality in higher education: the case of doctorate students in some

cameroonian universities

Judith Sama YEBA, épse Mouokuio MEno

University of Yaounde 1, [email protected] / [email protected]

ABStrActThis study focuses on societal and cultural factors that impede women’s

progress in higher education in Cameroon. Specifically, the study finds out how marital status, tradition, participation in decision-making and financial autonomy can influence gender inequality in higher education. The study hypothesizes in the main that there is a significant relationship between socio-cultural factors and gender inequality at the doctorate level in Cameroonian universities. The population consisted of 77 female doctorate students from three universities in Cameroon. The sample consisted of 63 female doctorate students chosen at random. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through questionnaires and focus group discussions. Quantitative data were analyzed using the Chi-square (X2) statistical analysis. Qualitative data were analyzed by using content analysis. All the four hypotheses were accepted and the null hypotheses rejected. This implies that there is a relationship between socio-cultural factors and gender inequality at the doctorate level. We recommend amongst others that women should be sensitized on the importance of mobile learning to them. The government should fight against all forms of socio-cultural practices that impede women’s progress in education for the realization of an inclusive and gender sensitive education.

Keywords: Socio- Cultural, Gender, Inequality, Doctorate, University, Mobile learning

RésuméCette étude est axée sur des facteurs sociétaux et culturels qui portent entrave sur le

progrès de la gent féminine dans l’enseignement supérieure au Cameroun. De manière spécifique, nous cherchons à savoir comment des facteurs telles le statut marital, la tradition, la participation dans la sphère de prise de décisions et l’autonomie financière peuvent influencer l’inégalité de genre dans l’enseignement supérieure. Notre hypothèse principale est qu’il y a une relation significative entre les facteurs socioculturels et l’inégalité de genre au niveau doctoral dans les universités Camerounaises. La population d’étude est constituée par des 77 candidates féminines au niveau doctoral dans trois universités Camerounaises. L’échantillon d’étude comprend 63 candidates féminine en doctorat choisi au hasard. Des données quantitatives et qualitatives ont été collectées par questionnaires et par discussion entre focus groupe. Les données quantitatives on été

YEBA Judith S, Socio-cultural factors affecting gender inequality in higher education: the case of doctorate students in some cameroonian universities, J educ Res Afr 2015;7:178-200.

analysées avec la méthode d’analyse Chi-carré (X2) tandis que les données qualitatives ont été analysées par la méthode d’analyse de contenu. Toutes nos quatre hypothèses ont été validées et les hypothèses nulles rejetées. Ce qu’implique qu’il y a une relation entre les facteurs socioculturels et l’inégalité de genre au niveau doctoral dans les universités Camerounaises. Nous recommandons parmi autres que le gouvernement s’efforce à sensibiliser les femmes sur l’importance des technologies mobiles d’apprentissage; éliminer toutes formes de pratiques socioculturelles qui empêchent le progrès de la gent féminine dans le secteur de l’éducation et promouvoir la réalisation d’une éducation inclusive.

Mots-clés : Socioculturel, genre, Inégalité, Doctorat, Université, Apprentissage mobile.

introDuction

Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights articulates: Education is both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realising other human rights. As an empowerment right, education is the primary vehicle by which economically and socially marginalized adults and children can lift themselves out of poverty and participate fully in their communities (UNESCO, 2003). Several international frameworks have formalized commitments to improving learning opportunities for women and girls. The 1995 Beijing Platform for Action called on countries to ensure equal access to education for girls and eradicate female illiteracy. Girls’ education was singled out again in the Dakar Framework for Action (2000) and codified as one of the six Education for All (EFA) goals. The Millennium Declaration (MDG), signed in September 2000 at the United Nations’ Millennium Summit, commits the member countries to promote gender equality and empower women and eliminate gender disparity in all levels of education (Goal 3). The positive ripple effect of education

for women and girls is so far-reaching that a number of international organizations, UNESCO and UN Women foremost among them, have persuasively argued it may be the single most effective tool for development (UNESCO, 2015).

What is unsettling is that although there is increasing articulation of awareness of the need to address gender inequalities there is not much evidence of the attitudinal changes. Practically, gender issues still remain peripheral to what are considered to be more important and urgent issues (Mathabe, 2009). In developing countries, millions of girls still receive little or no education. Although there are no formal obstacles preventing women from reaching high positions in colleges and universities, men still dominate at all levels of influence (UNESCO,1998). Until the beginning of 2008, Africa was on track to meet many of its MDGs but with the recent food, fuel and financial crises there is a high risk of slippage in meeting these targets, especially those related to health, education, and food security (Updated Gender Plan of Action, 2009 – 2011).

© Editions Universitaires de Côte d’Ivoire (EDUCI)

jErA/rArE 7 Journal of Educational Research in Africa180

At the national level, Cameroon has ratified a number of international c o n v e n t i o n s a n d i n s t r u m e n t s related to gender issues, such as the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Unfortunately, we still identify gender bias and gender-neutral behaviours that discriminate and violate women’s rights (World Bank, 2005; Endeley & Sikod, 2006). Although the number of women obtaining degrees in Universities has increased with time, very few women as compared to men are retained at the doctorate level. In a survey carried out by ERNWACA Cameroon (2003), in the developing world, girls and women have less access to education at all levels and lower levels of literacy.

