Course’s Plan

1- Morphology (6 days)

• Words, sentences and dictionaries A word and its parts: roots, affixes and their shapes• A word and its forms: inflection A word and its relatives: derivation• Compound words, blends and phrasal words A word and its structure

Mid- Term Test2- Syntax ( 8 days)• Sentence structure: Constituents, Functions• Sentence structure: Categories, The verb phrase• Adverbials and other matters, The verb group• More on noun phrases, • Sentences within sentences, WH- Clauses • Non-finite clauses- Assessment- Total marks =30% Mid-term (Morpho) +70% Final (Final: Syntax)

Reference Books

• Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (2002). An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and their Structure. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd.

• Burton-Roberts, N. (1997). Analysing Sentences: An Introduction to English Syntax (second edition). New York: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.

1. Booij, G. (2007). The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology (second edition). New York: Oxford University Press.

2. Fromkin, V. et al. (2005). An Introduction to Language (Australian edition). Melbourne: Nelson Thomson Learning Pty Limited.

3. Jackson, H. (1982). Analyzing English: An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics (second edition). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

4. Jacobs, R. A. (1995). English Syntax: A Grammar for English Professionals. London: Oxford University Press.

Morphology: basic notionsTo know a word, is to know …• spelling • pronunciation • definition • part of speech • history • non-standard/slang • whether the word is vulgar • whether the word is obsolete • examples

MORPHOLOGY: THE WORDS OF LANGUAGE

• morphe (Greek) = shape, form -ology = "science of“

• The study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed.

MORPHEME

• the smallest unit of linguistic meaning. • A single word may be composed of one or more

morphemes. • Example: un+system+atic+al+ly ( the word

unsystematically can be analyzed into 5 separate morphemes)

• A grammatical unit in which there is an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning that cannot be further analyzed.

• Every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.

Morphemes >< Phonemes

• Morpheme: meaning• Phoneme: distinctive featureEx: un-reason-able talks

One morpheme

• boy (one syllable)

• desire, lady, water (two syllables)

• crocodile (three syllables)

• salamander (four syllables),

• or more syllables

Two morphemes

• boy + ish

• desire + able

Three morphemes

• boy + ish + ness

• desire + able + ity

Four morphemes

• gentle + man + li + ness

• un + desire + able + ity

More than four

• un + gentle + man + li + ness

• anti + dis + establish + ment + ari + an + ism

Free Morphemes

• Morphemes which can be used as a word on its own (without the need for further elements, i.e. affixes)

• Example: girl, system, desire, hope, act, phone, happy..

Bound Morphemes

• Morphemes which cannot occur on its own as an independent (or separate) word.

Affixes (prefix, suffix, infix and circumfix) are all bound morphemes.

Root vs. Stem

Root Stem

Non-affix lexical content morphemes that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts  (ex.) cran (as in cranberry), act, beauty, system, etc.. 

     Free Root  Morpheme: run, bottle, phone, etc.

     Bound Root  Morpheme: uncount, uncouth, nonchalant, etc. 

 

When a root morpheme is combined with affix morphemes,   it forms a stem. 

Other affixes can be added to a stem to form a more complex stem. 

Root believe (verb)Stem believe + able (verb + suffix)Word un + believe + able (prefix + verb + suffix) Root system (noun)

Stem system + atic (noun + suffix)

Stem un + system + atic (prefix + noun + suffix)

Stem un + system + atic + al (prefix + noun + suffix + suffix)

Word un + system + atic + al + ly (prefix + noun + suffix +

suffix + suffix )

Words, sentences and dictionaries

• words are units of language which are basic in two senses:

1. they have meanings that are unpredictable and so must be listed in dictionaries

2. they are the building-blocks out of which phrases and sentences are formed.

(Carstairs-McCarthy, A. 2002. p.5)

Words as types and words as tokens

• Mary goes to Edinburgh next week, and she intends going to Washington next month.

-> to E & to W: two performances of the same tune -> distinct tokens of one type-> next w & next m: two copies of the same book -> distinct tokens of one type

Words with predictable meanings• Do any words have meanings that are predictable?• Onomatopoeic words are not the same in all languages

(a cock-crow in German is kikeriki)• Some words have meanings that are ‘natural’ or

predictable in this way is really a leftover from childhood.

• What kinds of word do have predictable meanings?-> any words that are composed of independently identifiable parts, where the meaning of the parts is sufficient to determine the meaning of the whole word.

Which of the following words may not deserve to be regarded as lexicalitems, and so may not need to be listed in a dictionary of modern

English? Why?

• punish punishing punishable punishment• receive receptive receivable reception

• Which of the following phrases (in italics) may deserve to be regarded as lexical items? Why?

