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FamilyWomenClientshipSlaveryReligionMilitaryGladiatorial GamesCity living

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Roman law gave absolute power to the paterfamilias, the oldest male, who could punish and

even kill any member of the extended family in his household.

Carved sarcophagus illustrating family life

The Roman Family

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Women in Ancient Rome

Later, in the Imperial period, women were given more legal rights, including the right to own and inherit property, as well as the right of

divorce.

Until she was married, a Roman woman was under the absolute control of her

father. After marriage, she was under the absolute control of her husband.

Although women had no legal rights in the Republic, they were often responsible for

day-to-day household affairs.

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Important feature of Roman society.

A Roman patrician would surround himself with clients, less powerful men to whom he gave protection and aid in return for loyalty.

The more important and powerful the patrician, the more clients he had. His day often began with “office hours” when he received them and heard

their requests. When he went out, he was accompanied by his clients, and their number

was a sign of his importance.

Clientship

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Slavery was widespread in the ancient world, and it was essential to Roman society. Between 200 BCE and 200 CE, slaves made up as

much as a third of the population of Rome.

Slavery

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Slaves in Rome

Household – Every patrician household had slaves for cooking and cleaning, and even as tutors for their children.

Trades and crafts – Slaves were used to run shops and work in trade, with profits going to the owner.

Agriculture – As the empire grew, plantations worked by slaves replaced small family farms.

Mining and public works – Slave labor was used for construction of buildings, aqueducts and roads.

7Carving shows tiny slaves, reflecting their

position in society.

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A free Roman who borrowed money and failed to repay it

could be sold into slavery, but most slaves were a result of

plunder from war and conquest.

Slaves could be freed. Sometimes an owner would free a slave in gratitude for long, faithful service. Sometimes a slave could earn

and save enough money to buy his freedom.

They were important to the Roman economy as a commodity and as a labor supply.

Slave for sale

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Religion

Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome (715-674 BCE), made religion a central part of the government and official life, and it remained so throughout Rome’s history.

Animal sacrifice was performed before any important event, and priests studied the entrails. If the sacrifice ritual went well and the guts looked good, it was a sign that the gods approved.

Strange natural events like an eclipse or unusual animal behavior were considered signs from the gods.

Temples were erected, supported financially, and staffed at state expense.

Every human event, including illness and victory or defeat in battle, was thought to be an expression of the favor or disfavor of the gods.

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Major Roman Gods and Goddesses

Jupiter – King of the Gods

Juno – Wife of Jupiter

Mars - God of War (father of Romulus)

Mercury - Messenger of the Gods

Neptune - God of the Sea

Janus - God of Doorways

Diana - Goddess of Hunting

Vesta - Goddess of the Hearth

Minerva - Goddess of Healing and Wisdom

Venus - Goddess of Love (mother of Aeneas)

Baccus – God of Wine

Fortuna – Goddess of Luck

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Mars and Venus

Romans believed they were directly descended

from Mars (father of Romulus and Remus)

and Venus

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A God for Everything

If it was important to the Romans, they had a god or goddess to represent it.

There was a goddess, Roma, for the city of Rome.

There was a crossroads god.A god of fire.And Victoria, the goddess of

victory (right).

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Household Gods

"In a corner at the entrance to the house was a huge cupboard with a small built-in shrine. Inside the shrine were the silver statuettes of the household gods, a Venus in marble, and a golden casket.”

--Description from 60 CE

Every Roman household (at least among the patricians and upper-

class people about whom we have information) had an altar with

statues of household gods (lares and penates), who were thought to take

an active role in domestic affairs.

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The Roman Military

The Roman Republic used its military superiority to dominate Italy and the Mediterranean.

Roman legions didn’t win every battle, but Rome never accepted defeat.

If legions were wiped out, Rome sent more!

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The Military Camp

A Roman legion could march 18 miles a day or more, each soldier carrying up to 60 pounds of gear and arms. At the end of the march, they would construct a small town with a standard layout of streets, tents, fortifications, and defenses. This would be their camp for the

night.

