Social Work Social Work Practice With Practice With IndividualsIndividuals

Chapter 5Chapter 5

Work With the IndividualWork With the IndividualA Generalist ApproachA Generalist Approach

Social work with individuals is one of the Social work with individuals is one of the main parts of a generalist approach to main parts of a generalist approach to social work practice.social work practice.

Main focus is to help individuals help Main focus is to help individuals help themselves.themselves.

Traditional methods are frequently Traditional methods are frequently combined in practice where the workers combined in practice where the workers may work basically with individuals and may work basically with individuals and families and set goals that may also families and set goals that may also include a group or community effort.include a group or community effort.

Social Casework DefinedSocial Casework Defined Social casework is a method of helping Social casework is a method of helping

people solve problems. It is individualized, people solve problems. It is individualized, scientific, and artistic. scientific, and artistic.

It helps individuals with personal as well as It helps individuals with personal as well as external and environmental matters.external and environmental matters.

It is a method of helping through a It is a method of helping through a relationship that taps personal and other relationship that taps personal and other resources for coping with problems.resources for coping with problems.

Interviewing and assessment are major Interviewing and assessment are major tools of casework.tools of casework.

It is biopsychosocial.It is biopsychosocial.

History of Social History of Social CaseworkCasework

Stereotyping, making broad Stereotyping, making broad generalizations about individuals and generalizations about individuals and situations, is the antithesis of social situations, is the antithesis of social casework.casework.

The “workhouse test” and “less The “workhouse test” and “less eligibility” clauses of the infamous eligibility” clauses of the infamous English Poor Laws are based on naïve English Poor Laws are based on naïve and unfounded general assumptions, and unfounded general assumptions, namely that all poor are poor because of namely that all poor are poor because of ignorance, willful refusal to work, ignorance, willful refusal to work, shiftlessness, and depravity.shiftlessness, and depravity.

History of Social History of Social CaseworkCasework

The Association for Improving the Conditions of The Association for Improving the Conditions of the Poor approached the problem of poverty the Poor approached the problem of poverty individually (1843).individually (1843).

The Charity Organization Society gave The Charity Organization Society gave additional impetus to individualization and additional impetus to individualization and casework (1877).casework (1877).

Preoccupation with social conditions external to Preoccupation with social conditions external to the individual was characteristic of casework the individual was characteristic of casework during the early part of the twentieth century.during the early part of the twentieth century.

The thinking was that if the environment could The thinking was that if the environment could not be changed, the individual should be not be changed, the individual should be removed from the environment, even if it meant removed from the environment, even if it meant separating families.separating families.

Trends In CaseworkTrends In Casework By 1910, the introduction of By 1910, the introduction of

psychoanalytic theory and depth psychoanalytic theory and depth psychology became the focus of psychology became the focus of casework and individual therapy came casework and individual therapy came into its own.into its own.

Emotions, attitudes, repressed conflicts, Emotions, attitudes, repressed conflicts, and the struggle within the unconscious and the struggle within the unconscious became an integral part of social became an integral part of social casework understanding and method.casework understanding and method.

Trends In CaseworkTrends In Casework The social and economic needs of the The social and economic needs of the

Great Depression refocused sociological Great Depression refocused sociological and reality considerations for social work and reality considerations for social work and compelled action on the part of the and compelled action on the part of the federal government.federal government.

The depression resulted in a healthy The depression resulted in a healthy turnaround from emphasis upon turnaround from emphasis upon psychological causation to the renewed psychological causation to the renewed study of economics, budgets, and study of economics, budgets, and environmental factors.environmental factors.

Trends in CaseworkTrends in Casework There has also been renewed interest There has also been renewed interest

in the family, family dynamics, and the in the family, family dynamics, and the interaction of family members.interaction of family members.

The problem-solving method proposed The problem-solving method proposed by Helen Perlman is most widely used by Helen Perlman is most widely used in social work today.in social work today.

Today’s practitioner must be trained in Today’s practitioner must be trained in a variety of disciplines in order to a variety of disciplines in order to effectively view the client and decide effectively view the client and decide how to intervene effectively.how to intervene effectively.

The Practice FrameworkThe Practice Framework Purpose:Purpose:

To prevent or ameliorate those conditions To prevent or ameliorate those conditions which contribute to the breakdown of a which contribute to the breakdown of a healthy relationship between the individual healthy relationship between the individual and their family, other associates, or the and their family, other associates, or the environment.environment.

Help people to identify and resolve problems Help people to identify and resolve problems in their relationships or to minimize the in their relationships or to minimize the negative effects.negative effects.

To strengthen the maximum potential in To strengthen the maximum potential in individuals, groups, and communities.individuals, groups, and communities.