1- a. They put the cat among the hamsters.b. They put the cat among the pigeons.

2- a-Roger is a man who keeps his promises.b- Richard is a man of his word.

A word and its parts: roots, affixes and their shapes

• morphemes and allomorphs, bound and free• roots, affixes and combining forms• prefixes and suffixes.

What is an allomorph?

• Definition: An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments.

• The allomorphs of a morpheme are derived from phonological rules and any morphophonemic rules that may apply to that morpheme.

• Definition An allomorph is an alternative manifestation of a

morpheme (a set of meaningful linguistic units). Allomorphs vary in shape or pronunciation according to their conditions of use, but not as to meaning.

Examples: In English, the negative prefix in has several allomorphs:

• In-capable • Il-logical • Im-probable • Ir-reverent

Identify the morphemes

1.replay, weaken, rainy, keeper, manly, honest

2.dreamed, phonemic, selective, friendship, infamous

1. law2. do3. talk4. delight5. predict6. year7. Prefer, preferable, prefered,

preferential8. soft9. rotate10.history

• Exercises p.27- Consider the following words:(a) tigers / speakers(b) untimely / uniquely(c) decorating / decentralising(d) wholesome / gruesome(e) consumed / consumption(f ) leucocyte / erythrocyte

1. Divide them into morphemes, noting any instances where you are unsure. What differences are there between the words in each pair?

2. Are there any morphemes here which have two or more allomorphs?

3. Which of these morphemes are free and which are bound? Are the bound morphemes all affixes, or are some of them roots or combining forms?

4. Do any problems arise here for the view that morphemes are ‘the smallest units of language that can be associated with meaning’ or ‘the minimal units of meaning’?

Word characteristics

• unpredictable and so must be listed in dictionaries

• building-blocks for words and phrases.EX:

1- I keep tabs on all my expenditure.2- Too many cooks spoil the broth.3- A stitch in time saves nine.4- It’s no use crying over spilt milk.

MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

-> Morphological analysis refers to the analysis of morphology in any of the many fields to use the term.EX: unreasonable

- un-: prefix, negative bound morpheme.- “reason”: stem, free morp., verb- able: suffix, bound morp., adj, ability to do sth

- restrain -> rest – rain / re – strain?- children -> child – r – en ?

DERIVATION & INFLECTION

Inflection and derivation are the two main processes of word formation. They are two kinds of morphosyntactic operation.

• perform-s • perform-ed • perform-ance.

-> inflection

-> inflection

-> derivation

What is inflection?

• Definition: Inflection is variation in the form of a word,

typically by means of an affix, that expresses a grammatical contrast which is obligatory for the stem’s word class in some given grammatical context.

Examples:• pianist -> pianists (plural)• talk -> talks (third person , singular)• decide -> decided (simple past, pp)• give -> giving (present part., gerund)• green -> greener (comparative)• green -> greenest (superlative)• her -> hers (possessive)

What is derivation?

• Definition: Derivation is the formation of a new word or

inflectable stem from another word or stem. It typically occurs by the addition of an affix. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original. It may thus take the inflectional affixes of the new word class.

Examples

• Kindness is derived from kind. • Joyful is derived from joy. • Amazement is derived from amaze. • Speaker is derived from speak. • National is derived from nation.

Comparison of inflection and derivation

Inflection Derivation

Lexical category

Do not change Often change

Location Tend to occur outside derivational affixes.

Tend to occur next to the root

Type of meaning

Contribute syntactically conditioned information, such as number, gender, or aspect.

Contribute lexical meaning

Affixes used

Occur with all or most members of a class of stems.

Are restricted to some, but not all members of a class of stems

Productivity May be used to coin new words of the same type.

May eventually lose their meaning and usually cannot be used to coin new terms

Grounding Create forms that are fully-grounded and able to be integrated into discourse.

Create forms that are not necessarily fully grounded and may require inflectional operations before they can be integrated into discourse

Morphological operations

Words = roots + affixes = morphological

atoms = morphemes = pieces that are no

further divisible into smaller ones.

