Skid Resistance, Measurement, Characteristics, Improvements and Ontario Guidelines

7/31/2019 Skid Resistance, Measurement, Characteristics, Improvements and Ontario Guidelines

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SKID RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE AND ASPHALT

PAVEMENTS: MEASUREMENTS, CHARACTERISTICS,

IMPROVEMENTS AND ONTARIO GUIDELINES FOR

SKID RESISTANCE

CV 8405 - PAVEMENT DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

PROJECT ADVISOR

DR. M. SHEHATA

SUBMITTED BY

1.AFZAL WASEEM (500468008)2.

FERIADOON KABAIRZAD

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

RYERSON UNIVERSITY

TORONTO - CANADA


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ContentsList of Figures ................................................................................................................................................ 4

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 5

2. Skid Resistance ...................................................................................................................................... 5

3. Microtexture & Macrotexture .............................................................................................................. 5

4. Skid Resistance of Concrete Pavements ............................................................................................... 6

4.1 Concrete Mix ................................................................................................................................. 6

5. Skid Resistance of Flexible Pavements ................................................................................................. 6

6. Skid Resistance Measuring System ....................................................................................................... 7

6.1 (ASTM) E-274 Procedure ............................................................................................................... 7

6.2 Measurement of Skid Resistance .................................................................................................. 7

6.3 Measurement Techniques for Skid Resistance ............................................................................. 7

6.3.1 Locked Wheel Tester ............................................................................................................. 7

6.3.2 Spin Up Tester ....................................................................................................................... 8

6.3.3 BS Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester .................................................................................... 9

6.3.4 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM) ................................... 9

7. Surface Texture Measurement ........................................................................................................... 10

7.1 Sand Patch Method (ASTM E 965) .............................................................................................. 10

7.2 Laser or advanced images processing equipment ...................................................................... 11

7.2.1 ROSAN ................................................................................................................................. 11

7.2.2 ROBOTEX ............................................................................................................................. 11

7.2.3 Circular Texture Meter (CT Meter) ..................................................................................... 12

8. Characteristics ..................................................................................................................................... 13

8.1 Rapid Fall of Skid resistance ........................................................................................................ 13

8.2 Smooth and Treaded tire ............................................................................................................ 13

8.3 Skid Resistance and Water of Pavement surface ............................................................................... 13


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8.4 Effect of Bleeding on skid resistance .......................................................................................... 14

8.5 Effect of texture on Skid Resistance ........................................................................................... 14

8.5.1 Effect of longitudinal texturing on Skid Resistance ............................................................ 14

8.5.2 Effect of transverse texturing on Skid Resistance ............................................................... 14

9. Improvements ..................................................................................................................................... 14

9.1 Improvements in Concrete Pavements ............................................................................................ 14

9.1.1 Grooving .............................................................................................................................. 14

9.1.2 Brooms in concrete Pavements .......................................................................................... 15

9.2 Improvement of skid resistance in terms of Materials ............................................................... 16

9.2.1 Seal Coat.............................................................................................................................. 16

9.2.2 Polished aggregate .............................................................................................................. 16

9.2.3 Sedimentary rocks ............................................................................................................... 16

9.3 Other Improvements .................................................................................................................. 16

3. Ontario Skid Resistance Guidelines..................................................................................................... 17

1. Friction Classification system in Ontario ......................................................................................... 17

2. Low friction pavement surface identification criteria .................................................................... 17

3. Noise Guidelines for Ontario........................................................................................................... 18

Recommendations ...................................................................................................................................... 18

References: ................................................................................................................................................. 19


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List of Figures

Figure 1 Water spraying mechanism in locked wheel tester ......................................................... 8

Figure 2 Lock Wheeled Skid Tester ................................................................................................. 8

Figure 3 Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester (BSI, 1990) ................................................................... 9

Figure 4 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM). ............................ 10

Figure 5. Sand Patch Method (ASTM E 965) (Source images: Hanson & Prowell) ....................... 10

Figure 6. Sand Patch Method Spreading of Sand ......................................................................... 10

Figure 7. Prototype ROSAN Device (circa 1998) ........................................................................... 11

Figure 8. ROBOTEX and Output 3-D Texture Graph ..................................................................... 12

Figure 9. Circular Texture Meter ASTM E 2157-01 ....................................................................... 12

Figure 10. (Smooth and Treaded Tire) Graph between skid number and speed ......................... 13

