slides chap 1,2

8/11/2019 slides chap 1,2

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Practical Research

Paul D. LeedyJeanne Ellis Ormrod

Tenth Edition

2013, 2010, 2005, 2001, 1997Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Planning and Design


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Chapter 1

The Nature and Tools of Research


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Research is:

A systematic process of

collecting, analyzing, andinterpreting information (data) toincrease understanding of a

phenomenon about which we areinterested or concerned.

Leedy & OrmrodPractical Research: Planning and Design, 10e 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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What Research Is Not: Merely gathering information

Merely rummaging around forhard-to-locate information

Merely transporting facts from onelocation to another


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Characteristics of Research

Originates with a question or problem Requires clear articulation of a goal Requires a specific plan for proceeding

Usually divides the principal problem intomore manageable subproblems Is guided by the specific research problem,

question, or hypothesis Requires a specific plan for proceeding

Accepts certain critical assumptions Requires the collection and interpretation of

data Is, by its nature, cyclical or helical


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Hypothesis:

A logical supposition, a reasonableguess, an educated conjecture

Provides a tentative explanation for aphenomenon under investigation

May direct thinking to possible sources

of information necessary to resolve theresearch problem and its subproblems.


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Assumptions:

Self-evident truths

The bedrock upon which a study mustrest

Articulating assumptions is vitally importantto the quality of the study


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Research Tools

specific mechanisms or strategies usedto collect, manipulate, or interpret data

Research Methodology the general approach the researcher

takes in carrying out the researchproject. This approach dictates theparticular tools the researcher selects.


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Six Tools of Research1. The library and its resources

2. Computer technology

3. Measurement

4. Statistics

5. Language6. The human mind


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Library and Its Resources Access to microforms, compact

disks, online databases

Fast and efficient means oflocating and accessing informationon virtually any topic

Access to library holdings aroundthe world


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Systems for Classificationof Knowledge

Dewey Decimal system: Classifies knowledgeaccording to 10 basic areas of human knowledge,each divided decimally. The principal classification

system in public libraries and probably the mostgenerally accepted system worldwide.

Library of Congress system: Classifies knowledgeby alphabetical categories. The principleclassification system used in college & universitylibraries.


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Computer Technology as a

Research Tool Tools to calculate, compare, search,

retrieve, sort, and organize data

Software to analyze quantitative andqualitative data

Storage of large amount of information

Word processing Communication


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Measurement as a Tool of Research

Measurement: limiting the data of anyphenomenonsubstantial or insubstantialso that those data may be interpreted and,ultimately, compared to a particularqualitative or quantitative standard.

Substantial measurements = those things beingmeasured that have physical substance.

Insubstantial measurements = exist only asconcepts, ideas, opinions, feelings, or otherintangible entities.


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Measurement

Requires valid and reliableinstruments

to measure physical characteristicsrulers, scales, speedometers, etc.

to measure the impact of socialand psychologicalphenomena tests andquestionnaires.


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Statistics as a Tool of Research

Main Functions of Statistics:1. describe the data

2. draw inferences from the data

Descriptive Statistics summarize the generalnature of the data obtained.

Inferential Statistics help the researcher makedecisions about the data.


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Language as a Tool of Research

A tool to communicate and think moreeffectively

Words have multiple meaning. Clarity isessential in research writing.

Knowing two or more languages invaluable.

Following guidelines for research writing is

essential. Using features of word processing makes

revisions more efficient.


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Language as a Tool of Research

Words enhance thinking by:

- reducing the worlds complexity,

- allowing abstraction of the environment,

- enhancing the power of thought,

- facilitating generalization and inferencedrawing in new situations.


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Communicating Effectively

Through Writing Say exactly what you mean. Keep your primary objective in mind at all

times. Provide an overview of what you will be

discussing. Organize ideas into general and more

specific categories by using headings andsubheadings.

Use transitional phrases, sentences, orparagraphs to help readers follow yourtrain of thought.

1-17Leedy & OrmrodPractical Research: Planning and Design, 10e 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.


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Communicating Effectively

Through Writing Use concrete examples to make abstract

ideas more understandable.

Use appropriate punctuation.

Use figures and tables for clarification.

At the end of chapters and major sections,summarize what youve said.

Anticipate having to write multiple drafts.


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The Human Mind as aTool of Research

Critical Thinking

Deductive Logic

Inductive Reasoning

The Scientific Method

Theory Building


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Critical Thinking

Evaluating arguments in terms oftheir accuracy and worth.

May take a variety of forms:-verbal reasoning- argument analysis- decision making- critical analysis of prior research


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Deductive Logic

Begins with one or more premisesstatements or assumptions that the

researcher initially takes to be true.

