Site Visit Full Report

7/26/2019 Site Visit Full Report

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INTRODUCTION

The transportation by road is the only road which could give maximum service to one all.

This mode has also the maximum flexibility for travel with is possible to provide door to door

service only by the road transport. Concrete pavement a large number of advantages such as long

life span negligible maintenance, user and environment friendly and lower cost. Keeping in this

view the whole life cycle cost analysis for the black topping and white topping have been done

on various conditions such as type of lane as single lane, two lane, four lane different traffic

categories deterioration of road three categories.

The objectives of the pavement design process are to guide the district pavement engineer

to select a pavement type and design the pavement with an approved method using all the

information needed to provide a structure that is capable of carrying traffic loads with minimum

physical deterioration, maximum safety, and maximum ride comfort. The designer should

document the pavement design process in a report format as discussed in Pavement esign

!eports.

The main objective of this study is to develop strategy to select the most cost efficient

pavement design method to carry out for a section of a highway network and also to identify the

cost analysis of different pavement design method. "oreover, to facilitate residents #egamat way

to the future is in accordance with the objectives of the !"K$% th. &nd in order to provide better

road safety for motorists. To replace the old road to the new one on. 'ecause the roads are severe

old as there are many holes and not flat ground.


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TYPES OF WORK

'itumen is derived from petroleum crude, which is in shortly supply globally and the

price of which has been rising steeply.

'esides the easy available of cement, concrete roads have a long life and are practicallymaintenance(free.

&nother major of advantages of concrete roads is the saving in fuel by commercial

vehicles to an extent of $)(*%+. The fuel savings themselves can support a large

programme of concreting.

Cement concrete roads save a substantial uantity of stone aggregates and this factor

must be considered when choice pavements are made.

Concrete roads can withstand extreme weather conditions wide ( ranging temperature,

heavy rainfall and water logging.

Through cement concrete roads may cost slightly more than a flexible pavement initially,

they are economical when whole(life(costing is considered.

PROCEDURE TO CONSTRUCT PAVEMENTS

uring construction of a cement concrete pavement, various steps are taken as below-

#urvey of proposed work is done by experienced engineers or by any expert of survey,

site survey includes geographical details, soil properties and site investigation.

&fter survey, a team of experienced engineers and architecture prepare detailed plan of

work with the help of various soft wares.


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&fter that an engineer prepares detailed estimate of proposed work and also prepares an

estimate regarding euipment reuired and labors reuirements.

ow excavation is done with the help of automatic machines and then an euipment is

used to cut nearby trees and root removal process.

&nd after these construction of soil sub grade, base coarse and then construction of

concrete slab is done.

PREPARATION OF THE SUB- GRADE OR BASE COARSE

The road sub grade has to be prepared carefully, in order to reali/e everywhere a pavement

structure of an adeuate and uniform thickness. This allows to provide a homogeneous bond

between the concrete slab and its foundation which is important for the later behavior of the

pavement structure. 0or roads with a base, drainage of the water must be provided. "ud, leaves,

etc. have to be removed. 1hen the base is permeable, it should be sprayed with water in order to

prevent the mixing water from being sucked out of the concrete. 2owever, if the base is

impermeable 3e.g. if the concrete is placed on a watertight asphalt concrete interlayer4 it can be

necessary under warm weather conditions to cool down this layer by spraying water on the

surface. The following points are important for roads without a foundation-

rainage of all surface water5

6ood compaction of the sub grade5

0illing and compaction of any ruts caused by construction traffic5

7t is forbidden to level the sub grade by means of a course of sand. 7f the sub grade has to

be leveled, it is advisable to do this by using a granular material- either slag or coarse

aggregate e.g. with a grain si/e %8*%5

Provide an additional width of the sub grade for more lateral support.

7t must always be avoided that water is sucked from the cement paste into the

substructure or the base. This can be accomplished by either moderately moistening the

sub grade, or by applying a plastic sheet on the substructure of the pavement. The latterwork must be done with care, to prevent the sheet from tearing or being pulled loose by

the wind.

MIXING AND TRANSPORT OF CONCRETE MIXING PLANT


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The concrete mixing plant must have a sufficient capacity in order to be able to

continuously supply concrete to the paving machines. The mix constituents and admixtures have

to be dosed very accurately. The number of aggregate feed bins has to eual at least the number

of different aggregate fractions. The bins shall have raised edges to prevent contamination of the

aggregate fractions. The euipment for loading the materials shall be in good condition and shall

have sufficient capacity to be able to continuously feed the bins. The bucket of the loaders shall

not be wider than the bins. The content of the cement silos and the water tank are in proportion to

the production rates. 0or small works, permanent concrete mixing plants are often called on. 7n

that case, mixing plants that are inspected and that can deliver 7ndian uality certification

concrete should be used. 0urthermore it is useful and even essential to have a communication

system between the concrete mixing plant and the construction site in order to coordinate the

batching and paving operations.