Figure 11. (Water depth effect) Graph between Skid Number and Speed .................................. 13

Figure 12. Transverse grooving by the Cure/Texture Machine (left) and by Hand Methods ...... 15

Figure 13. Broom finish in transverse direction ........................................................................... 15

Figure 14. Texture curing machine TCM 950 ................................................................................ 15

Figure 15. Texture of a concrete pavement after Brooming ........................................................ 16


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1. IntroductionAccording to a U.S. study of collision data, in 2001 more than 22 percent of collisions

nationwide were weather-related. More than 16 percent of fatalities and over 20 percent of

injuries in passenger vehicles occurred in adverse weather and/or on slick pavements. Study

shows that most accidents occur due to poor friction between tire and road surface.

Skid resistance is a measure of the friction that develops when a tire is prevented from

rotating and instead skids along the pavement surface. A system of measurement of skid

resistance has been developed to calculate this friction between road surfaces.

2. Skid ResistanceSkid resistance is the force developed when a tire that is prevented from rotating slides

along the pavement surface (Highway Research Board, 1972). Skid resistance is actually the

measurement of the resistance to move when a vehicle is skid on the surface of the road. Skid

resistance is required for many purpose e.g

Poor skid resistance means increased chances of vehicular accidents on road in severe weatherconditions.

Skid resistance is a measure of safety that is used to interoperate the level of safety in roadsurface conditions

Skid resistance can be used to examine the different types of pavement surface coatings thatcan act safely.

Skid resistance depends on a pavement surface's microtexture and macrotexture (Corley-Lay,

1998).

3. Microtexture & MacrotextureMicrotexture refers to the small-scale texture of the pavement aggregate component

(which controls contact between the tire rubber and the pavement surface) while macrotexture

refers to the large-scale texture of the pavement as a whole due to the aggregate particle

arrangement (which controls the escape of water from under the tire and hence the loss of skid

resistance with increased speed) (AASHTO, 1976).

Skid resistance is a time dependent property of the pavement surface, as usually its

value increases for first two years of pavement surfacing because as the surface is worn out due

to traffic irregular aggregate materials starts to show their surface which increase the skid

resistance, and then after 2 years skid resistance decreases over the entire life the pavement

surface as the aggregate becomes more smoother.

Skid resistance is also a temperature dependent property as its value usually increases

in the fall and winter and decreases in the spring and summer. This seasonal variation is quite

significant and can severely skew skid resistance data if not compensated for (Jayawickrama

and Thomas, 1998).


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The macrotexture gives a series of paths for the rain water to deposit between the

pavement surface and tire. This water adversely affects the skid resistance quality of the road.

After some time most of the water will be removed from these paths and the tire surface will

make contact with the tire surface. This macro texture should be controlled to improve the skid

resistance of the pavement surface.

The division between macrotexture and microtexture is arbitrarily set at a texture depth

of 0.5 mm, as defined in ASTM E 867 "Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Traveled Surface

Characteristics."

4. Skid Resistance of Concrete PavementsConcrete is comprised of high skid resistance materials, like the solid rough aggregate which

gives the finished surface an inherent property of skid resistance surface.

A good pavement surface coating should be comprised of both fine and coarse materials.

Concrete is a good example of this type of materials as it is composed of both fine and coarse

particles. In a concrete pavement, fine asperities that impart the adhesion component interaction

are formed by the paste coated fine aggregate in the mix. Coarse asperities are formed by the

mortar and fine aggregates as the surface is sculptured by the finishing operations. By providing

drainage channels for water, coarse asperities also increase the frictional characteristics of wet

pavement, thus reducing the possibility of vehicle hydroplaning.

4.1Concrete MixA proper mixture of materials is important to assure a good skid-resistant surface. The

quality and durability of materials required to produce and retain good textures should be

considered. Research has shown that by increasing the cement factor and reducing the

water/cement ratio, a more wear-resistant pavement is produced. Even if a small amount of water

is added to the concrete surface during finishing operations because the mix requires it, the

wearing ability is reduced. Tests have shown that a concrete mix with a siliceous particle content of

25 percent or more is best suited to withstand wearing effects.

Additional guidance can be obtained from FHWA Technical Advisory T 5140.10, Texturing

and Skid Resistance of Concrete Pavements and Bridge Decks, September 18, 1979.