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Weaponry

Gladius – Short sword, 22 inches long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BCE. Used to make short, powerful thrusts.

Pilum – Throwing spear. Legionaries carried two pila, which they would hurl at the enemy as they were charging, before engaging with the gladius.

The pilum or javelin had a hammered iron head about 9 inches long, mounted on a 3-foot wooden shaft. The head was thin and sharp, and would bend on impact so it couldn’t be reused.

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Target – Round shield, 3 feet in diameter.

Scutum – Large infantry shield, 2 ½ x 4 feet.

Helmet – The youngest soldiers, often deployed at the front of an attacking legion, wore a plain helmet, often covered with the skin of a wolf or some other animal. More senior soldiers wore helmets with crests of feathers or horse hairs. Helmet decorations helped identify soldiers in the midst of battle.

Pectorale – Brass breastplate covering the heart.

Coin showing soldierwith pilum

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Awards Earned by Military Commanders

Civic Crown – Second highest award, for heroism in battle. Fashioned from oak leaves. Civic Crown winners were immediately eligible to join the Senate. Other Senators would stand and applaud when the man with the crown entered. Julius Caesar won the Civic Crown early in his military career.

Grass Crown – Highest military honor, awarded to a commander by his troops when he heroically saved the entire army. Made on the spot from grass and weeds on the battlefield, it was only awarded nine times in Roman history. Sulla won the Grass Crown.

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The Military Triumph

The greatest honor for a Republican military commander was to be awarded a Triumph by the Senate.

This was a march through the center of Rome by the full army with all the captured spoils of war, including slaves and prisoners.

The march began outside the city and ended at the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, where the triumphing general made an offering to the god.

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After the prisoners and loot came the triumphator (the general being honored) and his army.

The general, his face and arms painted red, rode in a ceremonial cart pulled by two white horses.

Behind him was a slave whose job was to repeat continuously, "Memento mori" (“Remember, you are mortal”).

This was the only time that armed soldiers were allowed in the city.

The parade was led by the chiefs of the conquered people, who were executed afterward.

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Life of a Roman Soldier Training – nearly constant. Marching – the major form of troop transport. Construction – camps, roads, bridges,

fortifications, and siege engines. Fighting – although this is what the army was

designed to do, actual fighting was rare in the life of a Roman soldier.

Depiction of a Roman centurion

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Gladiators and Gladiatorial Games

Pollice Verso ("With a Turned Thumb”) by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1872

Gladiatorial games were an important and popular form

of public entertainment from

the middle Republic until they were outlawed by

the Emperor Constantine in 325.

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Gladiators were usually prisoners of war, slaves, or condemned criminals, trained to fight.

In the arena, they fought until one acknowledged defeat by raising a finger.

The crowd would decide whether the loser would be killed or spared.

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Gladiators were owned or hired by wealthy Romans who wanted to stage a public display.

The first known gladiatorial games in Rome were staged in 264 BCE as part of a patrician funeral celebration.

Later, emperors organized games with thousands of fighting pairs.

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The first event would be fights with wild animals. This would be followed by the execution

of prisoners.

Gladiatorial games were often the third

event in a day of entertainment at

the amphitheater.

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Chariot Racing at the Circus Maximus was

another popular form of entertainment.

The sport dates from the earliest days of Rome. It

was practiced by the Greeks and Etruscans as

well.

Racers were usually slaves and often died in the ring. The winner received a cash prize, and a slave who could stay alive would earn

enough to buy his freedom.

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CITY LIVINGIn the final days of the Republic, the city of Rome was the

heart of a vast empire. With a million inhabitants, it was more than three times larger than any of the other big cities of the empire: Carthage, Alexandria and Antioch.

Most Romans were poor slum-dwellers, crammed into dense, poorly-maintained apartments.

The wealthy lived in luxury on the seven hills of Rome.

At the center of it all was the Forum, crowded and lively. The Forum was the center of civil, religious, and commercial life in the city.

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Growth of Roman Population in the Late Republic

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1000

220 BCE 190 BCE 170 BCE 50 BCE 1 BCE

Population (x 1000)