Social Psychology

Social Psychology is the scientific study of how peoples thoughts,

feelings and behaviors are influenced by others..

It studies how people influence and are influenced by other people.

Peoples Perceptions of the World Have an Enormous Influence on How They Think, Feel and Act.

In Many Cases People Make Decisions That Do Not Solely Depend on the Facts.

Social Cognition.

The mental process associated with how we perceive and react to individuals and groupsHow we construct a perspective of the world.

Some of the Social Influences on Us

Social Comparisons

People Spend a Lot of Time Evaluating Themselves.

These evaluations are influenced by other people and they affect our public behavior

Leon Festinger noted that self-evaluation involves two types of questions: Those that can be answered objectively and those that cannot.

In Subjective Situation We Use Social Comparisons to Get Answers.

Using social criteria to answer a questionUseing people like ourselves to answer questions.

These people are called reference groups.The performance of these types of people influences your self-esteem.

To Prevent This We Sometimes Compare Ourselves to People Who We

Feel Do Not Have It So Good.Downward social comparison.This makes us feel better.If we run across people more superior to us we rationalize by overexagerating their ability.

When We Compare Ourselves to People Who Are Superior to Us We Experience the Relative Deprivation

Theory Influence.This lowers our self esteem and leaves us dissatisfied.

Social Identity Theory

Social identity

Our feelings about the groups in which we belong.Part of our self concept.People sacrifice their lives for the sake of their social identity.It is why we donate to those in need or display helping behaviors.

A strong social identity could lead to problems

It fosters an us vs. them mentality which may lead to prejudice and discriminationSocial identities lead to social schemas 1. a mental representation themselves.

This Shapes How People Think About Themselves.

It can lead to vulnerability to certain psychological disorders such as anxiety disorders and depression.

Patricia Linville States That Some People Have Unified Self-schemas

They have the same characteristics in all settings.Others have differentiated self-schemas.Unified self-schema people will have a strong emotional reaction to failing an exam – why?Differentiated people may think of themselves less as students but it will not effect their other social roles.

Social Perception

This is the process in which people:

Interpret information about others.Form impressions about them.Draw conclusions about the reasons for their behavior

Our schemas affect our social perception

Schemas mental representations about people.Characteristics or events that are consistent about our schemas of another person get more attention.We tend to process information about a person more quickly if it confirms our beliefs.

Impression Formation

The process of combining information about people into an overall judgment. 1. it’s like developing a theory of a person and using it as a guideline.For example: Big men are scarier to encounter at night then little women.

Schemas also influence what we remember about others.

For example, blue collar workers are more likely to drink beer and watch television.Schemas affect our judgment, cause errors in judgment and impact first impressions

How do people form impressions of other people and why are they so

reticent to change.Our mental schemas cause us to form impressions. (it’s combining information about people into an overall judgment)For example most people we meet hold attitudes and values similar to our own.Therefore we initially like people.

Wwe dislike people we first meet who do things which we interpret as negative. .

we often do things to confirm our first impressions.

For example, teacher expectations of students to do poorly are usually sensed by the student and they make less of an effort and do more poorly.

When Schemas Cause People to Act in Line With Our Expectations This Becomes a Self-fulfilling Prophecy.

Acting in accordance with our beliefs to make our beliefs happen.

People also form implicit theories about other people’s behavior.

This is referred to as attributionPeople tend to attribute behavior in a particular situation to either:Internal causes – characteristics of the person themselves orExternal causes – situations which cause the behavior.

Harold Kelly developed an attribution theory

It states that you can determine whether a person's behavior is internally or externally motivated by looking at three variables:ConsensusConsistencydistinctiveness

Consensus Is the Degree to Which Other Peoples Behavior Is similar.

Consistency is the degree to which the behavior is the same across time or situations. Distinctiveness concerns the extent to which similar stimuli elicit the same behavior

Kelly states that behavior is internally attributed when:

Consensus is lowConsistency is highDistinctiveness is low

Behavior is externally attributed when:

Consensus is highConsistency is lowDistinctiveness is high

For Example, If You Observe Your Boss Insulting Customers, a Situation of Low consensus (Most People in Business Are Polite), High Consistency (No Matter Who the Customers Are) and Low Distinctiveness (not the same in similar circumstances all the time), You Would Attribute Your Bosses Behavior to Internal Attribution.