5. Skid Resistance of Flexible PavementsSkid resistance of the flexible pavements should be enough to withstand the traffic for the

design period, it should be durable. The flexible pavement surface should be composed of a type of

material that is not easily polished so that it can last long. This means the pavement surface should

contain enough course aggregate at the pavement interface as possible. Open graded asphalt

friction course (OGAFC), with a large portion of one size aggregate provides excellent coarse textureand shows a large portion of coarse aggregates on the surface of the pavement surface that is good

for the skid resistance pretty of the pavement. Complete guidelines can be found from FHWA

Technical Advisory T 5040.13, Open Graded Asphalt Friction Courses.


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6. Skid Resistance Measuring SystemIn Canada, the most commonly used skid resistance measuring technique involves

measuring the force required to drag a non-rotating tire over wet pavement. For the measurement

of skid resistance properties of a pavement surface, a skid number (SN) is used. The measurement is

usually done based on a standard test procedure according to American Society for Testing and

Materials (ASTM) E 274.

6.1(ASTM) E-274 ProcedureIn this test procedure, a locked wheel is towed at 40 mph and from the measured resistance

force, the skid number at 40 mph, which is SN40 is calculated. SN40 is used as a reference value

when skid resistance is measured at speeds other than 40 mph.

For most Departments of Transportation (DOTs) in the U.S., pavements for which the SN40

is below 30 are deemed unacceptable and corrective actions are required.

6.2Measurement of Skid ResistanceSkid resistance is generally quantified using some form of friction measurement such as a

friction factor or skid number.

Table 1: Typical Skid Numbers (from Jayawickrama et al., 1996)

Skid Number Comments

< 30 Take measures to correct

30 Acceptable for low volume roads

31 - 34 Monitor pavement frequently

35 Acceptable for heavily traveled roads

6.3Measurement Techniques for Skid ResistanceSkid testing can be done in a number of ways; this section covers some of the methods used

for the measurement of skid resistance.

6.3.1 The locked wheel tester6.3.2 The spin up tester6.3.3 Surface texture measurement

6.3.1 Locked Wheel TesterThe most commonly used method for skid resistance testing uses some form of a lock wheel

tester (see Figure 1.). Basically, this method uses a locked wheel skidding along the tested surface to

measure friction resistance. A typical lock-wheel skid measurement system must have the following:

A test vehicle with one or more test wheels incorporated into it or as part of a towed trailer. A standard tire for use on the test wheel. The standardized skid-test tire, a tubeless, bias-ply

G78x15 tire with seven circumferential grooves, is defined by AASHTO M 261 or ASTM E 501. A

newer tire, one with no grooves, appears to be gaining acceptance as well. By defining the

standard test tire, the tire type and design are eliminated as variables in the measurement of

pavement skid resistance.
http://training.ce.washington.edu/pgi/Modules/09_pavement_evaluation/09-4_body.htm#locked_wheel_testerhttp://training.ce.washington.edu/pgi/Modules/09_pavement_evaluation/09-4_body.htm#spin_up_testerhttp://training.ce.washington.edu/pgi/Modules/09_pavement_evaluation/09-4_body.htm#surface_texturehttp://training.ce.washington.edu/pgi/Modules/09_pavement_evaluation/09-4_body.htm#surface_texturehttp://training.ce.washington.edu/pgi/Modules/09_pavement_evaluation/09-4_body.htm#spin_up_testerhttp://training.ce.washington.edu/pgi/Modules/09_pavement_evaluation/09-4_body.htm#locked_wheel_tester


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A means to transport water (usually 750 to 1900 liters (200 to 500 gallons)) and the necessaryapparatus to deliver it in front of the test wheel at test speed

Figure 1 Water spraying mechanism in locked wheel tester

A transducer associated with the test wheel that senses the force developed between theskidding test wheel and the pavement.

Electronic signal conditioning equipment to receive the transducer output signal and modify itas required.

Suitable analog and/or digital readout equipment to record either the magnitude of thedeveloped force or the calculated value of the resulting Skid Number (SN).

Figure 2 Lock Wheeled Skid Tester

To take a measurement, the vehicle (or trailer) is brought to the desired testing speed (typically 64

km/hr (40 mph) and water is sprayed ahead of the test tire to create a wetted pavement surface. The

test tire braking system is then actuated to lock the test tire. Instrumentation measures the friction

force acting between the test tire and the pavement and reports the result as a Skid Number (SN).