EX: international = inter – nation –al

independence = in – depend – en – ce

predictable = pre-dict - able

Practice

Identify the morphemes for each of the following words, classify whether they are derivation or inflection

1.antedate2.portable3.disagreement4.readings5.unloosened6.ungentlemanly7.misjudgement8.Persian9.Researchers10. oxen

Un avoid able un- : bound / allomorph, derivational, prefix,

means “without” or “not” “avoid” : free morpheme, verb - able : bound morpheme, derivational, adjective forming suffix, means “may/ ability”

Plural noun1. -um -> -a: datum-> data, bacterium -> bacteria2. - -> -es: orange -> oranges

-s: pen -> pens, books3. -oo- -> -ee-: tooth -> teeth4. -o -> es: potato -> potatoes5. -fe -> -ves: wife -> wives, leaf -> leaves (proof -> proofs)6. -y -> ies: candy -> candies7. -a- -> -e-: man -> men8. -us -> -i: cactus -> cacti

‘small X’: -let, -ette, -iee.g. droplet, booklet, cigarette, doggie

‘female X’: -ess, -inee.g. waitress, princess, heroine

‘inhabitant of X’: -er, -(i)ane.g. Londoner, New Yorker, Texan, Glaswegian

‘state of being an X’: -ship, -hoode.g.kingship, ladyship, motherhood, priesthood

‘devotee of or expert on X’: -ist, -iane.g. contortionist,, Marxist, logician, historian

1. -y: rainy, sunny, muddy2. -ly: friendly, childly, likely3. -ous: famous, studious, obedious4. -ish: selfish, childish, boyish5. -al: natural, national6. -ing: caring, saving7. -ed: talked, obserbed8. -ive: talkative, productive9. -able: preferable, reasonable10. -an: American, German11. -less: hopeless, restless12. -ful: delightful, careful13. -ic: terrific, economic14. -ent/ ant: different, independent, vacant, tolerant15. -ory/ ary: compulsory, necessary, obligatory

Add prefixes

• Re –repaint, rewrite

• Dis –disagree, disbelieve

• Pre-predict, pretalk

• De-decrease, debug

Add suffixes- al:

national, agriculturalarrival, refusal

- ly:actively, regularlyfriendly, manly

- er:teacher, lawyerspeaker, ruler

Compound words, blendsand phrasal words

1. Compounds versus phrases 2. Compound verbs 3. Compound adjectives 4. Compound nouns5. Headed and headless compounds6. Blends and acronyms7. Compounds containing bound combining

forms8. Phrasal words

Compounds versus phrases

Compounds Phrases

a greenhouse a green house

blackboard black board

sílkworm silk worm

(the) White House white house

to’y factory toy fa’ctory

Compounds & derived words

• Compounds: each of the constituents is a form of a lexeme

EX: dairy man• Derived words: including affixes

EX: seller, distinction

Compound verbs

• Verbs less formed by compounding than verbs derived by affixation.

• verb–verb (VV): stir-fry, freeze-dry• noun–verb (NV): hand-wash, air-condition,

steam-clean• adjective–verb (AV): dry-clean, whitewash• preposition–verb (PV): underestimate, outrun,

overcook

Compound adjectives

-> right-headed compound adjectives:• noun–adjective (NA): sky-high, coal-black, oil-

rich• adjective–adjective (AA): grey-green,

squeaky-clean, red-hot• preposition–adjective (PA): underfull,

overactive, oversmooth

Compound nouns

• verb–noun (VN): swearword, drophammer, playtime• noun–noun (NN): hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly

net, hair restorer• adjective–noun (AN): blackboard, greenstone,

faintheart• preposition–noun (PN): in-group, outpost, overcoat• (N-V-suffix): sign-writer, slum clearance, crime

prevention, wish-fulfilment

Headed and headless compounds

• Headed compounds:a greenstone : a kind of stoneblackboard : a kind of board

• Headless compounds:a faintheart : someone who has a faint

heartstickleback : a kind of fish with spines on

its back

Types

• Endocentric compound: a type of compound in which one member functions as the head and the other as its modifier

EX: postman, milk deliver, taxi driver • Exocentric Compound: a term used to refer to a

particular type of compound that lacks a head.EX: white collar, pickpocket, killjoy

• Copulative compounds: compounds which have two semantic heads.

EX: bittersweet, sleepwalk

Blends and acronymsBlending: words formed by combining, mixing one part

with another EX: motor/ motorist + hotel -> motel, cheese+

hamburger -> cheeseburgerCompounding: words formed by joining two separate

wordsEX: fingerprint, taxidriver, sunflowerAcronymy: words formed from the beginning segmentsEX: United Nations Organization -> UNO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation -> NATO

Compounds containing bound combining forms

• anthrop(o): ‘human’• -(o)logy : ‘science or study’

-> anthropologyelectr(o)- + ic -> electronicaud- + (a)ible -> audible

Phrasal words

• brother-in-law behaves as a wordÞ brothers-in-law (plural, head = brothers)

A word and its structure

1. Meaning and structure2. Affixes as heads 3. More elaborate word forms: multiple

affixation, compounds within compounds4. Apparent mismatches between meaning and

structure

Meaning and structure

• Meaning of word: predictable from lexical items

EX: helpful = help (n) –ful (a)• Compounds may have different structure

EX: French history teacher = (1) French teacher of history (2) teacher of French history

Affixes as heads

• greenhouse -> -house = headÞ teacher -> -er = headÞ helpful -> help / -ful = head

• Prefixes rarely change the word class (enlarge, enslave…)

• Suffixes change the word class• Prefixed words are right-headed

Lexeme formation

• Words are divided into two kinds of lexical classes: open & closed

• Open: lexical words: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs

• Closed: functional words: determiners, conjunctions, pronouns, articles, pre - & post-positions

Templates and Idiosyncrasies

• Lexical & functionalEX: It rains heavily.