TRANSPORT OF THE CONCRETE

#ufficient trucks must be available to continuously supply the paving machines. The

number depends on the yield at the construction site, the loading capacity of the trucks and the

cycle time 3i.e. the transport time plus the time reuired to load and unload a truck4. The loading

capacity and the type of truck to be used depend on the nature of the work, the haul roads and the

concrete paving machines. 9sually, the specifications prescribe that the concrete has to be

transported in dump trucks as paving concrete consists of a relatively dry mix having a

consistency that makes transport and unloading in truck mixers difficult. 0urthermore, dump

trucks can discharge the concrete faster. 0or small works and in urban areas, the use of truck

mixers is increasingly accepted. 9nder these circumstances an admixture 3e.g. a super

plastisi/er4 can be mixed in just before discharging the concrete. The necessary measures have to

be taken to prevent changes of the water content and temperature of the concrete duringtransport. To this end, the specifications prescribe to cover the dump trucks by means of a

tarpaulin.

PLACING THE CONCRETE


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9sually the concrete is placed using slip form paving machines which applies for all

categories of roads. This euipment meets both the reuirements for uality and for the

envisaged rate of production. Conventional concreting trains riding on set up rails, are hardly

used any more for road works in our country. 0or this reason this manner of execution will not be

dealt with here. 2owever, the techniue of manually placing the concrete using forms is still

applied in certain cases, such as for the construction of roundabouts with a small diameter, at

intersections, for repair work or when the execution conditions are such that slip form pavers

cannot be utili/ed. This occurs increasingly often in urban areas for the construction of pavement

surfaces of exposed aggregate and possibly colored concrete.

SLIP FORM CONCRETE PAVING PREPARATION OF THE TRACK RUNWAY

The uality of the runway for the tracks of the paving euipment :$%; is undoubtedly one of

the most important factors that contribute to the reali/ation of a smooth pavement surface. 7n

connection therewith, the following criteria have to be met-

sufficient bearing capacity, so that the slip form paver can proceed without causing

deformations5

good skid resistance to prevent the tracks from slipping, especially when paving on a

slope5

6ood evenness to avoid that the self(levelling systems have to compensate for excessive

differences in height. The track runway is a determining factor for the steering and

conseuently its surface has to at least as smooth as the concrete paving surface itself.

The runway surface has to be permanently cleaned prior to the passage of the tracks. The

track runway has to be wide enough taking into account-

the greatest width of the paving machine plus an extra width 3especially on

embankments45

the necessary space for placing the sensor lines.

EXECUTION


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The supply of the concrete has to be arranged in such a way that a continuous placement can

be guaranteed without detrimental interruptions as each standstill can cause unevennessr in a supply container, from which the concrete is scooped with a crane. 7t cannot be

overemphasi/ed that properly spreading the concrete in front of the slip form paving

machine is very important for the final uality of the work, especially with regard to the

smoothness. 7t is of great importance that in front of the slip form paver, a constant and

sufficient amount of concrete is available at all times so that a continuous paving process

can be guaranteed. The paver should never be used to push the concrete forward. 0or

large casting widths the concrete is preferably spread either by means of a placer8spreader

machine that operates in front of the paver or, by the slip form paver itself 3side feeder,

#preading augers, wagon?4. The use of a placer8spreader, allows the slip form paver toproceed more steadily.

The distance between the placer8spreader and the slip form machine has to be kept small

enough to limit changes in the water content of the concrete mix. The paving rate has to

match the concrete delivery rate, but the consistency of the concrete and the evenness of

the track runways must also be taken into consideration. 7n practice, the optimum speed

of the paving machine lies between %.@A and $ m8min. & steady progress of the paving

operations without detrimental interruptions guarantees uality, whatever type of machine

is used. &ll regulating devices of the paving machine have to be tuned before any paving is

started. 2owever, this regulation should also be monitored during the entire course of the

paving process and adjusted if necessary, so that the concrete pavement is executed

correctly- thickness, flawless edges, and surface smoothness. #ome machines are

euipped with a dowel bar inserter or an anchor bar 3also called tie(bar4 inserter. owel


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bars are inserted in the fresh concrete down to the correct elevation after the vibrator but

before the tamper bar.

The dowel bar inserter preferably operates in a continuous operation. =very precaution

must be taken to place the dowels correctly and not to disrupt the evenness of the

concrete surface 3composition of the concrete, paving speed, etc.4. The use of a


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&ll the euipment that is necessary to make joints in the fresh or hardened concrete must

be present at the construction site. The saw blades have to be suitable to the uality of the

concrete, i.e. to the hardness and the abrasion resistance of the aggregates. 7t is useful to have

spare euipment available in case of a defect. The beam for making a construction joint shall be

rigid and shall allow the reali/ation of a straight joint perpendicular to the axis of the road. This

beam has to be adapted to the type of pavement 3jointed pavement, continuously reinforced

concrete pavement4.