Standard locked-wheel friction tests are:

AASHTO T 242: Frictional Properties of Paved Surfaces Using a Full-Scale Tire ASTM E 274: Skid Resistance of Paved Surfaces Using a Full-Scale Tire

6.3.2 Spin Up TesterA spin up tester has the same basic setup as a locked wheel tester but operates in an opposite

manner. For a spin up tester, the vehicle (or trailer) is brought to the desired testing speed (typically 64

km/hr (40 mph)) and a locked test wheel is lowered to the pavement surface. The test wheel braking

system is then released and the test wheel is allowed to "spin up" to normal traveling speed due to its

contact with the pavement.


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Mathematically, the friction force at the tire/pavement interface at any moment corresponds to

that which would be present if the locked tire were pulled along the pavement at the testing speed

(Wambold et al., 1990).

The spin up tester offers two advantages over the locked wheel tester:

1. No force measurement is necessary; the force can be computed by knowing the test wheel'smoment of inertia and its rotational acceleration (Wambold et al., 1990). Force measuring

devices for the locked wheel tester cost a significant amount of money.

2. Because the test tire is in contact with the pavement while locked for a much shorter time thanthe locked wheel tester, it significantly reduces test tire wear.

6.3.3 BS Pendulum Skid Resistance TesterIt is the most commonly used skid resistance

measuring instrument that can be found everywhere

due to its portable nature. This instrument was first

developed by the Transport and Road ResearchLaboratory (TRRR) in Britain. It has been found that this

instrument gives efficient values and due to its portable

nature it was also adopted by ASTM and is now

included in ASTM E 303 "Standard Method for

Measuring Surface Friction Properties Using the British

Pendulum Tester

This instrument was developed Transport and

Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) of UK. Its objective is

to measure texture depth and skid resistance of a road

surface, to estimate the vulnerability of an aggregate to

polishing under traffic by determining its Polished Stone

Value (PSV). This instrument measures the value in

British Pendulum Number (BPN) that has the scale from 0 to 150, where higher is the BPN value means

higher is the skid resistance of the Pavement surface.

This device simulates the skid resistance offered by a road surface to a motor car travelling at 50

km/h. It gives a number, being a percentage, somewhat converting to a coefficient of friction.

6.3.4 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM)Subsequently, Transport and Road Research Laboratory devised the Sideways Force Coefficient

Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM). This is a lorry with a fifth wheel set at an angle to the direction

of travel and the lateral force on this wheel is measured and recorded.

Figure 3 Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester

(BSI, 1990)


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Figure 4 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM).

7. Surface Texture MeasurementPavement skid resistance is tied to surface macrotexture, some methods seek to measure a

pavement's macrotexture then correlate it with skid resistance as measured by some other, more

traditional method.

Test Specification Type of Measurement Value Reported

Sand Patch Method ASTM E 965 Volumetric Mean Texture Depth

Circular Teture Meter (CTM) ASTM E 2157 Laser Mean Profile Depth

Robotex ISO 13473 Laser Mean Profile Depth

Table2: Methods for surface texture measurement (from Jayawickrama et al., 1996)

7.1Sand Patch Method (ASTM E 965)The simplest method for measuring texture depth is the Sand Patch Method (ASTM E 965).

This test is carried out on dry pavement surface. In this test some known volume of fine sand is used

and then it is spread in a circular pattern on the road surface with the help of a straight edge. The

diameter of the resulting circle is then measured.

Area is calculated from this diameter. This diameter can then be correlated to an average

texture depth, which can be correlated to skid resistance. A texture depth of about 1.5 mm (0.06

inches) is normally required for heavily trafficked areas.

Figure 5. Sand Patch Method (ASTM E 965)

(Source images: Hanson & Prowell)

Figure 6. Sand Patch Method Spreading of Sand


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7.2Laser or advanced images processing equipmentIt is preferable to measure texture by some noncontact method from a vehicle moving at

normal speed, as reported by Henryet al. (1984)

7.2.1 ROSANA new Road Surface Analyzer (ROSAN) was developed jointly by FHWA and private industry

to provide measurements of pavement surface textures (Kuemmelet al.,2000).

It utilizes high-speed lasers to collect surface profile data, which are then converted to

surface textural measurements by use of custom analysis software. Data acquisition and storage are

done by use of a computer. The ROSAN system includes both vehicle-mounted and stationary

measurement capabilities.