This study will find out the socio-cultural factors affecting gender inequality in higher education in Cameroon. The paper also advocates for the use of mobile learning for the educational advancement of women at the postgraduate level, because according to Hiple & Fleming, (2006), mobile technologies are an attractive and easy means to maintain literacy skills and gain constant access to information and thus hold great potential for reaching marginalized groups and providing them with access to further learning and development.

contExtuAl BAckgrounD

This section describes in brief the context within which this study is carried out. Kibinkiri (2014) in his study revealed that in Cameroon the attainment of national and international

expectat ions for educat ion has generated a tremendous demand for education at all levels. Education in Cameroon ranges from nursery, primary, and secondary to tertiary or higher education. The citizen’s right to education is embodied in the 2008 reviewed constitution of the Republic of Cameroon. According to the preamble, “the state shall guarantee the child’s right to education; primary education shall be compulsory; the organization and supervision of education at all levels shall be the bounded duty of the state” (Law No. 96-06 of 18 January 1996). This implies that barriers to education have been lifted and, to a certain extent, overcome: All Cameroonians have access to primary school education while secondary school is heavily subsidized, allowing for more girls to attend school. The state budget that is being allocated for education confirms this assertion. In his message to the youths during the celebrations of the 46th edition of the National youth day on the 10th of February, 2012, his Excellency president Paul Biya reiterated that budgetary allocations to ministerial departments responsible for the different levels of education are among the largest in the state budget.

There is also the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948, the United Nations charter and the United Nations Organisation Convention on the Rights of the child which the country has ratified. In the same light, in the year 2000, the United Nations adopted the Millennium Development Goals targets to be achieved by 2015. Goal 3 states: Promote gender equality and empower

YEBA Judith S, Socio-cultural factors affecting gender inequality in higher education: ...

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women. 3a: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015.

Gender equality has also been integrated into higher education as well, evidenced by the fact that many Cameroonian universities offer courses and degrees in women’s studies (Global Conscience Initiative, 2015). Also, the 2011 edition of the international women’s day in Cameroon was celebrated under the theme “Equal access to education, training, science and technology”.

The government of Cameroon also developed an Education Sector Strategy Plan (E.S.S.P) in 2006 to support comprehensive and sequenced changes in the education sector which captures some of the Millennium Development Goals. The main objectives of the E.S.S.P. include amongst others: Introducing reforms in higher, technical, and secondary education; regulating access to post-primary education according to the needs of the job market (Cameroon/World bank Report, 2012). Moreover, in order to ensure that many Cameroonians are educated, the government tries to locate schools closer to the people. Before 1992, there was only one State University in Cameroon (the University of Yaounde). Today, we have eight state Universities in the country.

Unfortunately gender inequality continues to persist in education, especially in higher education and in favour of males. The numbers of women who go to school diminish as they climb the academic ladder (Statistical

yearbook of higher education, 2008, and 2012). Amin & Fonkeng (2000), in their study reveal that girls of certain provinces or regions in Cameroon attend school less frequently than boys due mainly to discriminatory attitudes towards girls in the socialization process linked to economic, social, educational and pedagogical factors. This is a call for concern because educated women play a great role in the development of the nation and in their families. For instance, Oyitso & Olomukoro (2012) say the education of women has made ineffective the traditional belief that the place of the woman is the home. In this jet age, women have been a force to reckon with in the political and socio-economic life of the nation. The role of women has gone beyond the four walls of their home and extends to all spheres of human endeavours in the development of the nation.

This study seeks to find out if there is a significant relationship between socio-cultural factors and gender inequality in higher education in Cameroon. The study falls within the scope of sciences of education, notably sociology of education, in the domain of gender inequality in education. It will investigate some of the gaps in the literature that currently exist in an attempt to provide the field with an understanding of some of the factors affecting gender inequality in higher education. The Universities of Yaounde 1 in the Mfoundi division of the Central Region of Cameroon, the University of Buea in the Fako division of the South West Region, and the Catholic University of Central Africa in Yaounde have been chosen for the study.



JuStificAtion

The need to address gender inequality permeates the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Education for All (EFA) goals, and other development goals. Ensuring the education of women in higher education means ensuring the education of young girls because they will serve as role models to them and this will encourage them to go to school, leading to gender equality at the primary and secondary levels, thereby fulfilling one of UNESCO’s missions and the MDGs which is EFA.

This study wil l be integral to understanding the gender inequalities that currently exist in higher education in Cameroon and possible routes to removing and reducing them. It will bring to light areas where improvements can be made, allowing practitioners and researchers to develop plans and policies to reduce gender inequalities.

Promoting the education of women is important because lack of education slows not only their development but that of the nation as well. Education plays a major role in empowering women and girls thereby raising their status. It provides them with the ability and knowledge needed to direct their own lives (UNESCO, 2015).

