Social StructureSocial Structure

Building Blocks of Building Blocks of Social StructureSocial Structure

Social structure is the network of Social structure is the network of interdependent statuses and roles that interdependent statuses and roles that guide human interactionguide human interaction

Status is a socially defined position in a Status is a socially defined position in a group or in a societygroup or in a society

Role is the behavior—the rights and Role is the behavior—the rights and obligations—expected of someone obligations—expected of someone occupying a particular status occupying a particular status

StatusStatus Statuses are ways to define peopleStatuses are ways to define people

You can be more than one status at a timeYou can be more than one status at a time Example: You are a student, an employee, a son/daughter, a Example: You are a student, an employee, a son/daughter, a

teenager and a friendteenager and a friend Ascribed v. Achieved statusesAscribed v. Achieved statuses

Ascribed means that you are assigned that status because of Ascribed means that you are assigned that status because of qualities beyond your controlqualities beyond your control

• Example: you are a teenager because of your age, you are an African Example: you are a teenager because of your age, you are an African American because of your DNAAmerican because of your DNA

Achieved means you are that status because of something you didAchieved means you are that status because of something you did• Example: you are on the football team because you are good at sportsExample: you are on the football team because you are good at sports

Master status is the status that plays the biggest role in Master status is the status that plays the biggest role in shaping a person’s life and determining his or her social shaping a person’s life and determining his or her social identityidentity

Can be ascribed or achievedCan be ascribed or achieved Could be occupation, wealth, marital status, or parenthoodCould be occupation, wealth, marital status, or parenthood

RolesRoles You occupy the status, but play the roleYou occupy the status, but play the role

This means that you are a son or This means that you are a son or daughter, but you have to play the role daughter, but you have to play the role of son or daughter when you are homeof son or daughter when you are home

Reciprocal roles are those that require Reciprocal roles are those that require interaction with another roleinteraction with another role A husband cannot be a husband without A husband cannot be a husband without

someone providing the role of wifesomeone providing the role of wife

Role Expectation and Role Expectation and Role PerformanceRole Performance

Role expectations-what are you expected Role expectations-what are you expected to doto do Doctors are supposed to treat patients, Doctors are supposed to treat patients,

parents care for children, children respect parents care for children, children respect adultsadults

Role performance-what you actually doRole performance-what you actually do Doctors sometimes harm patients, parents Doctors sometimes harm patients, parents

mistreat their children, children don’t always mistreat their children, children don’t always respect authorityrespect authority

Role Conflict and Role StrainRole Conflict and Role Strain Role sets are all the different roles attached to a Role sets are all the different roles attached to a

single statussingle status Because we hold many statuses, they sometime Because we hold many statuses, they sometime

conflict with each otherconflict with each other Role conflict is when fulfilling the role of one Role conflict is when fulfilling the role of one

status conflicts with anotherstatus conflicts with another Ex: being a parent of a sick child and an employee Ex: being a parent of a sick child and an employee

means you have to leave one for the othermeans you have to leave one for the other Role strain is difficulty meeting the roles of one Role strain is difficulty meeting the roles of one

statusstatus A boss who must maintain morale while asking A boss who must maintain morale while asking

employees to work overtimeemployees to work overtime

Social InstitutionsSocial Institutions When statuses are organized to satisfy one or When statuses are organized to satisfy one or

more of the basic needs of society it is called a more of the basic needs of society it is called a social institutionsocial institution

There are several social institutions, however There are several social institutions, however sociologists usually focus on the following:sociologists usually focus on the following: FamilyFamily EconomyEconomy PoliticsPolitics EducationEducation ReligionReligion

Types of Social InteractionTypes of Social Interaction Interactions takes on many formsInteractions takes on many forms There are five common forms of social There are five common forms of social

interaction:interaction: ExchangeExchange CompetitionCompetition ConflictConflict CooperationCooperation AccomodationAccomodation

ExchangeExchange Exchange occurs when someone interacts with another in order Exchange occurs when someone interacts with another in order

to illicit a response from the second partyto illicit a response from the second party Exchange is the most basic form of social interaction; includes Exchange is the most basic form of social interaction; includes

dating, family, friendsdating, family, friends Reciprocity is the idea that if you do something for someone, Reciprocity is the idea that if you do something for someone,

they owe you something in returnthey owe you something in return Could be material or nonmaterial-a “thank you” from your Could be material or nonmaterial-a “thank you” from your

parents for doing the dishesparents for doing the dishes Exchange theory is basically a self-motivation to interact with Exchange theory is basically a self-motivation to interact with

those that cause positive reward (repeat behaviors), and avoid those that cause positive reward (repeat behaviors), and avoid behaviors regarding exchange that cause negative behaviors regarding exchange that cause negative consequencesconsequences