Laser or advanced images processing

equipment are capable of determining surface

macrotexture from a vehicle moving atnormal travel speeds. One particular device,

the Road Surface Analyzer (ROSAN), a series

of non-contact pavement surface texture

measurement devices, has been developed by

the FHWA's Turner Fairbanks Research Center

Pavement Surface Analysis Laboratory. The

ROSAN (see Figure) can be used for measuring

texture, aggregate segregation, grooves,

tinning, joints, and faulting (FHWA, 2001).

ROSAN systems have been used in a number

of NCHRP and FHWA sponsored studies.Some integrated analysis units can use

surface texture measuring to estimate skid

resistance

7.2.2 ROBOTEXROBOTEX is another such advanced images processing equipment are capable of determining

surface macrotexture. These devices come in the series of categories called non-contact pavementsurface texture measurement devices.

Figure 7. Prototype ROSAN Device (circa 1998)
http://training.ce.washington.edu/pgi/Modules/09_pavement_evaluation/flash/aran.swfhttp://training.ce.washington.edu/pgi/Modules/09_pavement_evaluation/flash/aran.swf


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Figure 8. ROBOTEX and Output 3-D Texture Graph

The one drawback to this method is that a pavement's surface macrotexture does not

entirely determine its skid resistance. Therefore, correlation between surface macrotexture and

skid resistance is often difficult to extrapolate into any general guidance.

7.2.3 Circular Texture Meter (CT Meter)CT Meter is another such device which is used to measure surface texture or macro texture,

this method is based on the sand patch method (ASTM E965), while sand patch method results vary

and dependent on the person who does the experiment CT Meter is a more efficient instrument. CT

Meter uses a laser displacement sensor to measure the vertical texture of the pavement surface.

Figure 9. Circular Texture Meter ASTM E 2157-01


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8. Characteristics8.1Rapid Fall of Skid resistance

It was found that skid resistance falls rapidly after a road is opened to traffic but the rate of

deterioration slows down, eventually settling to a constant value. This latter value is dependent

on the surface texture, rock type and traffic volume.

8.2Smooth and Treaded tireSkid numbers reduce more rapidly for the smooth tire than for the treaded tire as speed

increases. Comparing the values at 40 mph, the smooth tire requires twice the stopping distance

of the treaded tire.

Figure 10. (Smooth and Treaded Tire) Graph between skid number and speed

8.3Skid Resistance and Water of Pavement surfaceWith water on the surface, the skid number decreased as speed increased. Note the decrease in skid

numbers for .05 and .03 inch.

This graph shows the relationship between the depth ofwater on the pavement surface and skid

resistance.

Figure 11. (Water depth effect) Graph between Skid Number and SpeedA concrete pavement with a deep texture will retain skid resistance longer than pavement with

a shallow texture. But at the same time more water will be in the groves and there might be


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chances of hydroplaning. It will also increase the noise made by cars when they travel on these

groves.

8.4Effect of Bleeding on skid resistanceBleeding is a layer of bituminous material on the surface of the pavement; it generates a

reflecting surface like silt that becomes sticky. The major cause of this bleeding is thehigh asphalt content or low air void content. The bleeding process does not decay in

winter or lower temperatures, so asphalt will start to make a layer of that material on

the surface and when the vehicles will move along the road it will lower the skid

resistance value of the pavement surface.

8.5Effect of texture on Skid ResistanceTextures are the grooving done either done by brooming, manually or by other equipments. It

prolongs the wearing of the pavement surface and helps the surface to keep its skid resistance

properties for a long period of time, but the major problem is it may also produce noise when

vehicles travel along a road with texture. It is not true, however, at all textures should be as

deep as possible, due to the effect on directional control and noise levels.

In all cases, the finishing method should be compatible with the environment, speed and

density of traffic, topography and layout of the pavement, and the economics of vehicle

operation.

Methods that produce a good skid-resistant surface do not always insure good directional

stability.

8.5.1 Effect of longitudinal texturing on Skid ResistanceMany engineers feel that longitudinal texturing provides a good skid resistant surface as

well as longitudinal stability for vehicles on curved and high-speed tangent highways.

8.5.2 Effect of transverse texturing on Skid ResistanceTransverse texture will provide greater skid resistance in a way as it allow better drainage of

the pavement.

9. ImprovementsAs the pavement surface skid resistance depends upon the surface texture, rock type, water

draining ability of the pavement and the ability to resist long term wearing of the surface so to

increase the pavement surface skid resistance there is a desperate need of application of a

method that improve of the above mentioned characteristics of the pavement surface.