StAtEMEnt of thE ProBlEM

Despite, all the efforts at closing the gender gap in education by international bodies, and all the advantages of female education, gender inequality

persists in education, in favour of males. In Cameroon, although the number of women obtaining degrees in universities has increased with time, very few women are retained at the doctorate level. The fact that women are outnumbering men in some parts of the educational sector has not yet changed that. According to the national report by UNDP in Cameroon (2008), the ratio of girls to boys’ enrolment was 0.63 at the tertiary level in 2006. The UNFPA report (2012) reveals that in 2011 the ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education was 0.7 %. Even though the Statistical yearbook of higher education in (2012) reveals that the gender inequality gap is narrowing, gender inequality still persists. In 2001, the ratio was 61% for males and 39% for females, it narrowed to 56% for males and 44% for females in 2007 and since then it has been stagnant up till 2011 where we had 58% for males and 42% for females. The difference has passed from 22 to 16 points.

Gender disparity in higher education is also reflected in the population of staff in some higher institutions. The Statistical Year Book of Higher Education (2008) reveals that in the Universities of Yaounde I and II we had just 523 female and 2225 male assistant lecturers. Out of 116 professors we had 6 female professors and 13 female assistant professors out of 204. Male professors dominate the female both in terms of their rank and in gender depicting a noticeable disequilibrium precisely at the postgraduate level. The scenario is the same in the other Universities as revealed by



the statistical year book (2008). Even though the Statistical yearbook of Higher Education (2012) reveals that the proportion of female teachers has ameliorated by 3.7 points between 2002 and 2011 gender inequality still persists.

The picture is the same in the primary and secondary levels. The proportion of female teachers is less than that of the male teachers in the primary and secondary levels depicting disequilibrium in Higher Teacher’s Training Colleges and Government Teacher’s Training Colleges. According to VSO actions and interactions on gender equality in teaching and education management in Cameroon (2013), the proportion of female primary teachers rose from 36% in 2000 to roughly 40% in 2005 to 47.7% in 2011, whilst the proportion of female secondary teachers rose from 22% in 1999 to roughly 26% in 2005 to 30.8% in 2010 (UIS, 2012). The lack of female teacher role-models is a key factor in hindering girls’ experience of quality education. Female teachers serve as role models for girls’ participation in education. Their presence encourages parents to send their children to school, both because they see opportunities for their daughters outside the household and because of the increased sense of security for girls when female teachers are present.

Feasibility studies carried out with some female postgraduate students in the University of Yaounde 1 revealed that, most of them find it difficult to continue with their education due to the problem of time management because of their gender roles as well as cultural factors. Similarly, earlier studies by

Fonkeng & Ntembe (2009) reveal that gender equity as a policy option has never been a problem in Cameroon, because both females and males are given equal opportunities in access to all levels of education. However, cultural and perhaps religious constraints tend to hinder the education attainment of the girl child so that enrolment into institutions of higher education becomes gender biased.

Gender inequality in higher education will not only reduce economic growth but will also have a significant negative impact on other development goals (Klasen & Lamana, 2008). It slows not only the development of the women but the development of the nation. Education plays a major role in raising the status of women, improve household health and nutrition, enduing infant and child morbidity and mortality (MDG 4) and reinforcing environmental conservation (MDG 7). Educated women are more likely to stand up for themselves, understand their rights, participate in household decision-making, and contribute to community or national politics (MDG 3). The more education a woman has, the more likely she will be to send both her female and male children to school, leading to an increase in universal primary education (MDG 2).

Inequality in higher education will eventually lead to inequality in decent jobs. Fonkeng and Ntembe (2009) reveal in their study that about 40% of the women do not have access to formal education or are unable to go through the first year in school. This combines with structural obstacles to explain the difficulty faced by women in



getting decent jobs. Women generally are less competent compared to their male counterparts due to low education attainment and low levels of professional experience which obstruct them from getting formal jobs.

The question to ask is: Why have some countries failed to close the gender gap in education despite all efforts at closing the gap by international and national bodies? It is in an attempt to answer this question that we decided to carry out this study to examine the dimensions of the relationship between socio-cultural factors and gender inequality in higher education, notably at the doctorate level in some Cameroonian Universities. The following research questions were formulated to guide the study.

MAin rESEArch QuEStion

To what extend will socio-cultural factors affect gender inequality at the postgraduate level in some Cameroonian Universities?

Specific Research Questions

1. To what extend can marital status of women influence gender inequality at the postgraduate level?2. How will tradition affect gender inequality at the postgraduate level? 3. How will participation in decision-making affect gender inequality in higher education? 4. What is the relationship between financial autonomy and gender inequality in higher education?

General Objective

To f ind out the socio-cultural factors that affect gender inequality at the postgraduate level in some Cameroonian universities.

Specific Objectives

1. To find out how marital status of women can influence gender inequality at the postgraduate level.2. To also find out how tradition will affect gender inequality in higher education? 3. To find out how participation in decision-making will affect gender inequality at the postgraduate level.4. To find out how financial autonomy will affect gender inequality in higher education.

thEorEticAl frAMEwork

Theory of Structural Functionalism

The theory of structural functionalism was developed by an American sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902-1995). Some new sociological approaches were developed in North America before Parsons. But Parsons and the functionalist approach to sociology became so dominant that by the late 1950s, sociology and functionalism became more or less identical. This meant that sociology studied the roles of institutions and social behaviour in society, the way these are related to other social features, and developed explanations of society in social terms (Wallace and Wolf, 1999).



