Soci111 – Human SocietiesModule 11 – Agrarian Societies

François Nielsen

University of North CarolinaChapel Hill

October 21, 2014

Outline

Main Themes

Simple Agrarian Societies

Advanced Agrarian Societies

Main Themes

I invention of wheel, use of the plow, animal traction, andother technologies bring about momentous socialtransformations

I expansion of surplus brings about trends ofI increasing differentiationI urbanizationI inequalityI size of societiesI emergence of universal faithsI etc . . .

Simple Agrarian SocietiesFirst Simple Agrarian Societies = First Civilizations

Simple Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Plow & Animal Traction Complex

Emergence of agriculture

I from Latin ager “field”

I marked by use of the plow (perhaps as early as 6thmillenium BC)

I first agrarian civilization about 3,500 BC inMesopotamia

Plow permits

I better control of weeds

I bringing back leached nutrients to the surface

I harnessing animal power (oxen), from which . . .

I manure is produced, which can be used as fertilizer

Plow literally “changes the landscape”.

Simple Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Early Egyptian ox-drawn plow

Simple Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Peasant Using Traditional Plow in Iran

Simple Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Early Potter’s Wheel

Simple Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – How to make a wheel out of a log

I wheel first used aspotter’s wheel

I originates in ancientSumer, Mesopotamia ca4,500 BC

I wagon wheel made fromslice of log does not work

I must be made with plankslike so . . .

I made possible by metalsaw

Simple Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Wheeled Vehicles

I Can you see the wagon onthe Bronocice pot?

I Funnel Beaker culture,southern Poland ca4,500–3,500 BC

I oldest evidence for wagonuse

I Was wagon invented inEurope?

Simple Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Wheeled Vehicles (other evidence)

I onager-drawn wagons on Standard of Ur, ca 2,600 BC

I graves with people in wagons in northern Caucasus, ca3,700 BC

Simple Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Expansion of the Surplus

I adoption of the plow & associated technologies (wheel,animal traction)

I → increased productivity of labor

I → tremendous expansion of surplus (=production inexcess of what is needed to keep farmers alive andproductive)

I → momentous social consequences. . .

Simple Agrarian SocietiesIdeology – Temple-Centered Religion

I e.g. religions of Sumer & Egypt

I justify exploitation of surplus

I through obligation of sacrifices & tributes to gods

I temples serving as “warehouses”

I temple-centered religion → invention of writing

I originally used for temple accounting

Simple Agrarian SocietiesIdeology – Temple-Centered Religion (Luxor, Egypt ca 1400 BC)

Simple Agrarian SocietiesPopulation – Growth Through Conquest

I Egyptian soldiers attacking a fortress ca. 1940 BC

I communities & societies grow in size

I often through conquest

Simple Agrarian SocietiesPolity – Trends in the Polity

I growth of the State becauseI societies larger & more complexI → kinship ties no longer sufficient as organizing principle

I emergence of government bureaucracies staffed byscribes

I emergence of professional armies becauseI men now cultivate (plow) the fieldsI societies larger → wars longer (see next exhibit)I larger surplus can support specialized (non-productive)

class of soldier

I emergence of formal legal systems (replacing bloodrevenge by relatives)

I used to incorporate diverse population resulting fromconquest

I e.g. Code of Hammurabi, Babylon ca 1,700 BC

Simple Agrarian SocietiesPolity – State Bureaucracy: Organizational Chart of Government of Egypt

Simple Agrarian SocietiesPolity – How Larger Size of Societies Entails Longer Wars

Simple Agrarian SocietiesPolity – Professional Armies

I Q – Which modern“state” still has a(foreign)professional army?

I A – The Vatican(Swiss Guard)

I Dan Brown’s novelAngels & Demonsfeatures the SwissGuard

Simple Agrarian SocietiesPolity – Professional Armies

I Q – Which modern“state” still has a(foreign)professional army?

I A – The Vatican(Swiss Guard)

I Dan Brown’s novelAngels & Demonsfeatures the SwissGuard

Simple Agrarian SocietiesEconomy – Trends in the Economy

I emergence of monetary systems (= standard medium ofexchange)

I first based on grain (but bulky)I later based on metallic currencies

I → expansion of tradeI Q – Why is exchange based on money more efficient than

barter?

I consequences of expansion of tradeI emergence of merchant classI increased complexity of division of laborI increase in individualism?

Simple Agrarian SocietiesStratification – Trends in Social Stratification

I larger surplus → greater inequality

I stratification system characterized by 3 coincidingcontrasts

I governing class vs. the massI urban minority vs. peasant majorityI literate minority vs. illiterate majority

I resulting inI two distinct subcultures (urban elite vs. the peasant

mass)I cultural differences within agrarian societies greater

than differences between them

Simple Agrarian SocietiesSlowdown in Rate of Technological Innovation – V. Gordon Childe’s Thesis

I slowdown in technological innovation ca 2,600 to 600 BC

I due to high level of social inequality?

Simple Agrarian SocietiesSlowdown in Rate of Technological Innovation – Caused by High Inequality?

Highlevels of exploitation and inequality, so that

I peasants – have expertise; no incentive for innovation asbenefit exploited away

I elites – no expertise; prefer conquest for increasingwealth

Simple Agrarian SocietiesReview Questions

I Q – Which of the following trends are consequences ofthe shift from horticulture to agriculture?

I greater involvement of men in farmingI fields kept continuously under cultivationI the growth of urban populationI expansion of the surplus

I Q – Did the slowdown in the rate of technologicalinnovation during the agrarian era originate in

I declining trade?I declining birth rates among the elite?I an increasing store of cultural information?I the nature of the stratification system?I increasing birth rates among the peasants?