MATERIAL FOR RIGID PAVEMENT

CONCRETE BASE

1. Cement and Fl a!"

Cement shall be Type 6P Portland cement complying with B@*. 1hen

submitting details of the nominated mix in accordance with Clause A.%B.B the Contractor

shall nominate the brand and source of the cement. >n approval of a nominated mix by

the #uperintendent, the Contractor shall use only the nominated cement in the work.

ocumentary evidence of the uality and source of the cement shall be furnished by the

Contractor to the #uperintendent upon reuest at any stage of the work. 7f the Contractor

proposes to use cement which has been stored for a period in excess of three months fromthe time of manufacture, a re(test shall be reuired to ensure the cement still complies

with B@*, before the cement is used in the work. The cost of re(testing the cement

shall be borne by the Contractor and results of the testing forwarded to the

#uperintendent.


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Cement shall be transported in watertight containers and shall be protected from

moisture until used. Caked or lumpy cement shall not be used. The use and uality of

flyash shall comply with BAD*.$. 1hen submitting details of the nominated mix in

accordance with Clause A.%B.B, the Contractor shall nominate the powerhouse source of

the flyash. The Contractor shall use only flyash from the nominated powerhouse.

ocumentary evidence of the uality and source of the flyash shall be furnished by the

Contractor to the #uperintendent.

#. A$$%e$ate!

&'( Gene%al

7n addition to properties specified in *@AD.$, the maximum soluble sulphate

salt content of aggregates, expressed as percentage #>B by mass, shall not exceed %.$ +.

&ggregates containing more than the maximum permissible amount of sulphates or with

visible encrustations of salts shall be washed and drained before being used in concrete.

The #uperintendent may direct washing or rewashing of the aggregates until he is

satisfied that harmful uantities of salts are not present. &t least )% per cent by mass of

the total aggregates in the concrete mix shall be uart/ sand. Euart/ sand is aggregate

having a nominal si/e of less than Amm and shall contain at least @% per cent uart/, by

mass. 1here present, chert fragments will be regarded as Fuart/< for the purpose of this

specification, but the ratio of chert to uart/ shall not exceed unity. Coarse and fine

aggregates shall be washed as necessary or directed to facilitate achievement of the

specified drying shrinkage.

&''( F'ne A$$%e$ate!

0ine aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, tough, durable, uncoated grains

uniform in uality. 0ine aggregate shall comply with *@AD.$ in respect of bulk density

3$*%% kg8mB minimum4, water absorption 3maximum A per cent4, material finer than *


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micrometers, and impurities and reactive materials. The sodium sulphate soundness,

determined by $$)$.*).

The grading of the fine aggregate, determined by $$)$.$$. 1hen submitting

details of the nominated mix the Contractor shall submit to the #uperintendent a &T&Certified Gaboratory Test !eport on the uality and grading of the fine aggregate

proposed to be used. The grading shall be known as the Hproposed fine aggregate

gradingH.

&'''( C)*%!e A$$%e$ate!

Coarse aggregate shall consist of clean, crushed, hard durable rock, metallurgical

furnace slag or gravel. Coarse aggregate shall comply with *@AD.$ in respect of

particle density, bulk density, water absorption 3maximum *.A per cent4, material finer

than @A micrometers, weak particles, light particles, impurities and reactive materials,

iron unsoundness and falling or dusting unsoundness. 7n all other respects, the coarse

aggregate shall comply with this #pecification. 7f reuired, coarse aggregate shall be

washed to satisfy these reuirements. The grading of the coarse aggregate, determined by

$$)$.$$. 1hen submitting details of the nominated mix the Contractor shall submit to

the #uperintendent a &T& Certified Gaboratory Test !eport on the uality and grading

of the coarse aggregate proposed to be used. The grading shall be known as the

Iproposed coarse aggregate gradingJ.

The coarse aggregate shall also conform to the reuirements of $$)$.** 1et

#trength shall not be less than D% k for any fraction and8or constituent $$)$.**.

1et8ry #trength ariation 3$% per cent 0ines4 shall not exceed BA per cent for any

fraction and8or constituent $$)$.*) #oundness The loss in mass when tested with

sodium sulphate shall not exceed per cent for any constituent. $$)$.$) Particle

#hape The proportion of misshapen particles 3*-$ratio4 shall not exceed BA per cent.

$$)$.$D 0ractured 0aces &t least D% per cent by mass of the particles shall have two or

more fractured faces

+. Adm',t*%e!


