TRANSITION METAL OF SECOND ROW

BY GROUP II

MEMBER OF GROUP II• SITI SALEHA 0910413104• NURUL AMALIA 1010411013• ADELIA DWI N 1010412001• NANDI YULIANDRA 1010412002• FIRDA FURQANI 1010412005• YESENIA SHASHI A 1010412006• ROMY DWIPA Y. A 1010412008

YTTRIUM

HISTORY OF YTTRIUM

• In 1787, army lieutenant and part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock in an old quarry near the Swedish village of Ytterby , he named it ytterbite .

• Johan Gadolin at the University of Åbo identified a new oxide or "earth" in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed analysis in 1794

• Anders Gustaf Ekeberg confirmed this in 1797 and named the new oxide yttria.

• In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander found that samples of yttria contained three oxides: white yttrium oxide (yttria), yellow terbium oxide (called 'erbia' at the time) and rose-colored erbium oxide (called 'terbia' at the time)

• In the following decades, seven other new metals were discovered in "Gadolin's yttria“

• Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous yttrium(III) chloride with potassium.

• Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol Yt was used for the element, after which Y came into common use

• A fourth oxide, ytterbium oxide, was isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac

Fact

Johann Gadolin

Date of Discovery: 1794 Discover: yttrium oxide

Name Origin: After Ytterby (a town in Sweden)

OCCURRENCE

• Yttrium is a moderately abundant element in the Earth's crust. Its abundance is estimated to be about 28 to 70 parts per million. • Yttrium is found in most rare earth minerals, as

well as some uranium ores, but is never found in nature as a free element.• There is normally as little as 0.5 milligrams

found within the entire human body• Yttrium can be found in edible plants in

concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm, with cabbage having the largest amount

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

•Yttrium reacts with cold water slowly and with hot watear very rapidly•Yttrium dissolves in both acids and alkalis.•Solid yttrium metal does not react with oxygen in the air. It reacts very rapidly when in its powdered form.•Yttrium reacts with halogens and combines with most other non-metals.•Yttrium powder may react explosively with oxygen at high temperatures.

• Reaction of yttrium with airYttrium metal tarnishes slowly in air and burns readily to form yttrium (III) oxide, Y2O3.

4Y + 3O2 → 2Y2O3

• Reaction of yttrium with waterWhen heated, yttrium metal dissolves in water to form solutions containing the aquated Y(III) ion together with hydrogen gas, H2.

2Y(s) + 6H2O(aq) → 2Y3+(aq) + 6OH-(aq) + 3H2(g)

•Reaction of yttrium with the halogensYttrium is very reactive towards the halogens and burns to form . . .

2Y(s) + 3F2(g) → 2YF3(s)

2Y(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2YCl3(s)

2Y(s) + 3Br2(g) → 2YBr3(s)

2Y(s) + 3I2(g) → 2YI3(s)

The halides YF3, YCl3, YBr3 and YI3 are white solids; the fluoride is water-insoluble, but YCl3, YBr3 and YI3 are soluble.

•Reaction of yttrium with acidsYttrium metal dissolves readily in dilute hydrochloric acid to form solutions containing the aquated Y(III) ion together with hydrogen gas, H2.

2Y(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2Y3+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq) + 3H2(g)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Appearancesilvery white

Name, symbol, number : yttrium, Y, 39Element category : transition metalGroup, period, block : 3, 5, dStandard atomic weight : 88.90585Electron configuration :[Kr] 4d1 5s2

Phase Solid

Density (near r.t.) 4.472 g·cm−3

Liquid density at m.p. 4.24 g·cm−3

Melting point 1799 K2779 °F 1526 °C, ,

Boiling point 6037 °F 3336 °C, 3609 K,

Heat of fusion 11.42 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 365 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity 26.53 J·mol−1·K−1

COMPOUNDS

•Yttrium forms a water-insoluble fluoride, hydroxide, and oxalate, but its bromide, chloride, iodide, nitrate and sulfate are all soluble in water.•Water readily reacts with yttrium and its compounds to form Y2O3.•With halogens, yttrium forms trihalides such as yttrium(III) fluoride (YF3), yttrium(III) chloride (YCl3), and yttrium(III) bromide (YBr3) at temperatures above roughly 200 °C.•carbon, phosphorus, selenium, silicon and sulfur all form binary compounds with yttrium at elevated temperatures.

APPLICATION

• Yttrium is one of the elements used to make the red color in CRT televisions.

• Yttrium is used in the production of a large variety of synthetic garnets.

• Yttrium was used in the yttrium barium copper oxide.

•Yttrium is material enhancer which is The addition of yttrium to alloys generally improves workability, adds resistance to high-temperature recrystallization and significantly enhances resistance to high-temperature oxidation .For example :

-used to increase the strength of aluminium and magnesium alloys

-Yttrium oxide can also be used in ceramic and glass formulas

Yttrium also used in medical which are :-Radioactive isotope yttrium-90 is used in drugs

- Yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan for the treatment of various cancers, including lymphoma, leukemia, ovarian, colorectal, pancreatic, and bone cancers.

- Yttrium-90 is also used to carry out radionuclide synovectomy in the treatment of inflamed joints, especially knees, in sufferers of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis.