Most People Are Prone to Attribution Biases.

Fundamental attribution error.The tendency to over-attribute the behavior of others to internal factors. 1. not taking the power of the situation into account.

A Related Form of Cognitive Bias is The Ultimate Attribution Error.

When positive behaviors by members of an out group are both attributed to external situational factors. (rather then crediting the person)Because of this, out group members receive little credit for their positive actions and members of in-groups little blame for their negative actions.What is the consequence of this?

It Helps Maintain Stereotypical Views of Certain Groups.

These are social beliefs learned form othersIt effects how we think about peopleThey are shortcuts to thinking

The physical attractiveness stereotype

The tendency to perceive physical attractive people as:More dominantMore sociableMore sexually attractiveMore intelligentMore socially skilled

When People Explore Their Own Behavior They Use The Actor Observer

Bias.

They attribute their own behavior to external causes, especially when their behavior is inappropriate. a. Although they attribute other people's behavior to internal causes.

People Also Have a Self-serving Bias.

This is taking credit for success and blaming failure on external causes.This protects their self-esteem.

ATTITUDES

Attitudes Are positive or Negative Evaluations Towards People, Things

Events or Issues.They influence peoples views.Attitudes have three components

Ideally These Three Components Act in Harmony.

Whether these components are consistent is determined by several factors:

1. Whether the cognitive and emotional components are in agreement.

2. Whether the behavior is in line with our subjective view I.E. We behave the way we think people want us to behave.

When our personal views are in conflict with prevailing attitudes

behavior could be effected.ExampleYou believe In gay rights but will not campaign for them because it will upset your family

The Formation of New Attitudes Is Influenced Mainly by Learning

Principles.We also fall prey to something called the mere

exposure effect.Attitudes towards things become more positive the more frequently we are exposed to it.

Attitudes can be formed through conditioning

Operant – Being praised when learning t dance will result in a positive towards dancingClassical – developing prejudicial attitudes towards a group because you heard your parents maligning them

How Do We Change Attitudes?

When we are persuaded by three things: The characteristics of the person communicating the message The content of the message The audience receiving it.

One Explanation is the Elaboration of Likelihood Model.

Persuasive messages can change people's attitudes through one of two main routes.

1. The peripheral route 2. The central route

The Peripheral Route

Little attention is paid to the actual content of the persuasive message.Confidence, attractiveness or some other characteristic of the person delivering the message influences the person.For example, using a movie star to sell you something.

The Central Route

This is when the message is more important then the characteristics of the communicator.

There Are Other Characteristics Involved in Attitudinal Change Such As:

How busy you are at the time you are being persuaded.Your personality characteristics.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Developed by Leon Festinger People want their thoughts, beliefs and attitudes to be consistent with one another and with their behavior.

Inconsistency or dissonance among these elements causes anxiety

Example; smokers who believe it is harmful must decide its not or quit.

When People Engage in Behaviors That Are Contrary to Their Private Held Attitudes, They Are Likely to Change Their Attitudes to Be Consistent With Their Public Behavior.

One of the Recent Challenges to Cognitive Dissonance Theory Is Self

Perception Theory.It’s founder Daryl Bem states that situations often arise in which people are not quite sure about their attitudes.People look at their own behavior in the particular circumstance and then infer what their attitude must be.

Self Perception Theory Seems to Apply Best When People Have No Prior

attitude or Have an Attitude That Is Weak or Ill Defined.

For instance, towards a food they have never tasted.When attitudes are strongly defined and when internal consistency is important to ones self-esteem, dissonance theory seems to hold true.

Prejudice

Stereotyping Leads to Prejudice.

This is the an attitude towards specific members of a group suggesting they deserve an inferior social standing.Prejudice, like other attitudes has cognitive, behavioral and affective components.

Prejudice Is More Likely Among People Who Have a Personality Trait Called

Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism has three elements:An acceptance of conventional or traditional values.An inclination to act aggressively towards those identified by authority figures as threatening the values held buy ones in-group.A willingness to follow the orders of authority figures.