Parsons developed a model of the nuclear family in 1955. At that time, the nuclear family in America was the prevalent family structure. It compared a strictly traditional view of gender roles to a more liberal view. The Parsons model was used to contrast and illustrate extreme positions on gender roles. Model A describes total separation of male and female roles, while Model B describes the complete dissolution between gender roles (Brockhaus: Enzyklopädie der Psychologie, 2001). The examples are based on the context of the culture and infrastructure of the United States. Parsons’ functional analysis of the American family in the 1950s portrays the husband as the family representative to the world of work and the wife as providing emotional support to the family unit, preparing the husband each evening for his daily battles in the big world and training their children for eventually assuming similar duties. In turn, the husbands ’job provides the income needed to keep family members alive and both husband and wife received encouragement for their efforts from the religious and political systems.

This theory is related to our research in that it brings out extreme positions in gender roles. Parsons compared a strictly traditional view of gender roles to a more liberal view. Model A describes total separation of male and female roles, while Model B describes the complete dissolution between gender roles. Looking at model A which brings out total role segregation, high professional qualification is important only for the man. Career and professional

advancement is deemed unimportant for women because of their gender roles. And this is the issue being addressed in this research work which aims to bring out the socio-cultural factors affecting gender inequality in higher education. Model A reflects the hypotheses of this study. The study also aims to bring out moves that can culminate in eradicating these negative factors to encourage gender equality in higher education. This will mean total role integration like in model B where men and women share their functions equally, and where career and professional advancement is deemed important for all.

The Theory of Dualism

Beauvoir is one of those belatedly acknowledged philosophers born in 1908 and died seventy eight years later, in 1986. Her book ‘The Second Sex‘(1972) became a catalyst for challenging women’s situation. Beauvoir locates “Woman” within the dualistic patriarchal economy. The Second Sex speaks of the specific ways in which the natural and social sciences and the European literary, social, political and religious traditions have created a mystified world where impossible and conflicting ideas of femininity produce an ideology of women’s “natural” inferiority to justify patriarchal domination. Her argument for sexual equality takes two directions. First, it exposes the ways in which masculine ideology exploits the sexual difference to create systems of inequality. Second, it exposes the ways that arguments for equality erase the sexual difference in order to establish the masculine subject as the absolute



human type. She insists that women and men treat each other as equals and that such treatment requires that their sexual differences be validated.

The Second Sex argues for women’s equality, while insisting on the reality of the sexual difference. Beauvoir finds it unjust to use sexual difference to exploit women. From a feminist perspective what is perhaps the most famous line of The Second Sex, “One is not born but becomes a woman” (Pg 267), introduces what has come to be called the sex-gender distinction. According to Beauvoir, humanity is male and man defines woman not in herself but as relative to him; she is not regarded as an autonomous being. She is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not with reference to her; she is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. He is the Subject, he is the ‘absolute’ and she is the ‘other’. Beauviour notes that the universal subordination of the woman is due to the fact that she is linked to nature and since man must conquer nature; he is always working to dominate “the second sex” which means she can only do anything with the approval of the man. Husband therefore, decides if the woman can leave the home or not and if she can go to school or not and at what level she must attain. This cultural factor greatly prevents the enrolment of girls in school and this is being addressed in this study.

hYPothESES

After finding and stating the problem and examining the literature and theoretical background, the research deduces the

hypotheses of the study from the theory. We therefore, hypothesize as follows:

General Hypothesis

There is a significant relationship between socio-cultural factors and gender inequality at the postgraduate level in some Cameroonian Universities.

Research Hypotheses

h1: There is a significant relationship between marital status and gender inequalities at the postgraduate level.

h2: There is a significant relationship between tradition and gender inequalities at the postgraduate level.

h3: There is a significant relationship between participation in decision-making and gender inequality at the postgraduate level.

h4: There is a significant relationship between financial autonomy and gender disparity at the postgraduate level.

Null Hypothesis

ho : There i s no s ign i f i can t relationship between socio-cultural factors and gender inequality in higher education.

MEthoDologY

Research Design

The quantitative and qualitative methods were used. According to Amin (2005), quantitative designs are plans for carrying out research oriented towards quantification and are applied in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationships, including cause-and-effect relationships.



Population and Sampling

The target population consisted of 77 female doctorate students from three universities in Cameroon which are the

University of Yaoundé 1, the University of Buea, and the Catholic University of Central Africa.

Table 1: Information on the selected Universities

University Year of Creation

Nature Location Student Gender

No of Faculties

University of Buea 1992 Public (Anglo-Saxon)

Buea, South West Region of

CameroonMixed 5

University of Yaounde 1 1962 Public

Yaounde, Central region of

CameroonMixed 3

Catholic University of Central Africa

1989 Private (Roman Catholic)

Yaounde, Central region of

CameroonMixed 5

Following the table by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), as cited by Amin (2005), determining the sample size for research activities, out of the 77 respondents who

make up the population of this study, the sample population was made up of 63 female students at the post graduate level in the selected universities.