ZIRCONIUM

HISTORY OF ZIRCONIUM

•In 1789, when Klaproth analyzed a jargoon from the island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He named the new element Zirkonerde (zirconia).•Zirconium metal was first obtained in an impure form in 1824 by Berzelius by heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride in an iron tube.•The crystal bar process (also known as the Iodide Process), discovered by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925, was the first industrial process for the commercial production of metallic zirconium.•In 1945 by the much cheaper Kroll process developed by William Justin Kroll, in which zirconium tetrachloride is reduced by magnesium

Fact

Date of Discovery: 1789 Discoverer: Martin Klaproth

Name Origin: zircon (mineral)

OCCURRENCE

•Zirconium is a fairly common element in the Earth's crust. Its abundance is estimated to be 150 to 230 parts per million.• It is not found in nature as a native metal.•The principal commercial source of zirconium is the silicate mineral, zircon (ZrSiO4), which is found primarily in Australia, Brazil, India, Russia, South Africa and the United States. 80% of zircon mining occurs in Australia and South Africa.•Zirconium also occurs in more than 140 other minerals.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

• When exposed to air, it reacts with oxygen to form a thin film of zirconium oxide (ZrO2).• Zirconium does not react with most cold acids or

with water. • Zirconium does react with some acids that are very

hot.• Aqueous alkalis have no effect even when hot.• At elevated temperatures, Zr combine with most

non-metals.• The halides MX4(M : Zr, ; X : F, Cl, Br, I), formed by

direct combination of the elements, are white solids with the exception of orange-yellow ZrI4.

• The chlorides, bromides and iodides are water-soluble, but hydrolyse to MOX2

• The addition of [OH]- to any water-soluble Zr(IV) compound produces the white amor-phous ZrO2xH2O.• In aqueous acidic solution, Zr(IV) compounds

are present as partly hydrolysed species.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Appearancesilvery white

Name, symbol, number : zirconium, Zr, 40Element category : transition metalGroup, period, block : 4, 5, dStandard atomic weight : 91.224Electron configuration : [Kr] 5s2 4d2

Phase :solidDensity (near r.t.) :6.52 g·cm−3

Liquid density at m.p.:5.8 g·cm−3

Melting point :2128 K 3371 °F 1855 °CBoiling point :7968 °F 4409 °C, 4682 KHeat of fusion :14 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization :573 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity :25.36 J·mol−1·K−1

Electronegativity :1.33 (Pauling scale)

COMPOUNDS

Oxides, nitrides and carbides• The most common oxide is zirconium dioxide,

ZrO2, also referred to as zirconia.• Zirconium tungstate is an unusual substance in

that it shrinks in all directions when heated.• Zirconyl chloride is a rare water-soluble

zirconium complex• Zirconium carbide and zirconium nitride are

refractory solids.

Halides and pseudohalides• All four common halides are known, ZrF4, ZrCl4, ZrBr4

and ZrI4.• All have polymeric structures and are far less volatile

than the corresponding monomeric titanium tetrahalides.

Organic derivatives• Organozirconium chemistry is the study of compounds

containing a carbon-zirconium bond.• The first such compound was zirconocene dibromide

((C5H5)2ZrBr2)• Most complexes of Zr(II) are derivatives of zirconacene,

one example being (C5Me5)2Zr(CO)2.

APPLICATION

• Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is used in laboratory crucibles, metallurgical furnaces, as a refractory material and it can be sintered into a ceramic knife. • Zircon (ZrSiO4) is cut into gemstones for use in

jewellery.• Zircon is often used as an alloying agent in materials

that are exposed to aggressive environments.• The use of Zr nano-particles as pyrophoric material

in explosive weapons• Zirconium is used for cladding nuclear reactor fuels.

• Zirconium metal and its oxide (ZrO2) are used in space vehicle parts for their resistance to heat.• Zirconia is also a component in some abrasives,

such as grinding wheels and sandpaper. • The ceramic layers are usually composed by a

mixture of zirconia and yttria.• The isotope 89Zr has been recently applied to the

tracking and quantification of molecular antibodies with positron emission tomography (PET) cameras.• Zirconium carbonate (3ZrO2·CO2·H2O) was used in

lotions to treat poison ivy.

NIOBIUM

• The English chemist, Hatchett, found the element in a "very heavy black stone, with golden streaks" that he found in the British Museum.

• When Hatchett did so in 1801, he discovered a new element. He named it columbiun,

• Some chemists were convinced that columbium was identical to the element tantalum,

• Scientists debated for nearly a century over which name to use. In 1949, niobium was officially adopted.

History

• Niobium occurs primarily in two minerals, columbite and pyrochlore.

• Niobium always occurs with tantalum in these minerals.

• That makes it about as abundant as nitrogen and lithium, and slightly more abundant than lead.

• Only one naturally occurring isotope of niobium exists, niobium-93.

Occurrences

Chemical Properties

• At high temperatures, it is attacked by O2 and the halogens and combine with most non-metals.

• The chemistry of Nb is predominantly that of the +5 oxidation state.

Physical Properties

• Niobium(IV) fluoride is paramagnetic (d1) and isostructural with SnF4. In contrast, MCl4, MBr4 and MI4 are diamagnetic (or weakly paramagnetic)

• Heating Nb2O5 with group 1 or group 2 metal carbonates at high temperaturese.g. : Nb2O5 with Na2CO3 at 1650K in a Pt crucible

yields mixed metal oxides such as NaNbO3

Compounds

APPLICATIONS

• The halides are Friedel–Crafts catalysts.• Niobium is used primarily in making alloys, because

it’s greatly increases its strength.• Sometimes used as a lubricant at high temperatures.

Because it does not break down at temperatures up to about 1300°C.

• Niobium alloys is in the making of jewelry. These alloys are lightweight and hypoallergenic.

MOLYBDENUM

History

• It was not until 1781 that Hjelm found a way to work with the compound. He discovered that it was very different from graphite.