A More Recent Motivational Explanation of Prejudice Invokes the Concept of

Social IdentityMost people are motivated to identify with their in-group and tend to see it as better then other groups.See members of an out-group as less attractive and less socially accepted.

There Are Also Cognitive Theories on Stereotyping and Prejudice Which State That People Use Schemas and Other Cognitive Shortcuts to Organize and

Make Sense Out of Their Social World.Draw conclusions about other people but sometimes they are inaccurate.

Learning Theories on Prejudice Say That Our Attitudes Towards Other Groups Are Learned by the Words and Deeds of Our Parents and Our Peers.

Realistic group conflict theory

When two groups compete for scarce resources a breeding ground for prejudice develops.Hostility increases towards the opposing out-groupIn-group loyalty intensifies This is called ethnocentrism

How Do We Reduce Prejudice?

One Theory Called the Contact Hypothesis States That Stereotypes and Prejudice Will Diminish As Contact With

the Group Increases. This is he theory behind cultural diversity and multiculturalism in schools.Studies in desegregated schools show that contact is not enough for prejudice to completely dissipate.People have to be roughly equal in social and economic status.

School Authorities Had to Promote cooperation and Independence.

Contact had to occur on a one to one bases.Members of both groups had to be typical and not unusual in any way.When these four conditions are met, children’s attitudes towards one another become more positive.

To Reduce Prejudice, We Must Develop Educational Techniques That Address the Social Cognitions and Perceptions That Lie at the Core of Bigotry and Hatred Towards People That Are Different Form Us.

What Causes Interpersonal Attraction?

HOMOGAMY, PROPINQUITY, PHYSICAL ATTARACTIVENESS

Homogamy is known as the matching hypothesis

The balance theory also ties to explain hmogamy. 1. developed by Fritz HeiderWe desire balance in our thoughts, feelings and relationships. Balanced relationships are exciting and rewarding and is created when two people value the same thing and have similar attitudes.

How Do Relationships Turn Intimate?

Eventually People Who Are Attracted to Each Other Become

Interdependent.

Their thoughts emotions and behaviors affect each other.When the defining values on one person become part of the self concept of another intimacy begins.

Another Key Component of Intimacy Is Commitment to the Relationship.

People become committed to a relationship when: 1. Satisfied with the rewards they receive from it. 2. Invested considerable resources in it. 3. Few attractive alternative relationships available.

When Does Intimacy Become Love?

Love is fleeting and people define it differently.There is a difference between passionate love and companionate love.Passionate love is intense, arousing and marked by both physical and emotional attachment.Companionate love is less arousing but psychologically more intimate. It is marked by a mutual concern for the welfare of one another.

Partner enhancing bias

People in happy romantic relationships do two things, they attribute their partners:Positive behavior to dispositional factors andNegative behaviors to situational factors

What Causes Successful Marriages?

Two things: 1. Couples who had a close intimate relationship and similar attitudes when dating. 2. The ability to deal with conflict and anger.

Handling relationship conflict

Caryle Rosbult identified four strategies people use in dealing with a troubles relationship.

Loyalty

Waiting things out, ignoring the problems in hopes things will change

Neglect

Ignore the partner and spend less time with them

Exit

Leave the relationship

Voice

Discuss the problems and seek a compromise in a attempt to salvage the relationship

The strategies operate on a active/passive, constructive/destructive

planeLoyalty is a passive constructive strategyNeglect is a passive destructive strategyExit is a active destructive strategyVoice is a active constructive strategy

Social Influence

Social power

Refers to the power available to the influencer.Power originates from having resources or being liked and admired

What is the major way in which society influences us?

Social Norms.

Socially based rules that prescribe what people do in various situations.They are transmitted by various agents of the culture like parents and peers.

Robert Cialdini Describes Two Types of Social Norms: Prescriptive and

InjunctivePrescriptive – these indicate how most people should act. They tell a person what to do. (green light) Injunctive – they tell us what is unacceptable. (stop sign)

Social Influence created by norms Results in Social Behavior.

It can also lead to a breakdown of behavior.An example is deindividuation. 1. a psychological state which occurs when a person is submerges in a group and loses his individualityThey go along with everything the group wants.