• morphological templates: morphological formEx: actress, waitress -> -ess: noun, human, female

• semantic idiosyncrasy: semantic featureEx: teacher, worker -> -er: person doing an action

Multiple affixation, Compounds within compounds

• multiple affixation: EX: unhelpfulness , helplessness.

(1) help (n) + -ful →helpful (a)un- + helpful →unhelpful (a)unhelpful + -ness →unhelpfulness (n)

(2) help (n) + -less →helpless (a) helpless + -ness →helplessness (n)

• compounds within compounds:EX: Obama - Putin encounters window oven cleaner marketing

Apparent mismatches between meaning and structure

• nuclear physics ≠ nuclear physicist

• plastic surgeon : an expert in cosmetic surgery• French historian

-> historian who is French-> expert in French history (not necessarily

a French person)• open door policy ≠ wooden door policy

Form

• morphology + article = morphology article• EX: house + boat = houseboat.

->The right-hand member is the head of the compound, determining the syntactic category and meaning of the whole

• EX: a houseboat = a kind of boat a boathouse = a kind of house

-> The left-hand member is the modifier.

Types

• Endocentric compound: a type of compound in which one member functions as the head and the other as its modifier

EX: postman, milk deliver, taxi driver • Exocentric Compound: a term used to refer to a

particular type of compound that lacks a head.• EX: white collar, pickpocket• Copulative compounds: compounds which have two

semantic heads.• EX: bittersweet, sleepwalk

Inflection

• Inflection: grammatical words are the inflected forms of the lexeme and the process of constructing inflected forms

• EX: write-> writes, written, writing, wrote• The meanings of the inflected form are predictable (plural of

noun, past tense of verb, or whatever)• The shape of inflected forms is generally determined by

affixation to the stem form of the lexeme.• Inflections express grammatical or functional categories

compounds and phrases

• (Booij, G. p.82 retrieved from Levi 1978: 38)• Noun compounds-> functional phrases

atom bomb -> atomic bombindustry output -> industrial output

language skills -> linguistic skillscity parks -> urban parksocean life -> marine life

• Lexical expressions: compounds in which each morpheme meaning may be derived from original lexical word.

• EX: ocean life, marine life• Constructional idioms: fixed syntactic pattern

in which some positions may be filled by specific morphemes or words.

• EX: play football, play the piano

Compounds & derived words

• Compounds: each of the constituents is a form of a lexeme

• EX: dairy man• Derived words: including affixes• EX: seller, distinction

Definition and CharacteristicsDefinition:- The basic unit of language- The smallest linguistic unit which can occur on its own in

speech or writing.- The smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of only one

morpheme (e.g. wolf), but a single morpheme may not be able to exist as a free form (e.g. the English plural morpheme -s).

- Typically, a word will consist of a root or stem, and zero or more affixes. Words can be combined to create other units of language, such as phrases, clauses, and/or sentences.

Characteristics

1. Indivisibility: structurally impermeable -> nothing can be inserted b/w its elements

2. Internal stability: uninterruptability -> having freedom to move within a sentence without destroying their meaning

- the bus/ comes/ here/ on time - he/ walked/ slowly/ down/ the street

Classification according to their Structure

1. Simple words: a single free morpheme2. Complex word: more than one morpheme

(FB, BB)3. Compound word: ≥ 2 free morpheme with or

without bound morpheme

Classification according to their Word-formation Processes 1. Coinage (neologism): creation of totally new wordsEX: nylon, vaseline, aspirin2. Borrowing: words formed by borrowing from other languagesEx: champagne (Fr.), kindergarten (G)3. Blending: words formed by combining, mixing one part with

another EX: motor/ motorist + hotel -> motel4. Clipping: words formed by cutting/ leaving a partEX: laboratory -> lab, telephone -> phone5. Acronymy: words formed from the beginning segmentsEX: United Nations Organization -> UNO6. Conversion: words formed by changing not any part of wordEX: corner (n) -> corner (V), fool (n,a,v)7. Affixation: words formed by adding affixes