• He found that it contained an entirely new element. The name chosen for the new element illustrates a further confusion.

• The name chosen for the new element, molybdenum, is actually the Greek word for lead!

Occurrences

• Molybdenum never occurs free in nature. In addition to molybdenite, it occurs commonly as the mineral wulfenite (PbMo0 4 ).

• Seven naturally occurring isotopes of molybdenum exist: molybdenum-92, molybdenum-94, molybdenum-95, molybdenum-96, molybdenum-97, molybdenum-98, and molybdenum-100.

Chemical properties

• Molybdenum does not dissolve in most common chemical reagents. For example, molybdenum does not dissolve in hydrochloric acid.

• Molybdenum does dissolve in hot strong sulfuric or nitric acids, however.

• The metal does not react with oxygen at room temperatures.

Physical properties

Compounds

• The most important compounds of Mo(VI) is the oxides

Application

• Nearly half of these alloys, in turn, were used to make stainless and heat-resistant steel.

• Another important use of molybdenum is in catalysts.

• A number of molybdenum compounds are used in industry and research. Interestingly, molybdenum disulfide is still used as a lubricant.

TECHNECIUM

HISTORY

Discover in 1937 by C. Perrier and Emilio Gino Segre in Italy

Emilio Gino Segre Technetium was first predicted by the russian chemist Mendeleev

Occurance

• Technetium does not occur naturally on earth• Technecium was the first element produced

artificially• founded in a sample of molybdenum bombarded by

deuterons• Technetium will be found in very small amounts in

earth’s crust along with other radioactives materials, such as uranium and radium. However, been foune in certain type of stars. It presence can be detected by analyzing the light produced by these stars

Compoundthere are no comercially important compound of technecium

Fluorides : Technetium hexafluoride: TcF6

Technetium pentafluoride: TcF5

Chlorides :Technetium hexachloride: TcCl6

Technetium tetrachloride: TcCl4

Bromides:Technetium tetrabromide: TcBr4

Oxides :Technetium dioxide: TcO2

Ditechnetium heptoxide : Tc2O7

Sulfides : Technetium disulphide: TcS2

Carbonyls: Ditechnetium decacarbonyl: Tc2(CO)10

Chemical propertiesAtomic number 43

Atomic mass (99) g.mol -1

Electronegativity according to Pauling 1.9

Density 11.5 g.cm-3 at 20°C

Melting point 2200 oC

Boiling point 4877 oC

Vanderwaals radius 0.128 nm

Isotopes 9

Electronic shell [ Kr ] 4d6 5s1

Physical properties

• Atomic Number : 43• Atomic Weight : 98• Melting Point : 2430 K (2157°C or 3915°F)• Boiling Point : 4538 K (4265°C or 7709°F)• Density : 11 grams per cubic cm• Phase at Room Temperature: Solid• Element Classification: Metal• Period Number: 5 • Group Number: 7 • Radioactive and Artificially Produced

Application

• Radioactive tracing in medicine• Nuclear medicine• Corrosion inhibitor• Superconductor• Technetium-99 has also been proposed for

use in optolectric nuclear batteries

Technetium generator

RUTHENIUM

HISTORY

• Discovered by Karl Klaus in 1844

OCCURRENCE• Ruthenium is exceedingly rare, only the 74th most

abundant metal on Earth. This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa.

• Ruthenium is found as the free metal, sometimes associated with platinum, osmium and iridium. There are few minerals, such as laurite, ruarsite and ruthenarsenite

• World production is 12 tonnes per year and reserves are hestimated to be ariund 5.000 tonnes.

COMPOUNDRuthenium Compounds

Compounds Chemical Formula Metal Content Characteristics

Ruthenium (III) chloride hydrate RuCl3.nH2O ≥37.0% Black crystals

Dichlorotris (triphenylphosphine)ruthenium(II) RuCl2(PPh3)3 10.5% Black crystals

Hexacarbonyldi (µ-chloro) dichlorodiruthenium(II) Ru2Cl4(CO)6 39.5% Pale yellow crystals

Carbonyl(dihydrido) tris(triphenylphosphine) ruthenium(II) Ru(CO) (H2 )(P(C6H5)3)3 15.34% White powder

Ruthenium(IV) oxide RuO2 ≥75.2% Black powder

Ruthenium(IV) oxide,hydrate RuO2.nH2O 62.0% Black powder

Potassium pentachlororuthenate(III) hydrate K2RuCl5.nH2O ≥25.4% Brown powder

Ammonium hexachlororuthenate(IV) (NH4)2RuCl6 ≥28.4% Red to brown powder

Ruthenium black Ru 99.9% Black powder

CHEMICAL PROPERTIESAtomic number 44

Atomic mass 101.1 g.mol -1

Electronegativity according to Pauling 2.2

Density 12.2 g.cm-3 at 20°C

Melting point 2250 °CBoiling point 4150 °CVanderwaals radius 0.135 nmIsotopes 11Electronic shell [ Kr ] 4d7 5s1

Energy of first ionisation 722.4 kJ.mol -1

Energy of second ionisation 1620 kJ.mol -1

Energy of third ionisation 2747 kJ.mol -1

Standard Potential 0.45 V

PHYSICAL PROPERTIESAtomic number 44Atomic mass 101.1 g.mol -1

Electronegativity according to Pauling 2.2Density 12.2 g.cm-3 at 20°CMelting point 2250 °CBoiling point 4150 °CVanderwaals radius 0.135 nmIsotopes 11Electronic shell [ Kr ] 4d7 5s1

Energy of first ionisation 722.4 kJ.mol -1

Energy of second ionisation 1620 kJ.mol -1

Energy of third ionisation 2747 kJ.mol -1

Standard Potential 0.45 V

APPLICATION

• sed as a hardener for palladium and platinum and added in small amounts improves the corrosion resistance of titanium

• used in electrical contact alloys and filaments, in jewelry, in pen nibs, and in instrument pivots. It is also used in alloys with cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, tungsten, and other metals. Ruthenium compounds are used to color ceramics and glass.