Ex: If you tell a joke that was really lame and people made fun Ex: If you tell a joke that was really lame and people made fun of you, you would not tell that joke again, if the joke got a of you, you would not tell that joke again, if the joke got a positive response you would tell otherspositive response you would tell others

CompetitionCompetition Competition occurs when two or more Competition occurs when two or more

people or groups oppose each other to people or groups oppose each other to achieve a goal that only one can attainachieve a goal that only one can attain

Common feature of Western societiesCommon feature of Western societies Positive motivator but leads to lack of Positive motivator but leads to lack of

unity, inequality, and conflictunity, inequality, and conflict

ConflictConflict Conflict is the deliberate attempt to control a Conflict is the deliberate attempt to control a

person by force, to oppose someone, or to harm person by force, to oppose someone, or to harm another personanother person

There are four major sources of conflict: wars, There are four major sources of conflict: wars, disagreements within groups, legal disputes, disagreements within groups, legal disputes, and clashes over ideologyand clashes over ideology

Conflict is not always negativeConflict is not always negative Can strengthen a group (focusing on outside threats Can strengthen a group (focusing on outside threats

instead of differences)instead of differences) Lead to social change by making opposing sides seek Lead to social change by making opposing sides seek

solutionssolutions

CooperationCooperation Cooperation occurs when two or more people Cooperation occurs when two or more people

work together to achieve a goal that will help work together to achieve a goal that will help more than one personmore than one person

Cooperation is a social process that gets things Cooperation is a social process that gets things donedone Group cannot achieve goal without cooperation from Group cannot achieve goal without cooperation from

its membersits members Football, for example, cannot be played unless the Football, for example, cannot be played unless the

offense and the defense are willing to work together offense and the defense are willing to work together and the quarterback and the wide receiver are on the and the quarterback and the wide receiver are on the same pagesame page

AccommodationAccommodation Accommodation is the balance between conflict and Accommodation is the balance between conflict and

cooperationcooperation Example: If you buy a video game the store owner is Example: If you buy a video game the store owner is

accommodating you by giving you the game in exchange accommodating you by giving you the game in exchange for $50for $50

• If the owner were in cooperation with you, he would give it to you If the owner were in cooperation with you, he would give it to you for freefor free

• If the owner were in conflict with you, he would refuse to sell it to If the owner were in conflict with you, he would refuse to sell it to youyou

A compromise (someone gives up something in A compromise (someone gives up something in order to make peace) and a truce are the two order to make peace) and a truce are the two common forms of accommodationscommon forms of accommodations In a truce (agree to disagree until a solution is found) you In a truce (agree to disagree until a solution is found) you

may use mediation (have a third party give you ideas may use mediation (have a third party give you ideas based on both sides) or arbitration (have a third party based on both sides) or arbitration (have a third party decide what is to be done)decide what is to be done)

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies A group is a set of people who interact on A group is a set of people who interact on

the basis of shared expectations and who the basis of shared expectations and who possess some degree of commonalitypossess some degree of commonality

A subsistence strategy is the way a A subsistence strategy is the way a society uses technology to provide for the society uses technology to provide for the needs of its membersneeds of its members This is how sociologists often classify This is how sociologists often classify

societiessocieties The three broad groups are called: The three broad groups are called:

preindustrial, industrial, or postindustrial preindustrial, industrial, or postindustrial

Hunters and GathersHunters and Gathers Food production, carried out through human and Food production, carried out through human and

animal labor, is the main economic activityanimal labor, is the main economic activity They are divided according to their method of They are divided according to their method of

producing foodproducing food Hunting and Gathering Societies collect wild plants Hunting and Gathering Societies collect wild plants

and hunt wild gameand hunt wild game• They do not build permanent villagesThey do not build permanent villages• Generally have fewer than 60, rarely +100Generally have fewer than 60, rarely +100• Family is the main social unitFamily is the main social unit• Family is related by birth or marriageFamily is related by birth or marriage