Valuable for generating researchhypotheses and testing theories.


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Inductive Reasoning

Begins with an observation of a specific event todraw conclusions about entire classes of objectsor events (i.e., observe a sample and then drawconclusions about the population from which thesample has been taken).


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The Scientific Method: The means

whereby insight into the unknown issought by1. identifying a problem that defines the goal of

ones quest;2. positing a hypothesis that, if confirmed,

resolves the problem;3. gathering data relevant to the hypothesis; and

4. analyzing and interpreting the data to seewhether they support the hypothesis andresolve the research question.


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Theory Building: is based onfacts rather than nave beliefs

and subjective impressions aboutthe world:

- involves thinking actively and

intentionally about the phenomena athand,

- yields hypotheses to be tested,

- tends to be a slow process,- usually involves collaboration with

others.


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Collaboration with OtherMinds

Bringing a variety of perspectives,backgrounds, and areas of expertisemay reduce theoretical biases

Collaboration may increase

effectiveness of approaches to tacklethe research problem and to findmeaning in the data

Collaboration may be accomplishedthrough the use of e-mail attachments,listservs, and webpages.


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Exploring research in your field Knowledge of research methodologies and

appropriate ways to collect and analyzedata is essential for keeping up withadvances in your field

Ajuried(or refereed)research report hasbeen judged by experts in the field anddeemed to be of sufficient quality andimportance to warrant publication.

A nonjuried(or nonrefereed)reportappears in a journal or on the Internet

screening by experts. Some nonjuriedreports are excellent, but others may notbe.


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Practical Research

Paul D. Leedy

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Tenth Edition

2013, 2010, 2005, 2001, 1997Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Planning and Design


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CHAPTER TWO

The Problem:The Heart of the Research Process


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Finding Research Projects

Research projects can be one of two types:

1. Basic researchintended to enhance basic knowledgeabout the physical, biological, psychological, or socialworld or to shed light on historical, cultural, or

aesthetic phenomena.

2. Applied researchintended to address issues that haveimmediate relevance to current practices, procedures,

and policies; intended to human decision making aboutpractical problems; occasionally address questions inones immediate work environment (action research).


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Criteria for Identification of aSuitable

Research Problem1. The research problem should address

an important question so that the answerwill make a difference.

2. The research problem should advance thefrontiers of knowledge by leading to newways of thinking, suggesting possibleapplications, or paving the way for furtherresearch in the field.


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Situations to Avoid WhenConsidering A Research Problem

Research projects should not be a ruse for achievingself-enlightenment.

A problem whose sole purpose is to compare two sets ofdata is not a suitable research problem.

Calculating a correlation coefficient between two sets ofdata to show a relationship between them is notacceptable as a problem for research.

Problems that result in a yes or no answer are notsuitable problems for research.


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Finding a Legitimate Research Problem

1. Look around you.

2. Read the literature.

3. Attend professional conferences.

4. Seek the advice of experts.

5. Choose a topic that intrigues and motivates you.

6. Choose a topic that others will find interestingand worthy of attention.


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Guidelines: Stating the Research Problem

1. State the problem clearly and completely.

2. Think through the feasibility of the project thatthe problem implies.

3. Say precisely what you mean.- Absolute honesty and integrity are the rule!

4. State the problem in a way that reflects an openmind about its solution.

5. Edit your work.


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Dividing the Research

Problem Into SubproblemsSubproblem: the subparts of the mainproblem that are an integral part of themain problem

Pseudo-subproblems: procedural issues

thatinvolve decisions that must be madebefore resolving the research problem and

its subproblems


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Characteristics of Subproblems

1. Each subproblem should be a completelyresearchable unit.

2. Each subproblem must be clearly tied tothe interpretation of the data.

3. The subproblems must add up to the

totality of the problem.

4. Subproblems should be small in number.


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Identifying Subproblems

Take a paper-and-pencil approach

Use brainstorming software, such as:- Inspiration- BrainStorm- MindJet


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Paper-and-Pencil Approach

to Identifying Subproblems1. Copy the problem onto a sheet of paper, leaving

considerable space between the lines.2. Read the problem to discover the areas that

require in-depth treatment before the problemcan be resolved.

3. Make sure every subproblem contains a wordthat indicates the necessity to interpret the datawithin that particular subproblem (e.g., analyze,discover, compare).Underline this word.

4. Arrange the entire problem in a graphicorganizer that will serve as a structure of thewhole research design.


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Using Brainstorming Softwareto Identify Subproblems

Computer programs such asInspiration, BrainStorm, and MindJetallow you to brainstorm research ideasand construct graphic networks ofinterrelated concepts, terms, andprinciples.