The Practice FrameworkThe Practice Framework Social Work Values:Social Work Values:

Assumes the inherent worth and Assumes the inherent worth and importance of the individual and the importance of the individual and the interdependence between the individual interdependence between the individual and society.and society.

Emphasis is placed on the importance of Emphasis is placed on the importance of respect for the dignity of the individual and respect for the dignity of the individual and on their ability to make important decisions.on their ability to make important decisions.

Self-determination is a basic right of the Self-determination is a basic right of the individual.individual.

Social Work ValuesSocial Work Values Value Assumption on Individual Worth and Value Assumption on Individual Worth and

Capacity:Capacity: A “worth” value places the individual in a position A “worth” value places the individual in a position

of eminence. They are above objects and of eminence. They are above objects and institutions, worth caring for because they are an institutions, worth caring for because they are an individual.individual.

Other values include respect, dignity, and Other values include respect, dignity, and opportunities to express individuality.opportunities to express individuality.

The value of “worth” suggests that the individual The value of “worth” suggests that the individual has the ability to guide their actions and the has the ability to guide their actions and the potential for determining goals and their potential for determining goals and their achievement.achievement.

Social Work ValuesSocial Work Values Uniqueness Value:Uniqueness Value:

Belief in the individual’s uniqueness Belief in the individual’s uniqueness and individuality suggest a casework and individuality suggest a casework approach of acceptance and the view of approach of acceptance and the view of differences as assets.differences as assets.

Strength in role relationships is viewed Strength in role relationships is viewed as coming from differences.as coming from differences.

Social Work ValuesSocial Work Values The Value Postulate of Self-DeterminationThe Value Postulate of Self-Determination

Self-determination means that the client will Self-determination means that the client will decide whether or not to engage in the decide whether or not to engage in the casework process.casework process.

Self-determination is affirmed, explicated and Self-determination is affirmed, explicated and implemented at the beginning, in the middle implemented at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the process.and at the end of the process.

Impositions that remove free choice and self-Impositions that remove free choice and self-determination may damage the relationship determination may damage the relationship and weaken the client’s problem-solving and weaken the client’s problem-solving resolve and capacity.resolve and capacity.

Sanctions Sanctions Work with individuals and families is Work with individuals and families is

under the auspices of various under the auspices of various governmental and private agencies governmental and private agencies that receive their sanction from the that receive their sanction from the people.people.

Governmental agencies are intended Governmental agencies are intended to express the will of the people.to express the will of the people.

Knowledge Knowledge The theory underpinning for casework The theory underpinning for casework

is derived basically from the profession is derived basically from the profession of social work and from casework of social work and from casework practice.practice.

Research contributes to the knowledge Research contributes to the knowledge base and appears to be growing in base and appears to be growing in sophistication and importance.sophistication and importance.

The profession continues to recognize The profession continues to recognize the contributions from the behavioral, the contributions from the behavioral, social , and natural sciences.social , and natural sciences.

Knowledge Knowledge Pavlovian and Skinnerian psychology Pavlovian and Skinnerian psychology

is a well integrated theory and is a well integrated theory and readily applied to casework practice.readily applied to casework practice. Behavior modification does not use a Behavior modification does not use a

theory of personality.theory of personality. It proceeds from assumptions about It proceeds from assumptions about

operant behavior and practice focused operant behavior and practice focused on observable behavior that can be on observable behavior that can be researched and explicated.researched and explicated.

Knowledge Knowledge Social casework practice applies role theory.Social casework practice applies role theory. Learning theory, adult socialization, small Learning theory, adult socialization, small

group, cognition theory, general systems group, cognition theory, general systems theory and the ecological perspective, and theory and the ecological perspective, and discoveries in biology and endocrinology are discoveries in biology and endocrinology are also adapted in casework.also adapted in casework.

Although social work “borrows” from Although social work “borrows” from psychology, sociology, and from the psychology, sociology, and from the biological sciences, the profession itself biological sciences, the profession itself orders, arranges, adapts and determines the orders, arranges, adapts and determines the emphasis it will make of these contributions.emphasis it will make of these contributions.

Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge of the various services of Knowledge of the various services of

the community is basic to the the community is basic to the practice of social casework.practice of social casework.

The function and purpose of agencies The function and purpose of agencies and referral procedures, and and referral procedures, and increasingly the legislative process, increasingly the legislative process, all provide essential underpinning for all provide essential underpinning for the casework process.the casework process.