Table 2: Sample size (S) required for the given population sizes (N)

N S N S N S N S N S10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 33815 14 110 86 290 165 850 256 3000 34120 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3500 34625 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4000 35130 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4500 35435 32 150 108 360 186 1100 285 5000 35740 36 160 113 380 191 1200 291 6000 36145 40 170 118 400 196 1300 297 7000 36450 44 180 123 420 201 1400 302 8000 36755 48 190 127 440 205 1500 306 9000 36860 52 200 132 460 210 1600 310 10000 37065 56 210 136 480 214 1700 113 15000 37570 59 220 140 500 217 1800 317 20000 37775 63 230 144 550 226 1900 320 30000 37980 66 240 148 600 234 2000 322 40000 38085 70 250 152 650 242 2200 327 50000 38190 73 260 155 700 248 2400 331 75000 38295 76 270 159 750 254 2600 335 100000 384

Source: Krejcie and Morgan (1970), Determining sample size for research activities, Educational and Psychological measurement, 30, 608, Sage Publications.



Following the above table, it therefore implies that out of the 77 respondents who make up the population of this study, the sample population will be made up of 63 female students. The respondents were female students because they constitute the disadvantaged group and stand a better place to provide honest and sincere answers. We sampled 26 respondents from the University of Buea (41.3%); 31 respondents from the University of Yaounde 1, (49.2%); and 6 respondents from the Catholic University, 9.5%), as can be seen on figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Presentation of the Universities that were used for the study

41,3

49,2

9,5

University of Buea

University of Yaounde 1

Catholic University

Source: Fieldwork 2011

rESEArch inStruMEntS AnD MEthoD of ADMiniStrAtion

Quantitative data were collected through closed – ended questions for easy analysis of the information. These were closed questions designed by the researcher about the research problem under investigation, based on

the objectives and hypotheses of the study. To ensure validity and reliability, the central elements of the research were depicted in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was also pre-tested to ensure a good understanding of the level of comprehension of the respondents. The researcher administered the questionnaires personally, collected some on the spot, and the rest collected later at the convenience of the respondents.

Qualitative data was collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) with the respondents. The researcher followed a pre-determined discussion guide in the form of open-ended questions to direct the discussion with the purpose of collecting in-depth information about their perceptions, attitudes and experiences. Secondary data was collected from other researches and scientific publications carried out in this domain.

MEthoD of DAtA PrESEntAtion AnD tEchniQuE of DAtA AnAlYSiS

Data were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Being a qualitative research, the SPSS program was deemed appropriate since the researcher had to illustrate, present and describe data using the different techniques of this program. The results were presented on tables, pie charts and percentages to show the characteristics of the sample. The statistical technique used to verify the hypothesis was the chi-square (x2) test of independence because of the nature of the data and because the study is a relational one.



P r E S E n t A t i o n A n D intErPrEtAtion of finDingS

Marital Status

From figure 2 below, 52 of the respondents were married women making up 82.5 % of the sampled population; 10 of the respondents were single women making up 15.9 %, with the remaining 1 being a divorcee, making up 1.6 % of the sampled population. This implies that a higher percentage of the respondents of this study were married women.Figure 2: Presentation of respondents according to marital status

82,5

15,9

1,6

Married

Single women

Divorced


Table 3: Distribution of responses according to age range

AGE RANGE

Age Range frequency Percentvalid 21-35 years 39 61,9

36-50 years 24 38,1total 63 100,0


From table 3 above, sampled population ranged from between age 21 and 50. 39 respondents (62%) ranged between 21 to 35 years while 24 (38%) ranged between 36-50 years. Table 4: Distribution of population according to duration of married status

DURATION Of MARRIED STATUS

Duration frequency Percentvalid 1-5 39 46,0

6-10 12 19,011-15 10 15,916-20 2 3,2Total 53 84,1

Missing System 10 15,9Total 63 100,0

Source: fieldwork 2011

From table 4 above, 29 respondents (46.0%) have been married for 1-5 years, 12 (19.0%) have been married for 6-10 years, and 10 (15.9%) have been married for 11- 15 years, while 2 (3.2%) have been married for 16- 20 years. This implies that a majority of the respondents have been married for 1-5 years.



Figure 3: Presentation of the opinion of respondents about early marriage and education. GETTING MARRIED EARLY CAN BE A BURDEN TO MY EDUCATION

46,00%19,00%

15,90%

3,20%

Married for 1-5 years





From figure 3 above, 37 (58.7 %) respondents were of the opinion that getting married early is a burden to their education always. 23 of them (36.5%) said it will be a burden to their education sometimes. 2 of them (3%) said that getting married early will never be a burden to their education. This implies that almost all of the respondents were of the opinion that getting married early will be a burden to their education.