9.1 Improvements in Concrete Pavements

9.1.1 GroovingGrooving of plastic concrete also has been used in conjunction with brooming. On one

project, the grooves were 2 inches on center, 18-inch wide, and slightly deeper than the texture

produced by broom. This method was not completely satisfactory, but new designs of

equipment for grooving plastic concrete may prove more adequate.


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Figure 15. Texture of a concrete pavement after Brooming

9.2Improvement of skid resistance in terms of Materials9.2.1 Seal Coat

Seal coat is a thin asphalt surface treatment used to waterproof the surface or to provide

skid resistance where the aggregates in the surface course could be polished by traffic and

become slippery. Depending on the purpose, seal coats might or might not be covered with

aggregate. Details about skid resistance are presented in Section 9 .3 of Pavement analysis

and design by yang h. Huang

9.2.2 Polished aggregateIt is the aggregate that is extending from the pavement surface such that its surface is

polished so that it has no point coarse aggregates that may wear the tire. It has also the

advantage of having paths to drain out the water from the pavement surface thats why

these aggregate types provide good skid resistance abilities.

9.2.3 Sedimentary rocksSedimentary rocks (excluding most limestones) are better than igneous or metamorphic

rocks. All mineral particles polish but, with sandstone, the small particles get worn off

exposing fresh sharp crystals to the tyres. With igneous rocks, which are tougher, the

polished particles remain in place. Finally, better correlation has been obtained using

commercial traffic volumes rather than total traffic.

9.3Other Improvements1. Safety markings on the road surface to serve as a visual cue to drivers to enhance safety

to skid resistance.It is used mainly on Speed zones', Intersections, School zones andPedestrian crossings

2. Skid-resistant material is an economic choice; it does not wear through polishing, andoutperforms other road surfaces with an effective service life of six to eight years.

3. High friction surfacing uses a self-levelling methyl methacrylate binder and a specialaggregate called refracted calcinated bauxite


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4. Seal coating greatly increase the skid resistance of the pavement surface, in addition torehabilitation cracked roads. Seal coatings like Polymer Modified Emulsion and Two-

Stage Binder Application are found to be very effective

3. Ontario Skid Resistance Guidelines1. Friction Classification system in Ontario

This table is used for the classification of the level of skid resistance of a road and hence

used to decide the speed limit of a particular road.

2. Low friction pavement surface identification criteriaThis table is used to decide the need of pavement maintenance operation due to poor

skid resistance of a road.


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3. Noise Guidelines for OntarioA recent study has shown that a noise level of 1dBA is found to be annoying to public, while a

increase of noise by 3dBA is detected by most people as noise.

These noise guidelines should be followed to achieve a balance between skid resistance properties

and the noise produced when travelling on the groovy pavement surface.

Recommendations4. There is a desperate need of development of a performance history for each particular

pavement used by each highway agency.

5. The performance of the existing pavement designs should be monitored and newdesigns should be evaluated to ensure that only skid resistant pavement surfaces are

used.

6. Information should be gathered as to the durability of a mix and the loss of skidresistance under varying traffic and weather conditions.


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References:

Yang h. Huang, Pavement analysis and design (2ndEdition) by, Chapter 9 Page 376 Oh, M., Ragland, R. and Chan, C. (2010) Evaluation of Traffic and Environment Effects on Skid

Resistance and Safety Performance of Rubberized Open Graded Asphalt Concrete, Institute of

Transportation studies, University of California, Berkley. (Available at Berkley.edu)

J. E. PAINE (2008) Skid resistance of concrete pavements (Surface texturing, improvement of skidresistance and thus reduce highway accidents) Publication No. C690377, The Aberdeen Group

Wanty, D., McLarin, M.W., Davies, R.B. & Cenek, P.D. (1995). Application of the Road GeometryData Acquisition System (RGDAS). 7th World Conference on Transport Research.

Transport Canada. Canadian Motor Vehicle Traffic Collision Statistics 2004 and Road Safety inCanada: An Overview. Transport Canada Website http://www.tc.gc.ca/ (Accessed on March 14,

2012).

Alauddin, M. Ahamed, P.Eng., Ph.D, Incorporation of Surface Texture, Skid Resistance and Noiseinto PMS, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo.

Skid Resistance, Measurement, Characteristics, Improvements and Ontario Guidelines

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