• Ruthenium is also a versatile catalyst, used for instance in the removal of H2S from oil refineries and from other industrial processes, for the production of ammonia from natural gas, and for the production of acetic acid from methanol.

RHODIUM

HISTORY OF RHODIUM

• Discovered, on 1804 by William Hyde Wollaston

• Named based on Greek word “rhodon” means rose due to rose-red precipitate of rhodium .

Formed of Rhodium

+ Mercury cianyde

washed with Alcohol

Heated up with H2 gas washed with water

Aquaregia platinum solutions

Residues

Dark red material (Sodium

chlorodite)

Rhodium Powder

OCCURANCE OF RHODIUM

• South Africa• River sands of the Ural Mountains • North America• Copper-nickel sulfide mining area of

the Sudbury, Ontario . (0.1 % of Rhodium)• Main exporter of rhodium is South Africa

(approximately 80% in 2010)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RHODIUM

• Phase : Solid • Atomic Weight : 102.90550• Color : silverish• Density : 12.41 g·cm−3 • Liquid density at m.p : 10.7 g·cm−3 • Melting point : 1964 °C • Boiling point : 3695 °C • Heat of fusion : 26.59 kJ·mol−1 • Heat of vaporization : 494 kJ·mol−1 • Electronegativity : 2.28 (Pauling scale) • Atomic radius : 134 pm

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF RHODIUM

• Crystal structure : face centered cubic • Magnetic ordering : paramagnetic

COMPOUND OF RHODIUM

• Rhodium trifluoride (RhF3)

• Rhodium hexafluoride (RhF6)

• Rhodium tetrafluoride (RhF4)

• Tetrarhodium eicosafluoride [RhF5]4

• Rhodium trichloride (RhCl3)

• Rhodium tribromide (RhBr3)

• Rhodium triiodide (RhI3)

APPLICATION OF RHODIUM

• Catalytic converters for cars, but is most frequently used as an alloying agent in other

• Production of alloys with the platinum, with resulting high hardness and resistance materials.

• Production of projectors, • Production of emitting and receiving circuit

components. • Ornamental uses

APPLICATION OF RHODIUM

• Coating sterling silver to protect against tarnish

• As a filter in mammography systems because of the characteristic X-rays it produces.

• Rhodium neutron detectors are used in combustion engineering nuclear reactors to measure neutron flux levels.

PALLADIUM

HISTORY OF PALLADIUM

• Discovered on 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston but published to public on 1805.

• Named Palladium because of new asteroids Pallas, based on the Greek Goddess means wisdom.

OCCURANCE OF PALLADIUM

• More than 80% of world palladium production is concentrated in just two countries: the Russian Federation and South Africa.

• Outside of Russia, the other significant producing area is the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, where Platinum Group Metals are mined as primary products.

• In 2007, Russia was the top producer of palladium, with a 44% world share, followed by South Africa with 40%. Canada with 6% and the U.S. with 5% are the only other substantial producers of palladium.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALLADIUM• Phase : Solid • Atomic Weight : 106.42• Color : silverish• Density : 12.023 g·cm−3 • Liquid density at m.p.: 10.38 g·cm−3 • Melting point : 1554.9 °C  • Boiling point : 2963 °C • Heat of fusion : 16.74 kJ·mol−1 • Heat of vaporization : 362 kJ·mol−1 • Electronegativity : 2.20 (Pauling scale) • Atomic radius : 137 pm

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PALLADIUM

• Crystal structure : face centered cubic • Magnetic ordering : paramagnetic

COMPOUND OF PALLADIUM

• Palladium dichloride (PdCl2)• Palladium(II) acetate• Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0)

(Pd(PPh3)4

• Palladium(II) chloride• Palladium tetrafluoride (PdF4)• Palladium hydride (PdH)• Pt(NEtH2)4Cl3.H2O

APPLICATION OF PALLADIUM

• AutocatalystsSofter than platinum, resistant to oxidation and high temperature corrosion, palladium is useful in eliminating harmful emissions produced by internal combustion engines.

• ElectronicsPalladium’s chemical stability and electrical conductivity make it an effective and durable alternative to gold for plating in electronic components.

• DentistryPalladium-based alloys are used in dentistry for dental crowns and bridges. And palladium metal is also compatible with human tissue and is used, in a radioactive form, in the medical industry for the treatment of cancer.

• Jewelry• Chemical

Palladium is an important part of the refining of nitric acid, and has important uses in developing raw materials for synthetic rubber and nylon.

• Fuel CellsPalladium-based alloys are actively being researched for applications in fuel cell technology, an area of future promise for the metal.

• CoinagePalladium is an attractive metal for coinage purposes.

• Photography• Hydrogen Storage• Medicine

Palladium-103, a radioactive isotope of palladium, is seeing promising applications in the treatment of prostate cancer.