Figure 4: Presentation of opinion of respondents on child rearing and child bearing

92,00%

6,00%2,00%

Always

Sometimes

Never

92,00%

6,00%2,00%

Always

Sometimes

Never

92,00%

6,00%2,00%

Always

Sometimes

Never

92,00%

6,00%2,00%

Always

Sometimes

NeverSource: Fieldwork 2011

From figure 4, 58 respondents (92%) were of the opinion that child bearing and child rearing are very engaging tasks always. 4 of them (6%) said child rearing and child bearing were engaging tasks sometimes making a total of 98%. 1 of them (2%) said it was never a very engaging task. This means that almost all of the population was of the opinion that child rearing and child bearing were



very engaging tasks.Figure 5: Presentation of population according to their opinion on household chores

71,40%

23,80%

1,60% 3,20%

Always Sometimes Never


From figure 5, 45 respondents (71.4 %) were of the opinion that household chores are time consuming always. 15 of them (23.8 %) say household chores are time consuming sometimes. Meanwhile 1 of them (1.6%) was of the opinion that household chores are not time consuming. This implies that almost all the respondents were of the opinion that household chores are time consuming.Table 5: Distribution of population according to their opinion on having children early

HAvING CHILDREN EARLY REDUCES MY AMBITION fOR HIGHER EDUCATION

Response frequency Percentvalid ALWAYS 17 27,0

SOMETIMES 44 69,8

NEvER 2 3,2Total Total 63 100,0

Source: Fieldwork 201117 respondents (27%) were of

the opinion that having children early will reduce their ambition for higher education always. 44 of them (69.8%) were of the opinion that it will reduce their ambition for higher education sometimes, making a total of 96.8%. 2 of them (3.2%) were of the opinion that having children early will never reduce their ambit ion for higher education. This implies that most of the respondents were of the opinion that having children early reduces their ambition for higher education.Figure 6: Presentation of opinion of respondents on looking after their husband’s needs

47,00%

8,00%

1,00% 7,00%

Always Sometimes Never Missing

Source: Fieldwork 201147 respondents (74.6 %) were of the

opinion that looking after the needs of their husband is always very tedious. 8 of them (12.7 %) were of the opinion that looking after the needs of their husband is very tedious sometimes. Meanwhile 1 of them (1.6%) said it is not tedious. This implies that almost all the respondents were of the opinion that looking after the needs of their husbands was very tedious.



Table 6: Distribution of population according to their opinion on cultural practices that discriminate against womenCULTURAL PRACTICES IN MY vILLAGE

DISCRIMINATE AGAINST WOMEN

Response frequency Percent

valid ALWAYS 5 7,9

SOMETIMES 55 87,3

NEvER 2 3,2

Total 62 98,4

Missing System 1 1,6

Total 63 100,0


5 (7.9 %) of the respondents were of the opinion that cultural practices in their village discriminate against women always. 55 of them (87.3 %) were of the opinion that cultural practices in their village discriminate against women sometimes. 2 of them (3.2%) were of the opinion that cultural practices in their village never discriminate against women. This implies that cultural practices discriminate against women but not all the time, meaning that there is a gradual shift from cultural practices which discriminate against women.Figure 7: Presentation of subjects according to their opinion on cultural practices and gender stereotypes

7,90%

90,50%

1,60%



5 of the respondents (7.9%) were of the opinion that cultural practices in their

villages promote gender stereotypes always. 57 of them (90.5%) were of the opinion that it promotes gender stereotypes sometimes, meanwhile 1 of them (1.6%) say cultural practices never promote gender stereotypes. This implies that there is a gradual shift from the cultural practices which promote gender stereotype, because it happens sometimes and not always.Figure 8: Presentation of population according to their opinion on the representation in structures of power and decision-making

14,30%

84,10%

1,60%



From figure 8, 53 respondents (84.1%) were of the opinion that women are under-represented in all structures of power and decision-making sometimes. 9 of them (14.3 %) say women are under-represented in all structures of power and decision-making always, while 1 of them (1.6%) is of the opinion that they are never under-represented in structures of power and decision-making. This implies that most of the times women are under-



represented in all structures of power and decision-making.Figure 9: Presentation of population according to opinions on participation in decision-making at home

74,60%

20,60%

1,60% 3,20%



From figure 9, 47 (74.6 %) respondents said they partake in decisions concerning their homes. 13 of them (20.6 %) say they partake sometimes, meanwhile 1 of them (1.6%) do not partake in decisions concerning their homes. This implies that most of the respondents partake in decisions concerning their homes.

Figure 10: Presentation of population according to opinions of those who take final decisions concerning their homes in times of conflict

50,00%

4,00%

3,00% 6,00%



From figure 10, 50 (79.4 %) respondents were of the opinion that in times of conflict their husbands always have the last say in taking decisions.4 of them (6.3%) said their husbands have the last say sometimes. While 3 of them (4.8 %) say their husband never have the last say in times of conflict of decision-making in the home.Table 7: Distribution of population according to opinion on whether higher education needs money

HIGHER EDUCATION REQUIRES MUCH MONEY

Response frequency Percentvalid ALWAYS 53 84,1

SOMETIMES 10 15,9Total 63 100,0


53 (84.1%) respondents were of the opinion that higher education needs money always. 10 of them (15.9%) were of the opinion that higher education



needs money sometimes. From the responses we can conclude that higher education needs money always.Table 8: Distribution of responses according to opinions of whether they need to take care of their personal needs before thinking of education

EDUCATIONResponse frequency Percent

valid ALWAYS 6 9,5

SOMETIMES 46 73,0

NEvER 10 15,9

Total 62 98,4


Total 63 100,0

Source: Fieldwork 201146 (73.0 %) respondents were of

the opinion that they need to take care of their personal needs before thinking of education sometimes. 10 of them (15.9 %) said they never take care of their personal needs before thinking of education. 6 of them (9.5%) say they always take care of their personal needs before thinking of their education. This implies that a majority of the respondents take care of their personal needs before thinking of education.Table 9: Distribution of responses according to opinions on whether they need to educate their children before going to school


valid ALWAYS 42 66,7

SOMETIMES 10 15,9

NEvER 5 7,9

Total 57 90,5


Total 63 100,0


42 (66.7%) respondents were of the opinion that they need to educate their children before going to school always. 10 of them (15.9 %) said sometimes they need to educate their children before continuing with studies. 5 of them (7.9 %) said they never educate their children first before continuing their education. This means that most of the respondents always educate their children before going to school.Figure 12: Presentation of the responses according to their opinions on the number of women at the doctorate level.