The three behavioral consequences of social influence are

ConformityComplianceObedience

Conformity and Compliance

Could You Be Influenced to Change Your Opinion If Several of Your Friends

Give Opposite Opinions.

When people change their opinion to match other members of the group they are said to conform.Conformity usually results from group pressure, real or imagined.

Our tendency to mimic the behaviors of others is called the chameleon

effect

It is an example of how conformity works

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CONFORMITY

Group size

As the group size increase so does conformity. up to a point.After the number goes beyond three or four, group influence decreases

Group cohesiveness

Cohesive groups elicit greater conformity.

One is more likely to accept a friends influence

Social support

A friend who supports your thinking will reduce your conformity to the group

Desire for personal control

A high degree of personal control will reduce the temptation to conform

culture

Individualist cultures reduce conformity

Why Do People Conform?

To avoid rejection and gain social approval. a. This is normative social influence

To gain valuable information a. This is informational social influence

Why Do Group Norms wield Such Power Over Us?

Norms tell us what is right and wrongSecond, people are motivated to be liked. A. If you go along with the group you are liked.Third, norms influence social rewards and punisments.

How Do You Get People to Conform?

When you make people feel insecure or incompetentWhen the group has at least three peopleWhen the group is unanimousWhen the group has status and is attractiveWhen the person has made no prior commitments

CONT.

When other group members observe your behaviorWhen we come from a culture that respects social standards

Compliance Is Different, It Occurs When People Adjust Their Behavior

Because of a Request.

It could be explicit. (PASS THE SALT)It could be implicit. (a stern glance)

Compliance is enhanced by mood alteration

Others are likely to comply if they are in a good mood.Especially when asked to help another in need.

Reciprocity norm

Another factor increasing complianceThe idea that one should return a favor or god deed.For example, if someone gives you a gift you are more likely to donate to their organization.

Compliance is enhanced when a reason is given as to why the request should be

granted.

For example, come to the crime watch meeting, it will reduce the likelihood of being robbed

How can you get others to comply with your wishes?

Several strategies can be used: A. The foot in the door technique 1. Make small requests followed by larger ones. B. The door in the face procedure. I.E. Make request likely to be denied, then concede it was inappropriate.

The Lowball Approach

Obtain a person’s oral commitment to do something.Increase the cost of the commitment.

What is obedience and how does it work?

A behavioral change that comes in response to a demand from an authority figure.To understand how it works we need to look at Stanley milligram's experiment.

There Are Several Factors That Effect obedience:

Prestige of the requesterIf others are obeyingPersonality characteristics

Research tells us that:

Early and firm statements in opposition of an order reduces compliance to an authority figure.

Aggression

There are two types of aggression

Instrumental aggressionHostile aggression

Instrumental aggression

He intentional use of harmful behavior so that no one else can achieve a goal.Motivated by rewards or avoidance of punishment.For example, military aggression

Hostile aggression

Purposeful use of harmful behavior to cause injury or deathImpulsive, irrational behaviorFor example, punching someone who took your parking place

Many aggressive actions can’t be put in either category.

I.E. A CHILD HITS A FRIEND FOR TAKING HIS TOY (HOSTILE AGGRESSION) AND THEN RETREIVES THE TOY (INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION)

Why Are People Aggressive?

There are several explanations:Freud said because we have life and death instincts.

Aggression is a life instinct that builds up and must be released at some point.Sometimes it is released in the form of physical and verbal abuse and sometimes it is turned inward and people commit suicide or do other self-damaging things.

Evolutionary Psychologists Say It’s a Genetic Thing.

There is evidence there are genetic and biological influences on aggression.People inherit certain temperaments for impulsiveness which can turn into aggression.

Research on the Limbic System Concludes That Manipulation of the

Amygdala Produces Aggressive Behavior.

The cerebral cortex is also thought to be involved in aggression.The prefrontal area of the cortex metabolizes glucose more slowly in murderers.

Hormones

Aggression is related to testosterone levelsDrugs that effect the central nervous system can cause aggressive behavior.Even the smallest amounts of alcohol can substantially increase some popele’s agressiveness .

Learning Also Plays a part In Aggression.

The more we are introduced to aggressive models, the more likely we will become aggressive.