SILVER

History of Element

Silver has been used for thousands of years for ornaments and utensils, for trade, and as the basis for many monetary systems. Its value as a precious metal was long considered second only to gold. The word "silver" appears in Anglo-Saxon in various spellings such as seolfor and siolfor. A similar form is seen throughout the Germanic languages (compare Old High German silabar and silbir). The chemical symbol Ag is from the Latin for "silver", argentum (compare Greek άργυρος, árgyros), from the Indo-European root *arg- meaning "white" or "shining". Silver has been known since ancient times. Mentioned in the book of Genesis, slag heaps found in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate silver was being separated from lead as early as the 4th millennium BC using surface mining.[6]

A Tyrian shekel of Rome, a possibility for the type of silver coin used to bribe Judas Iscariot.

The stability of the Roman currency relied to a high degree on the supply of silver bullion, which Roman miners produced on a scale unparalleled before the discovery of the New World. Reaching a peak production of 200 t per year, an estimated silver stock of 10,000 t circulated in the Roman economy in the middle of the second century AD, five to ten times larger than the combined amount of silver available to medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[44][45] Financial officials of the Roman Empire worried about the loss of silver to pay for the greatly in demand silk from Sinica (China).

Occurrence

Native silver

Silver is found in native form, as an alloy with gold (electrum), and in ores containing sulfur, arsenic, antimony or chlorin Ores include argentite (Ag2S), chlorargyrite (AgCl) which includes horn silver, and pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3). The principal sources of silver are the ores of copper, copper-nickel, lead, and lead-zinc obtained from Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, China, Australia, Chile, Poland and Serbia.[6] Peru, Bolivia and Mexico have been mining silver since 1546, and are still major world producers. Top silver-producing mines are Cannington (Australia), Fresnillo (Mexico), San Cristobal (Bolivia), Antamina (Peru), Rudna (Poland), and Penasquito (Mexico).[21] Top near-term mine development projects through 2015 are Pascua Lama (Chile), Navidad (Argentina), Jaunicipio (Mexico), Malku Khota (Bolivia),[13] and Hackett River (Canada).[21]

The metal is primarily produced as a by-product of electrolytic copper refining, gold, nickel and zinc refining, and by application of the Parkes process on lead metal obtained from lead ores that contain small amounts of silver. Commercial-grade fine silver is at least 99.9% pure, and purities greater than 99.999% are available. In 2011, Mexico was the top producer of silver (4,500 tonnes or 19% of the world's total), closely followed by Peru (4,000 t) and China (4,000 t).[29]

The most common oxidation state of silver is +1 (for example, silver nitrate, AgNO3); the less common +2 compounds (for example, silver(II) fluoride, AgF2), and the even less common +3 (for example, potassium tetrafluoroargentate(III), KAgF4) and even +4 compounds (for example, potassium hexafluoroargentate(IV), K2AgF6)[7] are also known.

Chemical properties

IsotopesNaturally occurring silver is composed of two stable isotopes, 107Ag and 109Ag, with 107Ag being slightly more abundant (51.839% natural abundance). Silver's isotopes are almost equal in abundance, something which is rare in the periodic table. Silver's atomic weight is 107.8682(2) g/mol.[8][9] Twenty-eight radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 105Ag with a half-life of 41.29 days, 111Ag with a half-life of 7.45 days, and 112Ag with a half-life of 3.13 hours. This element has numerous meta states, the most stable being 108mAg (t1/2 = 418 years), 110mAg (t1/2 = 249.79 days) and 106mAg (t1/2 = 8.28 days). All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than three minutes.

Isotopes of silver range in relative atomic mass from 93.943 (94Ag) to 126.936 (127Ag);[10] the primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 107Ag, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay products before 107Ag are palladium (element 46) isotopes, and the primary products after are cadmium (element 48) isotopes.

Physical properties

Silver is a metallic chemical element and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal.

Among metals, pure silver has the highest thermal conductivity (the nonmetal carbon in the form of diamond and superfluid helium II are higher) and one of the highest optical reflectivities.[5] (Aluminium slightly outdoes silver in parts of the visible spectrum, and silver is a poor reflector of ultraviolet). Silver also has the lowest contact resistance of any metal.

Compounds

• Argyrol• Potassium argentocyanide• Rubidium silver iodide• Silver acetate• Silver acetylide• Silver azide• Silver behenate• Silver bromate• Silver bromide• Silver carbonate• Silver chlorate• Silver chloride

• Silver chromate• Silver cyanate• Silver cyanide• Silver fulminate• Silver halide• Silver hexafluorophosphate• Silver iodate• Silver iodide• Silver molybdate• Silver nitrate

• Silver nitride• Silver oxalate• Silver oxide• Silver perchlorate• Silver permanganate• Silver phosphate• Silver proteinate• Silver selenite• Silver subfluoride• Silver sulfadiazine

• Silver sulfate• Silver(II) sulfate• Silver sulfide• Silver telluride• Silver tetrafluoroborate• Silver thiocyanate• Silver trifluoromethanesulfonate• Silver(I) fluoride• Silver(I) selenide• Silver(I,III) oxide• Silver(II) fluoride• Tetrakis(pyridine)silver(II) peroxydisulfate• Zinag

ApplicationsMany well known uses of silver involve its precious metal properties, including currency, decorative items and mirrors. The contrast between its bright white color and other media makes it very useful to the visual arts. It has also long been used to confer high monetary value as objects (such as silver coins and investment bars) or make objects symbolic of high social or political rank.