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Chemical admixtures and their use shall comply with $)@D. &dmixtures shall

not contain calcium chloride, calcium formate, or triethanolamine or any other

accelerator. &dmixtures or combinations of admixtures other than specified below, shall

not be used. &n air(entraining agent shall be included in the mix and the air content of the

concrete shall comply with Clause A.%B.). uring the warm season a lignin or lignin(

based 3Fligpol


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rying #hrinkage at AL days 3max.4 ( )A% microstrain 3after B weeks air drying4

1here concrete is to be cast between fixed forms the nominal maximum si/e of the

mix shall be )%mm. 1here the #uperintendent has approved of the placement of concrete

by means of a self(propelled slip(form paving machine, the mix design, slump and

workability shall suit the machine proposed for use.

/. Re'n0)%ement T'e Ba%! and D)2el!

!einforcing steel for concrete pavements shall comply with the reuirements of

$B%*, $B%B, $B%) as appropriate. &ll steel shall be clean and free from mill scale,

loose rust or oil.

Tie bars shall be 6rade *B%# and dowels shall be 6rade *B%! steel, both complying

with $B%*. owels shall be straight, one(piece and cut accurately to length. =nds of

dowels shall be suare and free from burrs. Plastic bar chairs or plastic tipped wire chairs

shall be capable of withstanding a load of *%%kg mass on the chair for one hour at *B M

AoC without malfunction. The Contractor shall demonstrate that the proposed chairs

conform to these reuirements.

3. 4)'nt Seale%!.

T5e! )0 Seale%

Noint sealers shall be of one of the following types as detailed-

O preformed elastomeric strips5

O preformed self(expanding cork strips5 or

O #ilicone sealants

The use of hot or cold poured joint sealants will not be approved unless the Contractor can

demonstrate satisfactory installation techniues and adeuate performance of the completed seal.

Prior to use of the nominated sealer the Contractor shall submit to the #uperintendent a

Certificate of Compliance, from a &T& registered laboratory, showing that the sealant meets all

the reuirements of this clause.


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Mate%'al! 0)% C)n%ete S*66a!e

"aterials for concrete subbase shall conform to the reuirements of Clause A.%B except

that-

3a4 Cement shall be Type 6P Portland cement or Type 6' blended cement complying

with B@*.

3b4 The combined grading of aggregate used in the work shall not deviate from the

proposed grading bymore than the amounts.

E7UIPMENT USED

1. S5%eade%!


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Concrete spreaders are reuired when the width of pavement being placed in one

operation is B.L meters 3$* feet4 or more and the area of any given width exceeds D,B%% suare

meters 3$%,%%%suare yards4. They must be adjusted to leave the proper amount of concrete to

build the slab. The amount left is determined by the elevation of a strike off plate which is

located behind the screw, paddle or hopper which distributes the concrete. The elevation of the

bottom of the strike off in relation to the top of the forms is shown on an indicator that is visible

to the operator. The euipment should be checked to make sure that the indicator shows /ero

when the bottom of the strike off is exactly even with the top of the forms.

#. V'6%at)%!

1hen vibrators are used for full width vibration of concrete paving slabs, they shall be

internal type either with immersed tube or multiple spuds. They may be attached to the spreader

or the finishing machine, or may be mounted on a separate carriage. They should not come in

contact with the joint, load transfer devices, subgrade, or side forms. "ultiple spuds should not

be spaced further apart than %.@L m 3* $8* feet4. Therefore, a minimum of $% are reuired for a

full @.* meter 3*) feet4 width paving. 7nternal vibrators shall operate at @,%%% to $$,%%% impulses

per minute. The Contractor is reuired to provide the =ngineer a method to verify ibrator

freuency. ibration is reuired for all concrete pavement. #mall irregular areas reuire vibration

by hand held or machine mounted euipment to assure that adeuate consolidation for the full

depth and width is achieved without segregation A. ibrators shall be turned off when the

machine on which they are mounted is stopped.

+. T%an!8e%!e F'n'!"'n$ Ma"'ne!

A. O5e%at'n$ C)nd't')n


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The transverse finishing machine first should be checked for its operating condition. The

bearings, especially those of the cranks actuating the oscillating screeds, should fit snugly so that

the screed will reverse direction without slap which would rack the forms.

B. End Plate! and S%eed!

The end plates which slide on the forms should be inspected for wear and reversed or

replaced if necessary. The screed should be checked for straightness or crown if one is reuired.

This is done by placing a block on the forms under each end of the screeds and stretching wires

at both front and back across from form to form. The crown then is checked by measuring the

offsets from the wire to the screed as outlined in [email protected]. &djusting bolts can be loosened or

tightened to secure proper adjustment. The exact tilt reuired in each screed cannot be

determined until construction begins. 2owever, at the start of paving operations the front edge of

the forward screed should be titled about Amm 3B8$L inch4 and the rear screed set level.