We learn aggression by watching aggressive people.

When Do People Become Aggressive?

Aggression is related to emotion.One emotion that is considered to be a major cause of aggression is frustration.The frustration aggression hypothesis. (frustration causes anger which causes aggression)

Recent research shows that aggressiveness is caused by several

factorsStressEmotional arousalThe environment in which you live

Gender differences In aggression styles

Men are more likely to engage in physical aggressionWomen in indirect aggression (gossiping or spreading rumors)When people are provoked these gender differences are lessoned

STUDIES SHOW THAT SELF-AWARENESS AND SELF-REGULATOIN

ARE CRUCIAL FACTORS IN CONTROLLING AGGRESSION

Also, parents must exhibit self-control not just preach it to instill the behavior in children

What is Altruism?

Altruism is an unselfish concern for another’s welfare.There are several theories which attempt to explain why some people are more willing to help others

The Arousal Cost Reward Theory.

When People See Someone in Distress, They become Very Anxious.

This motivates them to do something to reduce this anxiety.People usually evaluate two things before they rush to help someone: - The cost of helping the person and the cost of not helping.

Helping Also Depends On:

Clarity of need for helpThe amount of people around (the bystander effect)The personality of the helper

The more stress a person is under, the less likely they are to help.

The Empathy Altruism Theory

People Will Engage in Altruistic Behavior If They Feel Empathy Towards the Person in Need.

Empathizing with another person can lead to unselfish helping.

Evolutionary Theory

Altruism Echoes the Actions That Contribute to the Survival of Our Ancestors.

Cooperation, Competition and Conflict

When People Interact With One Another While Attempting to Reach Some Goal,

One of Three Things Could HappenCooperation – behavior in which people work together to obtain a goalCompetition – Trying to gain a goal for yourself while achieving a goalConflict – When a person or a group stands in the way of achieving a goal.

Cooperation

To change conflict to cooperation introduce a project with standard goals.Cooperative contact reduces conflictCooperation is extremely positive when it leads to the definition of a new inclusive group with shared goals.

Bias will be reduced if:

You take adversaries and assign then a cooperative task

Shared goals make friends of former enemies.

What Are Social Dilemmas?

CERTAIN SOCIAL SITUATIONS LEAD TO SOCIAL DILEMMAS

Situations in Which Actions Which Produce Rewards for One Individual Will, If Adopted, Produce Negative

Consequences for All Others.Psychologists have used something called the prisoners dilemma to help define this.

There Is a Dilemma Here

If they cooperate they will both confess and get five years.They have an incentive to compete by confession and get off free. (THIS IS CONFLICT)If both compete and confess they will get five years.Both are going through what psychologists call mixed motive conflict.

People Tend to Act Competitively Rather Then Cooperatively for Two

Reasons:

Winning is in itself a rewardCompetition seems to feed itself

Conflict Is Likely When People Become Involved in Zero Sum Games

Situations in which what one person gains is subtracted from another persons resources

There Are Four Major Causes Of Interpersonal Conflicts:

Competition for scarcer resourcesRevenueAttributing unfriendly of selfish motives to others.Faulty communications

Industrial Psychologists Have Discovered That It Is Better to Try and

Manage Conflict Effectively Then to Try and Eliminate It.

In

Group Processes

The social/psychological processes that occur in groups.

They are:

Group Leadership

A good leader will help the group pursue its’ goals.Good leaders are dominant, emotionally stable, agreeable, conscientious, success oriented and flexible.Even good leaders in one situation may be ineffective in another.

Group Polarization

Initial differences between groups tend to grow over time. This is group polarization.It could be good or bad. Good when it amplifies a positive group goal. I.E. a resolve to help othersBad when it enhances evil goals. I.E. terrorism

Group Think

This is when group members are not realistically able to evaluate the options available to them.

Group Think Is Likely When Three Conditions Exist:

The group is isolated.The group is working under time pressure.People are not impartialWhen all three conditions exist the group becomes very close minded and tends to make irrational decisions.

One Way to Eliminate group Think Is to Designate a Devil’s Advocate.

Another is to encourage diverse opinions.Remember, all of these situations effect how we interact with people which, in effect, impacts how we perceive, how we behave and how we think.