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Iron Smelting

I advanced agrarian societies marked by iron metallurgy

I e.g. ancient Rome, Western European societies until ca1750, colonial America

I iron smeltingI ca 1,400 BC – developed by Hittites of Asia MinorI ca 1,200 BC – diffusion of technique beginsI ca 800 BC – iron used for common tools

I Q – Why did iron technology emerge so late?

I A – One reason is difficult chemistry of ironI cast iron (2.5% to 3.5% carbon) too brittleI wrought iron (no carbon) too softI steel (putting back .25% to 1.25% carbon) just fine for

making “cutting, chopping, piercing, or slashing” tools

I quenching (dipping hot steel in cold water or oil)additional refinement

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesTechnology – Iron Smelting

I early ore smelter(for copper/bronzeor iron)

I model will notwork as shown!(check the blower)

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesPopulation – Population Trends

Simple agrarian population trends continue

I size of societies & cities increases (from improvedproductivity & empire building)

I high birth rate – ca 40 birth per 1,000 population peryear (due to value of children as assets)

I high death rate – ca 40 deaths per 1,000 population peryear because of

I unsanitary towns (no sewers, contaminated wells)I plagues, e.g. Black Plague ca 1350 killed 1/4 to 1/2 of

population of EuropeI famines, often local/regional because

I relatively inefficient transportation technology (next slide)I food cannot easily be brought in from outside

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesPopulation – High Cost of Agrarian Transportation Tehnologies

Table: Cost of Moving 1 Ton ofGoods 1 Mile in China AfterWorld War II (U.S. cents)

Steamboat 2.4Railroad 2.7Junk 12.0Animal-drawn cart 13.0Pack mule 17.0Wheelbarrow 20.0Pack donkey 24.0Carrying by pole 48.0

I China after WWIIprovides a “naturalexperiment”, astransportationtechnologies fromtraditional to moderncoexist

I → one can compare theirrelative costs (table)

I industrial technologies(steamboat, railroad) areleast expensive

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesEconomy

I trend of increasing differentiation

I major contrast between rural & urban sectors

I rural sectorI characterized as a command economyI high degree of inequality, e.g. feudalism

I urban sectorI rarely more than 10% of population)I increasing division of labor & specialization

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesEconomy – Structure of Rural Exploitation

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesEconomy – Differentiation in Urban Sector

I Do you known whatI a hucksterI a scrivenerI a currier (not courier)

does?

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesPolity – Trends in the Polity

I development of the State

I monarchy based on proprietary theory of the StateI State viewed as personal property of ruler

I high concentration of income – in most agrariansocieties ruler + governing class

I represent less than 2% populationI receive 50% of income or more

I high level of conflict within elite; e.g. of 79 Romanemperors

I 31 were murderedI 6 driven to suicideI 4 deposed forcibly

I Q – Who said “L’état, c’est moi”, and what does it mean?

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesReligion – Emergence of Universal Faiths

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesReligion – Emergence of Universal Faiths

I during advanced agrarian era emergence ofI Buddhism (5th c. BC)I Christianity (Catholicism)I Islam (622 AD)

I Why do universal faiths emerge in advanced agrarianera?

I clues from CatholicismI etymology of Catholicism from Greek

I kata “for”, “over”I holos “the whole”

I Emperor Constantine’s motto In hoc signo vincesI competition among cults in Roman Empire, e.g. cult of

Mithra (next slide)

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesReligion – Competition of Cults in Roman Empire

I cult of Mithra ofPersian origin

I universal faith butrestricted to men

I competed formembers withearly Christianity

I as seen in(imaginary)cross-section ofItalian church

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesReligion – Spread of a Universal Faith: Christianization of Europe

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesReligion – Spread of Universal Faiths

I factors favoring spread of universal faithsI broader outlook from expanding trade relations &

empiresI e.g. Temple to the Unknown God in ancient Rome

I role of universal faith in unifying diverse populationsI e.g. Constantine’s conversion

I despite spread of universal faiths, persistence ofI belief in magicI fatalism & preoccupation with death

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesArts & Leisure – Recreaction Often Brutal & Violent

I parallel to social control based on fear of torture & death

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesSocial Stratification – Trends in Stratification System

I growing complexity,manifested as

I more intermediate-statusoccupations, e.g.merchants, artisans

I more overlap in rankingsaccording towealth/property, e.g. somemerchants wealthier thansome members ofgoverning class

I high degree of inequalityI class of expendables

I Q – What is a retainer?

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesVariation Among Advanced Agrarian Societies

I among simpler societies, differences mostly related tobiophysical environment

I among advanced agrarian societies, differences mostlyrelated to social environment

I proximity to trade routes favors development, e.g.I Middle East during most of Agrarian EraI later Western Europe

I frontier societies created by expansion into sparselyinhabited lands have distinct characteristics

I land abundantI people scarce (no expendables)I → frontier societies at first more egalitarian than other

agrarian societies

I e.g. early North America egalitarian frontier society, butI typical “agrarian” pattern of high inequality later

developed, especially in SouthI only prevented by onset of industrialization in late 19th c.

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesVariation Among Advanced Agrarian Societies – Early Modern Political Systems

Advanced Agrarian SocietiesReview Questions

I Q – Which of the following are innovations of agrariansocieties?

I bureaucratic religious and government organizationsI warfareI universal religionsI legal codesI professional armiesI slaveryI monetary systems

I Q – In what ways did frontier societies of the agrarianera differ from more typical agrarian societies?