• CurrencySilver, in the form of electrum (a gold–silver alloy), was coined to produce money around 700 BC by the Lydians. Later, silver was refined and coined in its pure form. Many nations used silver as the basic unit of monetary value. In the modern world, silver bullion has the ISO currency code XAG. The name of the pound sterling (£) reflects the fact it originally represented the value of one pound Tower weight of sterling silver; other historical currencies, such as the French livre, have similar etymologies. During the 19th century, the bimetallism that prevailed in most countries was undermined by the discovery of large deposits of silver in the Americas; fearing a sharp decrease in the value of silver and thus the currency, most states switched to a gold standard by 1900. In some languages, like Spanish and Hebrew, the same word means both silver and money.The 20th century saw a gradual movement to fiat currency, with most of the world monetary system losing its link to precious metals after Richard Nixon took the United States dollar off the gold standard in 1971; the last currency backed by gold was the Swiss franc, which became a pure fiat currency on 1 May 2000. During this same period, silver gradually ceased to be used in circulating coins; the United States minted its last circulating silver coin in 1970 in its 40% half-dollar.The Royal Canadian Mint still makes many silver coins with various dollar denominations. Silver is used as a currency by many individuals, and is legal tender in the state of Utah. Silver coins and bullion are also used as an investment to guard against inflation and dollar devaluation.

• Jewelry and silverwareJewelry and silverware are traditionally made from sterling silver (standard silver), an alloy of 92.5% silver with 7.5% copper. In the US, only an alloy consisting of at least 90.0% fine silver can be marketed as "silver" (thus frequently stamped 900). Sterling silver (stamped 925) is harder than pure silver, and has a lower melting point (893 °C) than either pure silver or pure copper.[6] Britannia silver is an alternative, hallmark-quality standard containing 95.8% silver, often used to make silver tableware and wrought plate. With the addition of germanium, the patented modified alloy Argentium Sterling silver is formed, with improved properties, including resistance to firescale.Sterling silver jewelry is often plated with a thin coat of .999 fine silver to give the item a shiny finish. This process is called "flashing". Silver jewelry can also be plated with rhodium (for a bright, shiny look) or gold.Silver is a constituent of almost all colored carat gold alloys and carat gold solders, giving the alloys paler color and greater hardness. [15] White 9 carat gold contains 62.5% silver and 37.5% gold, while 22 carat gold contains up to 91.7% gold and 8.4% silver or copper or a mixture of both.[15]

Silver is much cheaper than gold, though still valuable, and so is very popular with jewelers who are just starting out and cannot afford to make pieces in gold, or as a practicing material for goldsmith apprentices. Silver has also become very fashionable, and is used frequently in more artistic jewelry pieces.Traditionally, silversmiths mostly made "silverware" (cutlery, tableware, bowls, candlesticks and such). Only in more recent times has silversmithing become mainly work in jewelry, as much less solid silver tableware is now handmade.

• DentistrySilver can be alloyed with mercury, tin and other metals at room temperature to make amalgams that are widely used for dental fillings. To make dental amalgam, a mixture of powdered silver and other metals is mixed with mercury to make a stiff paste that can be adapted to the shape of a cavity. The dental amalgam achieves initial hardness within minutes but sets hard in a few hours.

• Photography and electronicsPhotography used 30.98% of the silver consumed in 1998 in the form of silver nitrate and silver halides. In 2001, 23.47% was used for photography, while 20.03% was used in jewelry, 38.51% for industrial uses, and only 3.5% for coins and medals. The use of silver in photography has rapidly declined, due to the lower demand for consumer color film from the advent of digital technology; since 2007, of the 907 million ounces of silver in supply, just 117.6 million ounces (13%) were consumed by the photographic sector, about 50% of the amount used in photography in 1998. By 2010 the supply had increased by about 10% to 1056.8 million ounces of which 72.7 million ounces were used in the photographic sector, a decline of 38% compared with 2007.[18]

Some electrical and electronic products use silver for its superior conductivity, even when tarnished. The primary example of this is in high quality RF connectors. The increase in conductivity is also taken advantage of in RF engineering at VHF and higher frequencies, where conductors often cannot be scaled by 6%, due to tuning requirements, e.g. cavity filters. As an additional example, printed circuits and RFID antennas can be made using silver paints,[6][19] and computer keyboards use silver electrical contacts. Silver cadmium oxide is used in high voltage contacts because it can withstand arcing.Some manufacturers produce audio connector cables, speaker wires, and power cables using silver conductors, which have a 6% higher conductivity than ordinary copper ones of identical dimensions, but cost very much more. Though debatable, many hi-fi enthusiasts believe silver wires improve sound quality. [

citation needed]

Small devices, such as hearing aids and watches, commonly use silver oxide batteries due to their long life and high energy to weight ratio. Another usage is high-capacity silver-zinc and silver-cadmium batteries.

• Mirrors and opticsMirrors which need superior reflectivity for visible light are commonly made with silver as the reflecting material in a process called silvering, though common mirrors are backed with aluminium. Using a process called sputtering, silver along with other optically transparent layers are applied to glass creating low emissivity coatings used in high performance insulated glazing or IGU. The amount of silver used per window is small because the silver layer is only 10–15 nanometers thick.[20] However, the amount of silver coated glass worldwide is hundreds of millions of square meters per year leading to silver consumption on the order of 10 cubic meters or 100 metric tons/year. Silver color seen in architectural glass and tinted windows on vehicles is produced by sputtered chrome, stainless steel or other alloys. Silver is seldom used as the reflector in telescope mirrors where aluminum is generally preferred being cheaper and less susceptible to tarnishing and corrosion[21] Silver is the reflective coating of choice for solar reflectors.[22]

CADMIUM

History of Element

FRIEDRICH STROMEYER

Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals, which was named after the Greek mythological character, Κάδμος Cadmus, the founder of Thebes) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer and Karl Samuel LeberechtHermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate

Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reduction of the sulfide. The possibility to use cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s but the lack of cadmium limited this application.