PastoralPastoral Pastoral Societies rely on domesticated herd Pastoral Societies rely on domesticated herd

animals to meet their food needsanimals to meet their food needs They can support larger societies since food supply is They can support larger societies since food supply is

reliablereliable Live nomadic lives, moving their herds from pasture to Live nomadic lives, moving their herds from pasture to

pasturepasture Since their were fewer people needed to make food, a Since their were fewer people needed to make food, a

division of labor developeddivision of labor developed• Division of labor means that people specialized in Division of labor means that people specialized in

performance of specific economic activitiesperformance of specific economic activities• Ex. People became craftworkers, tool makers, etc.Ex. People became craftworkers, tool makers, etc.• This encouraged tradeThis encouraged trade

Horticultural and AgriculturalHorticultural and Agricultural Both are more complicated than pastoral Both are more complicated than pastoral

and the hunters and gathersand the hunters and gathers Bartering, exchange of goods and Bartering, exchange of goods and

services, grew out of agricultural societiesservices, grew out of agricultural societies Typically systems of writing and Typically systems of writing and

government emerge out of ag. societiesgovernment emerge out of ag. societies

Industrial SocietiesIndustrial Societies Focuses more on producing goods as Focuses more on producing goods as

main economic activitymain economic activity Causes a shift from home life setting Causes a shift from home life setting

(where most preindustrial societies work) (where most preindustrial societies work) to city life where factories are builtto city life where factories are built This leads to urbanization which is the This leads to urbanization which is the

concentration of population in citiesconcentration of population in cities See more competition for statusSee more competition for status

PostindustrialPostindustrial Economy is based on providing Economy is based on providing

information and servicesinformation and services This is what the US isThis is what the US is

About 73% of our workforce is based on info About 73% of our workforce is based on info and servicesand services

When switching from industrial to When switching from industrial to postindustrial, the standard of living postindustrial, the standard of living increase, as well as a belief in rights increase, as well as a belief in rights

Groups within societyGroups within society Society is a group made up of groupsSociety is a group made up of groups

A group can be as small as two people on a date, or A group can be as small as two people on a date, or be large like 500 soldiers at boot campbe large like 500 soldiers at boot camp

A group can be either intimate like a family or formal A group can be either intimate like a family or formal like people at a conferencelike people at a conference

There are four major features of a group:There are four major features of a group: There must be two or more peopleThere must be two or more people There must be interaction among membersThere must be interaction among members There must be shared expectationsThere must be shared expectations Members must possess some commonalityMembers must possess some commonality

Groups within societyGroups within society If the groups do not possess interaction, If the groups do not possess interaction,

expectations, and commonality then they expectations, and commonality then they are considered an aggregate-group that are considered an aggregate-group that lacks organizationlacks organization

A social category is a means of classifying A social category is a means of classifying people (they do not necessarily have to people (they do not necessarily have to interact in any way)interact in any way) Ex: women, teenagers, etc. are examples of Ex: women, teenagers, etc. are examples of

social categoriessocial categories

Groups within societyGroups within society Group sizeGroup size

Dyad-a group with two membersDyad-a group with two members• If one person leaves, the group ceases to existIf one person leaves, the group ceases to exist

Triad-a group of three peopleTriad-a group of three people• The group takes on a life of its own, no one person can The group takes on a life of its own, no one person can

cause the group to stop existingcause the group to stop existing Small group-means that everyone can interact on a Small group-means that everyone can interact on a

face-to-face basisface-to-face basis• The more people in the group, the more face-to-face The more people in the group, the more face-to-face

interaction has to take placeinteraction has to take place• Sociologists have found 15 people is the largest number for Sociologists have found 15 people is the largest number for

a group before it begins to break down into smaller groupsa group before it begins to break down into smaller groups

Groups within societyGroups within society Group TimeGroup Time

Some groups meet once and they never see each Some groups meet once and they never see each other again, some groups see each other everydayother again, some groups see each other everyday

Interaction is not continuous, you do not see your Interaction is not continuous, you do not see your family 24 hours a dayfamily 24 hours a day

OrganizationOrganization Formal group-structure, goals, and activities are Formal group-structure, goals, and activities are

clearly definedclearly defined Informal group-there is no official structure or Informal group-there is no official structure or

established rules of conductestablished rules of conduct

Types of GroupsTypes of Groups The most common types of groups are:The most common types of groups are:

PrimaryPrimary SecondarySecondary ReferenceReference In-groupsIn-groups Out-groupsOut-groups E-communitiesE-communities

Primary and Secondary GroupsPrimary and Secondary Groups Primary-small group of people who interact over Primary-small group of people who interact over

a relatively long perioda relatively long period Entire self of individual is taken into accountEntire self of individual is taken into account Relationships often intimate and face-to-faceRelationships often intimate and face-to-face