79,40%

12,70%

7,90%



58 (79.4 %) respondents were of the opinion that few women are found at the doctorate level in their department always. 8 of them (12.7 %) were of the opinion that sometimes few women are found at the doctorate level in their departments. Meanwhile 5 of them (7.9 %) said few women are never found at the doctorate level in their department. This implies that few women are found at the doctorate level always.



Figure 13: Presentation of opinions on the number of female lecturers, senior lecturers and professors.

88,90%

4,80%6,30%



From figure 13 above, 56 (88.9 %) respondents were of the opinion that there are always few female lecturers, senior lecturers and professors in their department as compared to male lecturers, senior lecturers and professors. 3 of them (4.8 %) say sometimes they are few, while 4 of them (6.3 %) say they are never few. This implies that there are always few female lecturers, senior lecturers and professors, as compared to male lecturers.Table 10: Distribution of responses according to their opinions on importance of higher education in their community

IN MY COMMUNITY HIGH EDUCATIONAL QUALIfICATION IS IMPORTANT ONLY


valid SOMETIMES 14 22,2

NEvER 49 77,8

Total 63 100,0


49 (77.8 %) respondents were of the opinion that in their community higher education is not important only for the man. 14 of them (22.2 %) were of the opinion that it was sometimes important only for the man. This implies that higher education is important for both men and women though at times it is not important for the woman.

DiScuSSion of finDingS

Hypothesis 1 (Ha): There is a significant relationship between marital status and gender inequality at the postgraduate level.

From the Chi-Square test table, X² calculated is 67.201 and X² read is 36.42. Therefore the X² calculated is superior to the X² read with a degree of freedom (df) of 24 and a contingency coefficient of 0.742 with the level of significance or alpha at 0.05. We therefore accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. There is a strong relationship between marital status and gender inequality.

Parsons theory of functionalism in model A portrays gender specific roles like housekeeping and child care as the primary functions of the woman; participation of the man in these functions is only partial. This means that married women are more preoccupied with their domestic duties and have less time to study. Similarly, the result of a study by Mushi (2006) in the University of Dar es Salaam revealed that in all societies; women have some gender specific roles. Hence a female might be obliged to bear a child while on studies, a situation which is difficult for her. Psychologically and physiologically, a



pregnant woman needs some time to rest, which however is not possible for a student since she has to perform all the activities performed by others like doing assignments and practicals, attending classes and sitting for examinations. This amongst other challenges was identified by the respondents as being responsible for delays in joining postgraduate studies.

Focus group discussions (FGD) with the respondents revealed that marital status was a strong determinant of gender inequality at the doctorate level. The respondents revealed that when they got married they found it difficult to continue with studies. This is because they had to take care of their husbands, give birth to children and do all the household chores. Even when they attempt to go back to school, somewhere along the line they drop because of their domestic chores. It only needs a lot of courage to carry on. A few of the respondents also admitted that most of their classmates have dropped out either because they had to give birth or because of household chores.

From the results of data collected quantitatively and qualitatively, we put our voice with that of Bhalalusesa (1998), who reveals that family responsibilities affect the participation of women not only in higher learning, but also career and professional development, thus preventing women in showing up their capacity and contribution to development.

Hypothesis 2 (Ha): There is a significant relationship between tradition and gender inequality at the postgraduate level.

From the Chi-Square test table, X² calculated is 50.613 and X² read is 43.77. Therefore the X² calculated is superior to the X² read with a degree of freedom (df) of 30 and a contingency coefficient of 0.670, with the level of significance or alpha at 0.05. We therefore accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. There is a relationship between tradition and gender inequality.

Our findings reveal that tradition and culture discriminate against women. Because of our culture women are sometimes kept in the background or in the kitchen. Culture sometimes reduces women’s right to education and promote gender stereotype. A study by Sharma (2010) reveals that girls’ lack of access to education emerges from expectations, attitudes and biases in communities and families, economic costs, social traditions, and religious and cultural beliefs. Similarly, Massey (2007) reveals that cultural stereotypes are engrained in both men and women which is a possible explanation for gender inequal i ty. Women have traditionally been viewed as being caring and nurturing and are designated to occupations which require such skills.