OCCURRENCE

Cadmium metal

Cadmium makes up about 0.1 ppm of the Earth's crust. Compared with the more abundant 65 ppm zinc, cadmium is rare.[17] No significant deposits of cadmium-containing ores are known. Greenockite (CdS), the only cadmium mineral of importance, is nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS). Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. One place where metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia.[20]

Rocks mined to produce phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium, leading to a cadmium concentration of up to 300 mg/kg in the produced phosphate fertilizers and thus in the high cadmium content in agricultural soils.[21][22] Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium, which ends up mostly in the flue dust.[23]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white divalent metal. It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds.

Unlike other metals, cadmium is resistant to corrosion and as a result it is used as a protective layer when deposited on other metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium is insoluble in water and is not flammable; however, in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes.

Chemical properties

Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of +2, it also exists in the +1 state. Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states. Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide (CdO); the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes color when heated, similar to zinc oxide. Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride (CdCl2), cadmium sulfate (CdSO4), or cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2). The oxidation state +1 can be reached by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride, forming the Cd2

2+ cation, which is similar to the Hg2

2+ cation in mercury(I) chloride.

Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2(AlCl4)2

Compounds

• Cadmium acetate• Cadmium arsenide• Cadmium bromide• Cadmium chloride• Cadmium cyanide• Cadmium fluoride• Cadmium hydride• Cadmium hydroxide• Cadmium selenide• Cadmium stearate

• Cadmium sulfate• Cadmium iodide • Cadmium nitrate• Cadmium oxide• Cadmium pigments• Cadmium telluride• Cadmium tungstate• Cadmium zinc telluride• Cadmium(I) tetrachloroaluminate• Caesium cadmium bromide• Caesium cadmium chloride• Organocadmium compound• Zinc cadmium sulfide

Applications

• Batteries Ni-Cd batteries

In 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). The European Union banned the use of cadmium in electronics in 2004 with several exceptions but reduced the allowed content of cadmium in electronics to 0.002%.

• ElectroplatingCadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, can be found in the aircraft industry due to the ability to resist corrosion when applied to steel components. This coating is passivated by the usage of chromate salts. A limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength steels caused by the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition). In addition, titanium embrittlement caused by cadmium-plated tool residues resulted in banishment of these tools (along with routine tool testing programs to detect any cadmium contamination) from the A-12/SR-71 and U-2 programs, and subsequent aircraft programs using titanium

• Nuclear fissionCadmium is used as a barrier to control neutrons in nuclear fission. The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.

• Laboratory uses

Pict. Violet light from a helium cadmium metal vapor laser. The highly monochromatic color arises from the 441.563 nm transition line of cadmium.

Helium–cadmium lasers are a common source of blue-ultraviolet laser light. They operate at either 325 or 422 nm and are used in fluorescence microscopes and various laboratory experiments.Cadmium selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under UV excitation (He-Cd laser, for example). The color of this luminescence can be green, yellow or red depending on the particle size. Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope.Cadmium is a component of some compound semiconductors, such as cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and cadmium telluride, which can be used for light detection or solar cells. HgCdTe is sensitive to infrared light and therefore may be utilized as an infrared detector or switch for example in remote control devices.In molecular biology, cadmium is used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions, as well as in hypoxia research to stimulate proteasome-dependent degradation of Hif-1α.

• SafetyThe most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes, or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds. Inhalation of cadmium-containing fumes can result initially in metal fume fever but may progress to chemical pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, and death.

Cadmium is also an environmental hazard. Human exposures to environmental cadmium are primarily the result of fossil fuel combustion, phosphate fertilizers, natural sources, iron and steel production, cement production and related activities, nonferrous metals production, and municipal solid waste incineration.[2]

INDIUM

Indium (In)• In 1924, indium was found to have a

valuable ability to stabilize non-ferrous metals, which was the first significant use for the element.

• Indium occurs naturally on Earth only in two primordial nuclides, indium-113and indium-115. Out of this two, indium-115 makes up 95.7% of all indium .

• Indium has 39 known isotopes, ranging in mass between 97 and 135.

Physical Properties• Element Classification : Metal• Density (g/cc) : 7.31• Melting Point (K) : 429.32• Boiling Point (K) : 2353• Appearance : very soft, silvery-white metal• Atomic Radius (pm) : 166• Atomic Volume (cc/mol) : 15.7• Covalent Radius (pm) : 144• Specific Heat (@20°C J/g mol): 0.234• Fusion Heat (kJ/mol) : 3.24• Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 225.1• Debye Temperature (K) : 129.00• Pauling Negativity Number : 1.78• Lattice Structure : Tetragonal

Chemical Properties• Indium is a post-transition metal and

chemically, is the intermediate element between its group 13 neighbors gallium and thallium.

• Indium does not react with water, but it is oxidized by stronger oxidizing agents, such as halogens or oxalic acid, to give indium(III) compounds. It does not react with boron, silicon or carbon, and the corresponding boride, silicide or carbide are not known.

Compounds• Hydrides (InH)• Fluorides (InF, InF3 )

• Chlorides (InCl, InCl2 , InCl3 )

• Bromides (InBr, InBr2 , InBr3 )

• Iodides (InI , InI3 , In2I4 )

• Oxides (InO, In2O3 )

• Sulfides (InS, In2S3 )

• Selenides (InSe, In2Se3 )

Applications• Electronics• Indium oxide (In2O3) and indium tin oxide (ITO)

are used as a transparent conductive coating applied to glass substrates in the making of electroluminescent panels.