&djustments can be made readily by end bolts provided for this purpose.

C. St%)9e

#prings are used as shock absorbers to prevent slap at the end of the stroke. These should be

checked to insure that they are in compression at all times. The screed lift chains must be long

enough that they are not tight at the end of the stroke or the screed will be lifted off of the forms

at every oscillation. 0inally, the wheel scrapers should be tightened so that they will be sure to

keep the wheels clean.

-. Me!" In!talle%

A. Gene%al


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Pavement mesh may be installed by placing it on top of the full depth of concrete, then

vibrating it into position using an approved mesh installer. This method eliminates the need for

placing two courses of concrete and thereby eliminates the possibility of a plane of weakness

between two separately placed courses. Control of the placement of the mesh within the slab has

been found to be more accurate than when placed between courses, based on measurements of

cores removed for checking thickness reuirements. &nother advantage of this method is that a

bulkhead can be placed readily and uickly in the event of breakdown since the concrete is

placed full depth, and not in two separate courses.

B. T5e!

Two types of machines have been approved for use in vibrating the mesh into position.

>ne type consists of a grid of steel plates approximately ).L m 3$A feet4 in length and extending

the full width of pavement being placed. The machine which is self(propelled is positioned over

the mesh, stopped, the mesh depressed into the freshly placed concrete and moved ahead to

repeat the operation. The other type also is self(propelled and consists of long tapered

longitudinal runners across the width being placed. This machine gradually depresses the mesh

into position within the fresh concrete using an oscillating tamping motion while continuously

moving forward.

C. T)le%ane!

#ince there is a forward movement during placing, the latter type of machine may cause

movement of the mesh across transverse contraction joints when not properly adjusted. 1hen

using a machine of this type, periodic checks shall be made by uncovering the mesh at joint

assemblies to assure that the specified clearance of B%A M A$ mm 3$* M * inches4 is being

maintained on each side of the center of the joint. 7f the position of the mesh is found to be

outside of tolerance, it should be corrected and the machine adjusted at once, or its use

immediately discontinued.


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Production may be continued without the mesh installer by changing to the two(course

method. 'oth types of machines can be adjusted to control the depth of the mesh. Therefore,

depth checks shall be made daily to assure control of the depth of mesh. #pecifications reuire

the mesh to be placed between L) mm 3* $8* inches4 and T8B plus *A mm 3$ inch4, T being the

thickness of the slab, below the surface of the pavement. 1hen mesh is found to be outside of

tolerance, immediate adjustment shall be made. 7t may be necessary to use the two(course

method at expansion joints and at abutting pavements, if the machine with the long tapered

runners cannot position the mesh properly. The two(course method should be employed any time

satisfactory performance of the machine is not being obtained.

/. C)m6'nat')n Fl)at F'n'!"e%

A. T5e!

The combination float finisher commonly is used to provide the final mechanical finish

on a pavement. The machine which consists of two screeds and a float is designed for use on a

@.*m 3*) foot4 pavement.

B. Ad:*!tment

The front screed of the machine is a conventional reciprocating screed which rides the

forms. The rear screed and float, however, are suspended from an approximately ).m 3$L foot4

beam platform and do not receive any support from the forms. The elevation of both the rear

screed and the float is determined by adjustment of the hangers which connect them to the

platform. &s a result, variations in forms do not significantly affect the plane of operation of

either the rear screed or float.

The key to smooth finishing with this machine is the rear screed since it is the final

screeding tool and operates from a ).m 3$L foot4 straightedge essentially free from influence of

deviations in the forms. #pring loaded shoes are fastened to both ends of the rear screed to keep

the screed in contact with the forms. The springs are sufficiently strong so that the rails will be


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kept clean, but not so strong that they will cause the screed to raise when an undetected highpoint

in the forms is being traversed. The float does not oscillate but moves forward with the machine

providing a smooth trowelled surface. 7t is approximately %.@m 3B% inches4 in length and rides on

the slab between the forms. 'oth of the screeds and the float are provided with devices which

permit rapid changes in crown. These devices make it possible to change crown at super(elevated

sections without delay. Crown is checked as described in ).A.* and [email protected].

3. T%an!'t M', and

Cent%al M', E;*'5ment

'efore beginning paving operations and at regular intervals during paving, concrete

plants and hauling units shall be checked for proper condition. 1ater metering devices and

admixture metering devices should be checked to assure proper calibration within specified

tolerances.

A. T%an!'t M',e%!

Transit mixers should be checked to determine if the counters are functioning properly.

&fter having been mixed for not less than @% revolutions at mixing speed, the mixer should

contain concrete of uniform consistency and be able to discharge the batch without segregation.