Methods of Social Methods of Social Casework Casework

The trend in the new millennium appears The trend in the new millennium appears to be selective eclecticism:to be selective eclecticism: A greater utilization of elements from a variety A greater utilization of elements from a variety

of theories and blending of models.of theories and blending of models. Selective interventions that are empirically Selective interventions that are empirically

grounded.grounded. A solution orientation with less focus on the A solution orientation with less focus on the

inner problems.inner problems. Direct practice embracing more than Direct practice embracing more than

casework.casework. A greater utilization of interventive approaches A greater utilization of interventive approaches

that can be measured and validated.that can be measured and validated.

Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework Psychosocial Model:Psychosocial Model:

One of the first models employed developed One of the first models employed developed by Gordon Hamilton and her associates from by Gordon Hamilton and her associates from the Columbia School of Social Work.the Columbia School of Social Work.

Cause and effect relationships are identified Cause and effect relationships are identified between the individual and environment.between the individual and environment.

Ego psychology and the behavioral sciences Ego psychology and the behavioral sciences provide important underpinning for practiceprovide important underpinning for practice

Model has a Freudian theory base.Model has a Freudian theory base.

Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework Functional Model:Functional Model:

Developed at the Pennsylvania School of Developed at the Pennsylvania School of Social Work in the l930’s.Social Work in the l930’s.

Emphasis was on the relationship, the Emphasis was on the relationship, the dynamic use of time, and the “use of the dynamic use of time, and the “use of the agency” function.agency” function.

The psychology of Otto Rank provided The psychology of Otto Rank provided underpinning for functional approach.underpinning for functional approach.

Diagnostic categories have tended to be Diagnostic categories have tended to be avoided as having limited usefulness.avoided as having limited usefulness.

Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework The Problem-Solving Method:The Problem-Solving Method:

Identified with the work of Helen Identified with the work of Helen Perlman at the Chicago school in l957.Perlman at the Chicago school in l957.

The purposes of the process are to free The purposes of the process are to free the client for investment in tasks related the client for investment in tasks related to the solution of the problem, involve to the solution of the problem, involve the client’s ego in work designated to the client’s ego in work designated to deal with the problem, and to mobilize deal with the problem, and to mobilize inner and outer forces in the service of inner and outer forces in the service of satisfactory role performance.satisfactory role performance.

Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework

The Behavioral Model:The Behavioral Model: Began to be incorporated in the l960’sBegan to be incorporated in the l960’s Practice applying to this model lends itself Practice applying to this model lends itself

to research since behavior to be modified to research since behavior to be modified is observable.is observable.

Symptoms are the same as other Symptoms are the same as other responses in that the behavior is mainly responses in that the behavior is mainly respondent or operant.respondent or operant.

Problematic behavior is learned through Problematic behavior is learned through the process of conditioning.the process of conditioning.

Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework Task-Centered Casework:Task-Centered Casework:

Developed at the University of Chicago in Developed at the University of Chicago in the l970’s.the l970’s.

Designed to solve specific psychosocial Designed to solve specific psychosocial problems of individuals or families in a problems of individuals or families in a short-term, time-limited form of practice.short-term, time-limited form of practice.

Caseworker and client reach an explicit Caseworker and client reach an explicit agreement on the particular problems to agreement on the particular problems to be worked on and also the probable be worked on and also the probable duration of treatment.duration of treatment.

Methods of CaseworkMethods of Casework Generalist Practice Model:Generalist Practice Model:

Based on a problem-solving model from Based on a problem-solving model from a systems or person-in-environment a systems or person-in-environment perspective.perspective.

This model is applied with the unique This model is applied with the unique qualities, values, and ethics espoused qualities, values, and ethics espoused by social work.by social work.

Problems in Social Problems in Social CaseworkCasework

Social casework addresses itself to Social casework addresses itself to the solution of problems that block the solution of problems that block or minimize the effectiveness of the or minimize the effectiveness of the individual in various roles.individual in various roles.

Social workers are frequently Social workers are frequently confronted with situations in which confronted with situations in which the casework objective may be that the casework objective may be that of helping a client use a service.of helping a client use a service.

Casework ProcessCasework Process StudyStudy

In the study phase, the client is engaged in In the study phase, the client is engaged in presenting the problem. presenting the problem.

The key is engagement.The key is engagement. Client makes the important decision of whether to Client makes the important decision of whether to

enter treatment.enter treatment. Emphasis on the interaction is on the here-and-now Emphasis on the interaction is on the here-and-now

and on the problem not as might be perceived by and on the problem not as might be perceived by the worker, but as experienced at the moment by the worker, but as experienced at the moment by the client.the client.

Data gathering and history taking concentrate on Data gathering and history taking concentrate on relevance.relevance.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Study:Study:

Contacts during the initial phase may be Contacts during the initial phase may be among the most dynamic of the entire process.among the most dynamic of the entire process.