• Indium antimonide, indium phosphide, and indium nitride are semiconductors with useful properties.

• Used in light-emitting diodes (LEDs).• Very small amounts used in aluminium alloy

sacrificial anodes (for salt water applications) to prevent passivation of the aluminium.

• To bond gold electrical test leads to superconductors. .

• Used as a calibration material for Differential scanning calorimetry.

• It is an ingredient in the gallium-indium-tin alloy Galinstan, which is liquid at room temperature while not being toxic like mercury

ANTIMONY (Sb)

This practice dates from prehistoric times, it was used in Egypt at least as earky as 3400b.c. The black pigment came from arabia, wass called mestem, stimmi, afterward stibi, and although usually galena, was sometimes native antimony sulphide Sb2S3.

HISTORY

OCCURANCE

Metalic antimony is found in swedan, Borneo, Queensland. The oxides Sb2O3 and Sb2O4 occur only sparingly, and the only important is the sulphide Sb2S3,stibnite, density 4,64 found in large quantites in China and less abundantly in Mexico, Bolivia, Peru, Yugoslivia. It found in black or grey crystals (often radiating needles) or as compact masses.

Metalurgy• The Sulphide is then reduced by

heating with iron and a little salt in plimbago cricibel : Sb2S3 + 3 Fe 2Sb + 3FeS

• The Sulphide may also to form antimony dioxide Sb2O4, at higher Temperature antimony Trioxside Sb2O3 sublimes :

2Sb2S3 + 9O2 2 Sb2O3 + 6SO2

• Oxides ares may be dissolved in hydrocloric acid and the antimony precipitated from the solution of antimony trichlorida by iron :

2SbCl3 + 3 Fe 2Sb + 3FeCl2

Antimony is precipitated as a fine black powder by zinc from a solution of the trichlorida.

Pure AntimonyPure Antimony is made from the pure pentaxide (prepared by the hydrolisis of recrystallised chlorantimonic acid ) by fusing with pottasium cyanida or heating in a current of hydrogen

PROPERTIES

Physical Properties• Antimony is a silver – white

lustrous metal• Density 6,67 which is brittle and

easly powdered• Antimony boils 1t 1380 0 C• The vapour densities at 1572 0 C

and 1640 0C • The Moleculer weight 310 and

284• Antimony is a poor conductor of

heat and electricity• Antimony is diamagnetic

Chemical Properties• From the fused metal on slow

cooling , large obtuse rhombohedral crystal are formed, but after dilute cooling the metal has a granular structure

• Intermediet between Sb3 Sb2 perhaps Sb4 2Sb2

• Antimony is attacked by hot concetration sulphuric acid forming the sulphate Sb2(SO4)3and its dissolves readily in aqua regia forming a solution of the SbCl5

APLICATION

• Complexation effect of antimony compounds with citric acid and its application to the speciation of antimony(III) and antimony(V) using HPLC-ICP-MS

• Tetroxide Ceramic manufacture• Chlorides Catalyst in polymerization reactions

(polycondensation)

TIN

HISTORY

The first tin artifacts date back to 2000 B.C., however, it was not until 1800 B.C. that tin smelting became common in western Asia. Tin was reduced by charcoal and at first was thought to be a form of lead. The Romans referred to both tin and lead as plumbum where lead was plumbum nigrum and tin was plumbum candidum. Tin was rarely used on its own and was most commonly alloyed to copper to form bronze.

OCCURANCE

Tin (IV) Sulfat Sn(SO4)2.H2O can be crystallized from the solution obtained from the oxidation of Sn sulfate, it completely hydrolyzed in water.Tin (IV) Nitrate It is a volatile solids made of colorless N2O5 interaction and SnCl4, it contains bidentate NO3 groups produce coordination dodekahedral. reacts with organic substances. Tin is not very abundant in nature

PROPERTIESPhisical Properties• common allotrope of tin is a silver-

white metallic-looking solid known as the β-form (or "beta-form").

• "white tin" has a melting point of 232°C (450°F), a boiling point of 2,260°C (4,100°F), and a density of 7.31 grams per cubic centimeter.

• α-tin (or "alpha-tin"), also known as "gray tin." Gray tin forms when white tin is cooled to temperatures less than about 13°C. Gray tin is a gray amorphous (lacking a crystalline shape) powder

Chemical Properties• Tin is relatively unaffected by both

water and oxygen at room temperatures.

• Tin does not rust, corrode, or react in any other way

• tin is attacked only slowly by dilute acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ).

• Tin dissolves easily in concentrated acids, however, and in hot alkaline solutions.

• The metal also reacts with the halogens to form compounds such as tin chloride and tin bromide. It also forms compounds with sulfur, selenium, and tellurium.

APPLICATION

• The largest amount of tin used in the United States goes to the productionofsolder

• Tin is also used in the manufacture of other alloy• One application of tin that was once important is in

the manufacture of "tin foil." Tin foil is a very thin sheet of tin used to wrap candies, tobacco, and other products. The tin protected the products from spoiling by exposure to air. Today, most tin foil is actually thin sheets of aluminum because aluminum is less expensive

CONCLUSION

• These substances are characterized by high electrical and thermal conductivity as well as by malleability, ductility, and high reflectivity of light.

• Relatively simple crystal structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree of symmetry.

• The most reactive include lithium, potassium, and radium, whereas those of low reactivity are gold, silver, palladium, and platinum.

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