Similarly, a study by Menye (2007) reveals that in Mbang-Mboum, a small village located 50 km from Ngaoundéré, the capital of the Adamawa region in Cameroon, traditional attitudes towards girls have long kept them out of school. Domestic chores fall on girls



and women, and essential tasks like carrying water for the household take precedence over education. Despite parent-education initiatives organized to promote gender equity in homes and at school, much of the population still adhere to traditional customs. These beliefs hold that girls should marry early and that girls and women have a lower social status than men. As a result, most young girls are told they should prepare for their future roles as mothers and spouses. Girls’ education is not seen as important, and the majority of girls stay at home to take care of household chores and younger siblings

FGD with the respondents revealed that most women are not encouraged to go to school because of their tradition and religion. They cited the case of the Muslims in the, Far North, Adamawa and North regions of Cameroon as glaring examples. In this light, a study by Cooray & Potrafke (2010) revealed that the primary influences on gender inequality in education are culture and religion. Similarly, the VSO Baseline information report on gender equality and education (2008) reveals that traditional and cultural beliefs in patriarchal communities or societies clearly reinforce gender biases and stereotypes that give preference to boys over girls in access to education and assert that girls should remain in the home.

Hypothesis 3 (Ha): There is a significant relationship between participation in decision-making and gender inequality at the postgraduate level.

From the Chi-Square test table, X² calculated is 38.053 and X² read is 26.30. Therefore the X² calculated is superior to the X² read with a degree of freedom (df) of 16 and a contingency coefficient of 0.633, with the level of significance or alpha at 0.05. We therefore accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. There is a significant relationship between participation in decision-making and gender inequality.

Even though from the results of the study most of the women have a say when it comes to taking decisions in their homes, the husbands have the final say when there is conflict in taking the final decision. Parson in his theory of structural functionalism in model A talks about total role segregation. Women’s low decision making power, particularly in developing countries, is more pronounced at household level. If women cannot take decisions it therefore means that the husbands can decide whether or not their wives should go to school.

FGD with the respondents revealed that in most of their homes, even though they participate in decision-making, their husbands usually have the final say in times of conflict. Some of them had this to say:

“Most often our husbands take decisions for us even though once in a while they give us the opportunity to take final decisions”. “In fact some of us did not find it easy to convince our husbands that we want to continue school”.

Due to gender-role stereotyping which stipulates the expected characteristics of being feminine, women tend to make



deliberate efforts to be passive and avoid venturing into the so called men’s roles. Stereotypes are so entrenched in the minds of some women that they strongly believe low self esteem to be a natural thing for women.

Hypothesis 4 (Ha): There is a significant relationship between financial autonomy and gender disparity at the postgraduate level.

From the Chi-Square test table, X² calculated is 53.286 and X² read is 26.30. Therefore the X² calculated is superior to the X² read with a degree of freedom (df) of 16 and a contingency coefficient of 0.701 with the level of significance or alpha at 0.05. We therefore accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. There is a significant relationship between financial autonomy and gender inequality.

Our findings reveal that higher education requires money. Most often married women depend on their husbands for money. The husbands who may not have enough means may prefer to educate the children and leave their wives at home. The women even when they have the least source of income think about their children first. Even where the women are not married, they depend on their parents for fees, and most often the parents prefer sending the boys to school than the girls. Sharma (2010) supports this view in his study which reveals that the foremost factor limiting female education is poverty. Wherever, especially in families with many children, educational costs exceed the income of the family, girls are the first to be denied schooling. In like manner, Chioke

(2008), in his study reveals that poverty is one of the major factors that undermine girls’ right to education. School fees and expenses relating to transport, clothing and books widen the gender gap: as families cannot afford to educate all their children, girls are the ones that stay at home, helping with household chores.

FGD with the respondents reveal that financial problem is a strong determinant of the number of women at the doctorate level. Most of the respondents who had income-generating activities said they had to take care of their children before thinking about education. Mushi (2006), supports this view in a study at the University of Dar es Salaam, which revealed that the main challenge experienced by the female students was difficulty in sponsorship acquisition. Because higher education requires money, and because in most developing countries women do not have financial independence, they are unable to take decisions which involve finance. As a result, very few of them are able to continue to higher education.

concluSion AnD rEcoMMEnDAtionS

The main objective of this study was to find out the societal and cultural factors that impede women from fully participating in higher education in some Cameroonian universities. The results of the study reveal that there is a relationship between socio-cultural factors and gender inequality at the doctorate level. Marital status with gender roles like child bearing and other family responsibilities seemed to be the main hindrance, followed



by tradition, financial autonomy and participation in decision-making. From the above conclusion we had the following recommendations:

The use of mobile learning as a means of addressing this issue is one of the steps that can help the women in advancing in education. Mobile learning could be seen as any sort of learning that happens when the learner is not at a fixed, predetermined location, or learning that happens when the learner takes advantage of the learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies (Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia, 2011) as cited by Ugwu (2012). With mobile devices the women can access educational materials online and can study through distant learning, and while carrying out their domestic duties they can have the opportunity to go through the educational materials over and again, not only in the comfort of their homes but anytime, anywhere. Fabio (2012) reveals in his study, that in parts of the globe where, because of centuries of cultural practices, women may still not be allowed to access a formal education, mobile learning promises to be able to put girls and women of all ages in contact with high-quality education privately and on their own time.

There is the need to create awareness in women like men of the value of their education. Women should be counselled on the benefits of female higher education to themselves and their families. This will boost their self-esteem thereby encouraging them to further their education.

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