#ince this determines acceptablility, mixers that do not perform in this manner should not be

approved, and, if encountered, their use should be discontinued. #ources of trouble are badly

worn blades and leaky valves which prevent mixers from producing uniform concrete. They

should not be used until corrected.

B. Cent%al M',e%!


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Central mixers should be checked to see that the mixer is capable of mixing and

discharging the large volume of conrete with uniformity. uring paving, the Contractor or ready

mix supplier must keep mixer blades free from concrete build up and excessive wear.

C.


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0igure $ - =uipment used at site.

7UALITY TEST

1. A$$%e$ate te!t!


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7n order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following

tests are carried out-

A. Crush!" #$s#

B. A%r&s'! #$s#C. I()&*# #$s#

D. S'u!+!$ss #$s#

E. Sh&)$ #$s#F. S)$*,* "r &!+ /$r &%s'r)#'! #$s#

G. B#u($! &+h$s'! #$s#

a. C%*!"'n$ te!t

>ne of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive

stress. & test is standardi/ed by 7#-*BDL part(7 and used to determine the crushing strength of

aggregates. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing

under gradually applied crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate

in standard mould to a compression test under standard load conditions 30igure $4. ry

aggregates passing through $*.A mm sieves and retained $% mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical

measure of $$.A mm diameter and $D cm height in three layers. =ach layer is tampered *A times

with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three

layers each layer being tampered again. The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of )%

tones gradually applied at the rate of ) tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then

sieved through *.BL mm sieve and weight of passing material 3i4 is expressed as percentage of

the weight of the total sample 3ii 4 which is the aggregate crushing value.

&ggregate Crushing alue 1$ > 1* x $%%

& value less than $% signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above BA would normally

be regarded as weak aggregates.


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0igure *-

Crushing Test #et up.

6. A6%a!')n te!t.

0igure B- Gos &ngeles

abrasion Test setup

&brasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether

they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Gos &ngeles abrasion test is a

preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardi/ed in 7ndia 37#-*BDL

part(74. The principle of Gos &ngeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative

rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.


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Gos &ngeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter @%% mm and length A*%

mm mounted on hori/ontal axis enabling it to be rotated 3see 0igure *4. &n abrasive charge

consisting of cast iron spherical balls of )D mm diameters and weight B)%())A g is placed in the

cylinder along with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the

grading of the sample. The uantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and

usually ranges from A($% kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of B%(BB rpm

for a total of A%% ($%%% revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.

&fter specified revolutions, the material is sieved through $.@ mm sieve and passed fraction

is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Gos &ngeles abrasion

value. & maximum value of )% percent is allowed for 1'" base course in 7ndian conditions.

0or bituminous concrete, a maximum value of BA is specified.

. Im5at te!t

0igure )- 7mpact Test #etup

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.

&ggregates passing $*.A mm sieve and retained on $% mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup

of internal dia $%.* mm and depth A cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing

machine. The material is filled in B layers where each layer is tamped for *A number of blows.

"etal hammer of weight $B.A to $) Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of BD.% cm by vertical

guides and the test specimen is subjected to $A number of blows. The crushed aggregate is


24/34

allowed to pass through *.BL mm 7# sieve. &nd the impact value is measured as percentage of

aggregates passing sieve 31$4 to the total weight of the sample 31*4.

&ggregate 7mpact alue 1$ 81* Q $%%

d. S)*ndne!! te!t

#oundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by

conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to free/ing and

thawing are likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates,

they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in 7#-*BDL part(. &ggregates of

specified si/e are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either sodium

sulphate or magnesium sulphate for $L ( $D hours and then dried in oven at to a constant weight.

&fter five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out all undersi/ed

particles and weighing. &nd the loss in weight should not exceed $* percent when tested with

sodium sulphate and $D percent with magnesium sulphate solution.

e. S"a5e te!t!

The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and

elongated particles in it. &ggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher

workability and stability of mixes. The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of

aggregate particles whose least dimension is less than %.L times their mean si/e. Test procedure

had been standardi/ed in 7ndia 37#-*BDL part(74.


25/34

0igure A- 0lakiness gauge

The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of particles

whose greatest dimension 3length4 is $.D times their mean dimension. This test is applicable to

aggregates larger than L.B mm. This test is also specified in 37#-*BDL Part(74. 2owever there are

no recogni/ed limits for the elongation index.

0igure L- =longation gauge

0. S5e'0' G%a8't and 2ate% a6!)%5t')n

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are

reuired for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the

ratio of its mass to that of an eual volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. 'ecause

the aggregates may contain water permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of

aggregates are used- &))&r$!# specific gravity and %u01 specific gravity.