Secondary-interaction is impersonal and Secondary-interaction is impersonal and temporary in naturetemporary in nature Casual, limited personal involvementCasual, limited personal involvement Importance to group lies in what function he or she Importance to group lies in what function he or she

performsperforms Can be replaced easilyCan be replaced easily

Reference, In-Groups and Out-Reference, In-Groups and Out-GroupsGroups

Reference groups-any group with whom individuals Reference groups-any group with whom individuals identify and whose behaviors and values they adoptidentify and whose behaviors and values they adopt

Thug mentality, Christian groups, etcThug mentality, Christian groups, etc Do not have to belong to the groupDo not have to belong to the group

In-Groups-A group that a person belongs to and In-Groups-A group that a person belongs to and identifies withidentifies with

Out-groups-Any group that a person does not identify Out-groups-Any group that a person does not identify with or belong towith or belong to

In-groups tend to separate themselves by use of In-groups tend to separate themselves by use of symbols, clothes, etc.; they view themselves positively symbols, clothes, etc.; they view themselves positively and out-groups negatively; they find themselves in and out-groups negatively; they find themselves in conflict with out-groupsconflict with out-groups

E-Communities and Social E-Communities and Social NetworksNetworks

E-communities are where people E-communities are where people communicate regularly through internetcommunicate regularly through internet Some believe that these groups are primary Some believe that these groups are primary

groups because they interact on a more groups because they interact on a more intimate level, but not face-to-faceintimate level, but not face-to-face

The web of relationships that is formed by The web of relationships that is formed by the sum of a person’s interactions with the sum of a person’s interactions with others is called a social networkothers is called a social network

Group FunctionsGroup Functions Groups must do several things to existGroups must do several things to exist

Define boundaries (who can/cannot belong)Define boundaries (who can/cannot belong) Select leaders (people who influence the Select leaders (people who influence the

attitudes and opinions of others)attitudes and opinions of others)• Leader fall into two categories: Instrumental (task-Leader fall into two categories: Instrumental (task-

oriented) leader and Expressive (emotion-oriented) oriented) leader and Expressive (emotion-oriented) leadersleaders

Perform related functions of setting goal, Perform related functions of setting goal, assigning tasks, making decisionsassigning tasks, making decisions

Control their members behaviorControl their members behavior

The Structure of Formal The Structure of Formal OrganizationsOrganizations

Formal organization is a large, complex secondary group Formal organization is a large, complex secondary group that had been established to achieve specific goalsthat had been established to achieve specific goals

Includes businesses, schools, government agencies, religious Includes businesses, schools, government agencies, religious organizations, labor unions…organizations, labor unions…

Bureaucracy is a ranked authority structure that operates Bureaucracy is a ranked authority structure that operates according to specific rules and proceduresaccording to specific rules and procedures

Most formal structureMost formal structure Been around since ancient times, came to prominence during Been around since ancient times, came to prominence during

Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution Rationality involves subjecting every feature of human Rationality involves subjecting every feature of human

behavior to calculation, measurement, and controlbehavior to calculation, measurement, and control Bureaucracies were created to rationally organize groups to Bureaucracies were created to rationally organize groups to

complete a set of goalscomplete a set of goals

Weber’s Model of Weber’s Model of Bureaucracies Bureaucracies

According to Weber bureaucracies have the According to Weber bureaucracies have the following characteristics:following characteristics: Division of LaborDivision of Labor Ranking of AuthorityRanking of Authority Employment based on formal qualificationsEmployment based on formal qualifications Rules and RegulationsRules and Regulations Specific lines of promotion and advancementSpecific lines of promotion and advancement

Large corporations fit this description rigidly, Large corporations fit this description rigidly, other organizations like voluntary (nonprofit) other organizations like voluntary (nonprofit) associations are less rigidassociations are less rigid

How Effective are How Effective are Bureaucracies?Bureaucracies?

Bureaucracies advantages:Bureaucracies advantages: Create order by clearly defining job tasks and rewardsCreate order by clearly defining job tasks and rewards Provide stabilityProvide stability

WeaknessesWeaknesses Lose sight of original goalsLose sight of original goals Focus too much on rules instead of goalsFocus too much on rules instead of goals Iron Law of Oligarchy-a small group rules the larger Iron Law of Oligarchy-a small group rules the larger

group (sometimes promoting their own interests over group (sometimes promoting their own interests over others)others)

People rise to their level of incompetence People rise to their level of incompetence