Convert, save, and print your finaldiagram (graphic organizer) as anoutline that lists major topics andvarious levels of subtopics.


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Further Delineation of the Problem

State the hypotheses and/or researchquestions.

Delimit the research.

Define the terms.

State the assumptions.


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State the Hypothesis and/or Research Questions

Hypotheses are essential to experimental research; researchquestions are more common in qualitative research.

Both hypotheses and research questions provide guidance for thekind of data that should be collected.

Both hypotheses and research questions suggest how data should be

analyzed and interpreted.

Hypotheses and research questions may originate in thesubproblems.

Hypotheses and research questions provide a position from which

the researcher may initiate an exploration of the problem.

Hypotheses and research questions act as checkpoints against whichto test the findings that the data reveal.


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Di ti i hi N ll H th


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Distinguishing Null Hypothesesfrom Research Hypotheses

Null hypothesis: A statement thatthere will be nodifferences betweengroups, noconsistent relationshipsbetween variables, or, more generally,

nopatterns in the data. Null hypotheses are used primarily

during statistical analyses we support a research hypothesis by showing,

statistically, that its oppositethe null hypothesisis probably nottrue.


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Identifying the Variables

Under Investigation A variableis any quality or characteristic

in a research investigation that has two ormore possible values. Independent variable-- variable that the

researcher studies as a possible cause of somethingelse; this is one that the researcher directlymanipulates.

Dependent variable-- variable that is potentiallyinfluenced by the independent variable, or dependson the independent variable.


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Mediating Variables

A mediating variable(an interveningvariable) comes to the stage when theindependent variable influences the

dependent variable indirectly. The mediator is influenced by the independent

variable, which in turn influences the dependentvariable.

Its presence helps to explain why a certainindependent variable has an effect on adependent variable.


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Moderating Variables A moderating variable is a variable that,

while not intervening between the

independent and dependent variables,influences the nature and strength oftheir relationship.

It may reduce or increase the cause-

and-effect relationship betweenvariables.


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Moderating vs. Mediating

Difference: An independent variable maypotentially influence a mediating variable, but itdoes not,in and of itself, influence a moderatingvariable.

Moderating variables provide potential contexts orconditionsthat alterthat is, they moderateanindependent variables effects.

Discussions of risk factorsorprotective factorsinresearch reports often refer to moderatingvariablesvariables that affect the likelihood thatcertain cause-and-effect relationships will comeinto play.


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Why Identify Variables?

Identification is helpful in choosing

(a) an appropriate research design

(b) an appropriate statistical analysis

Note: identifying independent anddependent variables does not

guarantee that the research data willsupport the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship.


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Delimiting the Research

Delimitations of the research are statementsabout what the researcher is not going to do.

What the researcher will not do is to becomeinvolved in data extraneous to the researchproblem.

The researcher must distinguish between what

is and is not relevant to the problem.


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Define the Terms

The researcher must precisely define the terms in theproblem and the subproblems.

Each term should be defined as it will be used in theresearchers project.

In defining a term, the researcher makes the term meanwhatever he or she wishes it to mean within the context ofthe problem and its subproblems.

operational definition= the definition of a characteristic or

variable in terms of how it will be measured in theresearch study.


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State the Assumptions

Assumptions are basic to the research problem.

All assumptions that have a material bearing on theproblem should be openly and unreservedly set forth.

A statement of the assumptions is necessary for others toevaluate the conclusions of the study.

A statement of the assumptions reveals what theresearcher may be taking for granted with respect to theproblem.


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Importance of the Study Discuss reasons for undertaking

the study.

Studies should not go far beyondany relationship to the practicalworld; they must have a practical

value.


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Ordering the Topics in aResearch Proposal

In the first part of the proposal, you should outline:

The problem and its setting.

Subproblems, hypotheses, and questionspresented in a logical order.

A statement of delimitations, definitions ofterms, and assumptions.

The importance of the study should be discussedeither in early paragraphs that introduce theresearch problem or in its own section.


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Checklist: Evaluating YourProposed Research Project

1. Have you conducted a thorough literature search to justifythe time and effort expended on your research project?

2. Have you looked at your research problem from all angles

to minimize unwanted surprises?

3. What research procedures will you follow?

4. What research tools are available for you to use?

5. Can others read and understand your proposal?


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G id li i i h bl


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Guidelines: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem

1. Conduct a thorough literature review.

2. Try to see the problem from all sides.

3. Think through the process.

4. Use all available tools and resources at your disposal.

5. Discuss your research problem with others.

6. Hold up your proposed project for others to examine and critique.

7. Remember that your project will take a great deal of time.

8. Remember that the first draft of your proposal will almost certainlynotbe your last one.

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