( &pparent #pecific 6ravity, 6app, is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates

i.e the volume excluding water permeable voids. Thus,


26/34

6app 3"8 n4 8 1

1here, is the dry mass of the aggregate, is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the

volume of the absorbed matter, 1 is the density of water.

( 'ulk #pecific 6ravity, 6bulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates

including water permeable voids. Thus,6bulk 3"8 '4 8 1

1here, is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.

( 1ater absorption, The difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is

nothing but the water(permeable voids of the aggregates. 1e can measure the volume of

such voids by weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated, surface dry condition, withall permeable voids filled with water. The difference of the above two is " 1. "1 isthe

weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition.

Thus,

1ater &bsorption 3"18"4x $%%

The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about

*.A to *.. 1ater absorption values ranges from %.$ to about *.% percent for aggregates normally

used in road surfacing

$. B't*men ad"e!')n te!t

'itumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free

from dust. 7n the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous

construction. &dhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be

dealt with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing

temperature. 0urther, the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated

aggregates. This problems occur when bitumen mixture is permeable to water. #everal laboratory

tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an aggregate in the

presence of water. #tatic immersion test is one specified by 7!C and is uite simple. The


27/34

principle of the test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water maintained at

temperature for *) hours. 7!C has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not

exceed A+.

Table $- Test 0or aggregates with 7# codes.

&ggregates influence, to a great extent, the load transfer of pavements. 2ence it is essential

that they should be thoroughly tested before using for construction. ot only that aggregates

should be strong and durable, they should also possess proper shape and si/e to make the

pavement act monolithically. &ggregates are tested for strength, toughness, hardness, shape, and

water absorption.


28/34

ATTAC


29/34

$.) This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its

use. 7t is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and

health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

#. D*t'l't ASTM d11+

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

This test method provides one measure of tensile properties of bituminous materials and may

be used to measure ductility for specification reuirements.

$. #cope

$.$ This test method describes the procedure for determining the ductility of a bituminous

material measured by the distance to which it will elongate before breaking when two ends of a

briuet specimen of the material, of the form described in #ection ), are pulled apart at a

specified speed and at a specified temperature. 9nless otherwise specified, the test shall be made

at a temperature of *A M %.ARC and with a speed of A cm8min M A.% +. &t other temperatures the

speed should be specified.

$.* 'ecause of the large number of methods for obtaining test samples, it is impractical to

discuss specific products in this test method. !efer to individual product specifications for

guidance in obtaining a test sample.

$.B The values stated in #7 units are to be regarded as the standard. alues in parenthesis in inch(

pound units are provided for informational purposes only.

$.) 1arningS"ercury has been designated by =P& and many state agencies as a ha/ardous

material that can cause central nervous system, kidney and liver damage. "ercury, or its vapor,

may be ha/ardous to health and corrosive to materials. Caution should be taken when handling

mercury and mercury containing products. #ee the applicable product "aterial #afety ata #heet

3"##4 for details and =P&s website 3http-88www.epa.gov8mercury8fa.htm4 for additional

information. 9sers should be aware that selling mercury or mercury containing products, or both,

in your state may be prohibited by state law.


30/34

$.A This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its

use. 7t is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and

health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

+. T"'n 0'lm )8en te!t ASTM d1=/-


).$ This method indicates approximate change in properties of asphalt during conventional hot(

mixing at about $A%RC :B%*R0; as indicated by viscosity, penetration, or ductility measurements.

7t yields a residue which approximates the asphalt condition as incorporated in the pavement. 7f

the mixing temperature differs appreciably from the $A%RC :B%*R0; level, more or less effect on

properties will occur.

>T= $- The uality of the results produced by this standard are dependent on the competence

of the personnel performing the procedure and the capability, calibration, and maintenance of the

euipment used. &gencies that meet the criteria of #pecification BLLL are generally considered

capable of competent and objective testing and sampling.

$. #cope

$.$ This test method covers the determination of the effects of heat and air on a film of semisolid

asphaltic materials. The effects of this treatment are determined from measurements of selected

asphalt properties before and after the test.

$.* The values stated in either #7 units or inch(pound units are to be regarded separately as

standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact euivalents5 therefore, each system

shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in

non(conformance with the standard.

$.B Wa%n'n$?"ercury has been designated by the 9nited #tates =nvironmental Protection

&gency and many state agencies as a ha/ardous material that can cause central nervous system,

kidney and liver damage. "ercury, or its vapor, may be ha/ardous to health and corrosive to

materials. Caution should be taken when handling mercury and mercury containing products. #ee


31/34

the applicable "aterial #afety ata #heet 3"##4 for details and =P&s websiteS

http-88www.epa.gov8mercury8index.htmSfor additional information. 9sers should be aware that

selling mercury and8or mercury containing products into your state may be prohibited by state

law.