Client is likely to feel most helpless and Client is likely to feel most helpless and vulnerable and most available to the helping vulnerable and most available to the helping process.process.

Sympathetic listening, demonstration of Sympathetic listening, demonstration of acceptance, reassurance, demonstration of acceptance, reassurance, demonstration of confidence in ability, and judicious stroking confidence in ability, and judicious stroking are powerful tools of the social worker and can are powerful tools of the social worker and can be highly therapeutic.be highly therapeutic.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Assessment:Assessment:

Provides a differential approach to treatment Provides a differential approach to treatment based on individual differences and needs.based on individual differences and needs.

An individual’s strengths need to be identified An individual’s strengths need to be identified and utilized as part of the change process.and utilized as part of the change process.

Assessment is fluid and dynamic.Assessment is fluid and dynamic. Assessment begins with a statement of the Assessment begins with a statement of the

problem by the client.problem by the client. Results in an understanding of the problem.Results in an understanding of the problem.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Assessment:Assessment:

It includes initial impressions that are It includes initial impressions that are confirmed, modified, or rejected in the confirmed, modified, or rejected in the light of additional information.light of additional information.

It includes judgment about the strength It includes judgment about the strength and limitations of the individual in and limitations of the individual in coping with the situation.coping with the situation.

Treatment planning and treatment itself Treatment planning and treatment itself are guided by assessment.are guided by assessment.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Assessment:Assessment:

There is mutual agreement of the There is mutual agreement of the worker and the client in assessment.worker and the client in assessment.

Goals must be congruent with the Goals must be congruent with the client’s needs and the availability of client’s needs and the availability of services. These goals are respected, services. These goals are respected, supported and reinforced.supported and reinforced.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Intervention:Intervention:

Intervention or treatment begins with Intervention or treatment begins with the first contact.the first contact.

The study process is treatment when it The study process is treatment when it helps the client to clarify the problem helps the client to clarify the problem and to make changes from this and to make changes from this understanding.understanding.

The relationship is the mainspring of The relationship is the mainspring of social work intervention.social work intervention. Warmth, caring, and congruence have been Warmth, caring, and congruence have been

identified as essential qualities.identified as essential qualities.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Intervention:Intervention:

Skills include interviewing, recording, Skills include interviewing, recording, letter writing, referrals to other agencies letter writing, referrals to other agencies and services, and helping the client to and services, and helping the client to use personal and other resources.use personal and other resources.

Efforts support and strengthen the Efforts support and strengthen the client’s ego through emotional catharsis, client’s ego through emotional catharsis, reassurance, clarification of the problem, reassurance, clarification of the problem, and sympathetic listening.and sympathetic listening.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Intervention (basic principles):Intervention (basic principles):

Right to determine own course of action Right to determine own course of action within the limits of their capacity to make within the limits of their capacity to make sound choices.sound choices.

Acceptance of client as is, implying Acceptance of client as is, implying acceptance in their capacity to change.acceptance in their capacity to change.

Relate to strengths rather than pathology.Relate to strengths rather than pathology. Seeks to understand the person and to Seeks to understand the person and to

help plan for constructive change.help plan for constructive change.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Intervention (basic principles):Intervention (basic principles):

Knowledge about the client’s family and its Knowledge about the client’s family and its situation is used responsibly.situation is used responsibly.

Professional responsibility for the welfare Professional responsibility for the welfare of the total familyof the total family

Responsible not only to the client but to Responsible not only to the client but to oneself, the agency, the community, and oneself, the agency, the community, and the profession.the profession.

Innovations of professional activities must Innovations of professional activities must be consistent with casework goals.be consistent with casework goals.

Casework ProcessCasework Process Termination:Termination:

The ending or limiting of a process that was The ending or limiting of a process that was commenced when the agency agreed to enter commenced when the agency agreed to enter into the interventive process aimed at into the interventive process aimed at delivering a service to a client with a problem.delivering a service to a client with a problem.

A time when the client can look back with A time when the client can look back with satisfaction on what has been accomplished.satisfaction on what has been accomplished.

Signals that the worker has confidence in the Signals that the worker has confidence in the client’s ability to learn to cope with situations client’s ability to learn to cope with situations and grow.and grow.

The Multi-Systems The Multi-Systems ApproachApproach

One of the newer approaches to One of the newer approaches to social work.social work.

Affirms the interrelationships of the Affirms the interrelationships of the individual to an interlocking network individual to an interlocking network of systems each influencing the other.of systems each influencing the other.

Takes into consideration the Takes into consideration the importance of the systems impacting importance of the systems impacting and being impacted by each other.and being impacted by each other.