-. S)l*6'l't ASTM d#@-#


This test method is a measure of the solubility of asphalt in trichloroethylene. The portion that is

soluble in trichloroethylene represents the active cementing constituents.

ote *SThe uality of the results produced by this standard are dependent on the competence of

the personnel performing the procedure and the capability, calibration, and maintenance of the

euipment used. &gencies that meet the criteria of #pecification BLLL are generally considered

capable of competent and objective testing8sampling8inspection8etc. 9sers of this standard are

cautioned that compliance with #pecification BLLL alone does not completely assure reliable

results. !eliable results depend on many factors5 following the suggestions of #pecification

BLLL or some similar acceptable guideline provides a means of evaluating and controlling some

of these factors.

$. #cope

$.$ This test method covers the determination of the degree of solubility in trichloroethylene of

asphalt materials having little or no mineral matter.

ote $SThis method is not applicable to tars and their distillation residues or highly cracked

petroleum products. 0or methods covering tars, pitches, and other highly cracked petroleum

products, and the use of other solvents, see Test "ethods ), *B$D, and *@L).

$.* The values stated in #7 units are to be regarded as standard. o other units of measurement

are included in this standard.


32/34

$.B The text of this standard references notes and footnotes which provide explanatory material.

These notes and footnotes 3excluding those in tables and figures4 shall not be considered as

reuirements of the standard.

$.) This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its

use. 7t is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health

practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. #pecific

precaution statements are given in #ection @.

/. Fla!"5)'nt a!tm d#


A.$ The flash point is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen to form a flammable

mixture with air under controlled laboratory conditions. 7t is only one of a number of properties

that should be considered in assessing the overall flammability ha/ard of a material.

A.* 0lash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define flammable and combustible

materials. Consult the particular regulation involved for precise definitions of these

classifications.

A.B 0lash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable materials in a

relatively non(volatile or non(flammable material. 0or example, an abnormally low flash point

on a test specimen of engine oil can indicate gasoline contamination.

A.) This test method shall be used to measure and describe the properties of materials, products,

or assemblies in response to heat and a test flame under controlled laboratory conditions and

shall not be used to describe or appraise the fire ha/ard or fire risk of materials, products, or

assemblies under actual fire conditions. 2owever, results of this test method may be used as

elements of a fire risk assessment that takes into account all of the factors that are pertinent to an

assessment of the fire ha/ard of a particular end use.

A.A The fire point is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen to support combustion.


33/34

$. #cope

$.$ This test method describes the determination of the flash point and fire point of petroleum

products by a manual Cleveland open cup apparatus or an automated Cleveland open cup

apparatus.

ote $SThe precisions for fire point were not determined in the current interlaboratory

program. 0ire point is a parameter that is not commonly specified, although in some cases,

knowledge of this flammability temperature may be desired.

$.* This test method is applicable to all petroleum products with flash points above @RC 3$@AR04

and below )%%RC 3@A*R04 except fuel oils.

ote *SThis test method may occasionally be specified for the determination of the fire point of

a fuel oil. 0or the determination of the flash points of fuel oils, use Test "ethod B. Test

"ethod B should also be used when it is desired to determine the possible presence of small,

but significant, concentrations of lower flash point substances that may escape detection by Test

"ethod *. Test "ethod $B$% can be employed if the flash point is known to be below @RC

3$@AR04.

$.B The values stated in #7 units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in

parentheses are for information only.

$.) WARNINGS"ercury has been designated by many regulatory agencies as a ha/ardous

material that can cause central nervous system, kidney and liver damage. "ercury, or its vapor,

may be ha/ardous to health and corrosive to materials. Caution should be taken when handling

mercury and mercury containing products. #ee the applicable product "aterial #afety ata #heet

3"##4 for details and =P&s websiteS http-88www.epa.gov8mercury8fa.htm Sfor additional

information. 9sers should be aware that selling mercury and8or mercury containing products into

your state or country may be prohibited by law.


34/34

REFERENCES

$. I2ighway engineeringJ by #.K.Khanna and C.=.6.Nusto em chand Publication*%%%.

*. Kadiyali G. !. IPrinciples and practice of a highway engineeringJ Khanna

Tech.Publications, elhi, $D.

B. Prasad ,'ageshwar 3*%%@4, 2 L,$ C*0$ C's# A!&0ss ', C$($!# C'!*r$#$ R'&+s Vs.

B#u(!'us R'&+s34I!+&! H"h/&s, ol.BA, o.,

). http-88www.civil.iitb.ac.in8tvm8$$%%UGnTse8)$$UlnTse8plain8plain.html

5. Tom . "athew and K Krishna !ao, II!#r'+u*#'! #' Tr&!s)'r#'! E!"!$$r!"3

R"+ P&$($!# D$s"!4 NPTEL M& 674 6889.

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