Sisters of the Soil:Sisters of the Soil:

The Work of the The Work of the Woman’s Land Army Woman’s Land Army

of Americaof Americaduring World War Iduring World War I

Rose Hayden-SmithRose Hayden-SmithUniversity of CaliforniaUniversity of California

UC ANR/UC Santa BarbaraUC ANR/UC Santa BarbaraFood and Society Policy FellowFood and Society Policy Fellow

March 2007March 2007Updated 5/2008Updated 5/2008

The Seeds of ChangeThe Seeds of Change

““The war, in fact, has shaken The war, in fact, has shaken the very foundations of the the very foundations of the old Victorian beliefs in the old Victorian beliefs in the limited sphere of women to limited sphere of women to atoms.”atoms.”

--- Helen --- Helen FraserFraser

War Changes Things…War Changes Things…World War IWorld War I

proved extraordinarily proved extraordinarily transformationaltransformational

for thefor theUnited States…United States…

Concerns about the Concerns about the food system were food system were

central to this central to this transformationtransformation

““Food Will Win the War”Food Will Win the War”Government Government

Concerns/Goals:Concerns/Goals: Prevent civil unrestPrevent civil unrest Alleviate agricultural labor Alleviate agricultural labor

shortagesshortages Feed mobilizing troopsFeed mobilizing troops Feed starving European allies Feed starving European allies

through American food through American food conservation AND increased conservation AND increased production effortsproduction efforts

Government Government Concerns/Goals:Concerns/Goals:

Encourage local production and Encourage local production and consumption to reduce the food consumption to reduce the food mile and save trains for transport mile and save trains for transport of food and materielof food and materiel

Mobilize and unify Americans Mobilize and unify Americans around food conservation and around food conservation and production efforts, particularly production efforts, particularly GARDENINGGARDENING

Uncle Sam says Uncle Sam says GARDENGARDEN

Food is Food is AmmunitioAmmunitionn

Sow the Sow the Seeds of Seeds of Victory!Victory!

Three ProgramsThree Programs

U.S School Garden ArmyU.S School Garden Army National War Garden CommissionNational War Garden Commission Woman’s Land Army of AmericaWoman’s Land Army of America Linked effortsLinked efforts All associated with a government All associated with a government

agencyagency

National War Garden Commission

United States School Garden Army

Woman’s Land Army

What was the WLAA?What was the WLAA?

The WLAA enabled nearly 20,000 urban The WLAA enabled nearly 20,000 urban women to enter America’s ag sector to women to enter America’s ag sector to work as ordinary wage laborers between work as ordinary wage laborers between 1917-21. The majority were college-1917-21. The majority were college-educated women.educated women.

The WLAA challenged in fundamental The WLAA challenged in fundamental ways the social customs and mores of ways the social customs and mores of American society, and was vital to American society, and was vital to securing woman’s rights and suffrage in securing woman’s rights and suffrage in the United States.the United States.

Women in Ag Women in Ag PreviouslyPreviously The work of rural women hiddenThe work of rural women hidden WLAA fundamentally differentWLAA fundamentally different Challenged in a very direct way Challenged in a very direct way

proscriptions on woman’s work, proscriptions on woman’s work, woman’s role, woman’s woman’s role, woman’s capabilitiescapabilities

There was resistance to this effortThere was resistance to this effort

Cross-Fertilization:Cross-Fertilization:PrecursorsPrecursors Gardening within domestic sphere.Gardening within domestic sphere. Gilded Age: enormous interest in Gilded Age: enormous interest in

horticulture in both Europe/America.horticulture in both Europe/America. Domestic sphere construct stretched Domestic sphere construct stretched

to accommodate women as para-to accommodate women as para-professionals in horticulture (personal professionals in horticulture (personal expertise to prof practice).expertise to prof practice).

Cross-Fertilization:Cross-Fertilization:PrecursorsPrecursors Much work done within context of Much work done within context of

reform.reform. Legislation (Morrill, Hatch, Adams, Legislation (Morrill, Hatch, Adams,

Smith-Lever).Smith-Lever). Women’s horticultural schools.Women’s horticultural schools. Women’s civic organizations Women’s civic organizations

(WNFGA).(WNFGA). Atlantic Crossings. Atlantic Crossings.

Cross-Fertilization: Cross-Fertilization: PrecursorsPrecursors Imprint of the Progressive Era.Imprint of the Progressive Era. Emphasis on scientific agriculture.Emphasis on scientific agriculture. Highly ordered.Highly ordered. Progressive interest in relationship Progressive interest in relationship

between urban and rural spheres.between urban and rural spheres. British land army experience.British land army experience. Helen Fraser…advancement of Helen Fraser…advancement of

woman’s rights.woman’s rights.

““Shaken the very Shaken the very foundations…to foundations…to atoms”atoms” The WLA represented a challenge to The WLA represented a challenge to

traditional notions of separate spheres traditional notions of separate spheres and traditional roles.and traditional roles.

It was viewed by many as an It was viewed by many as an opportunity to advance an agenda of opportunity to advance an agenda of woman’s rights in America = to British woman’s rights in America = to British experience.experience.

One of the organizing groups was the One of the organizing groups was the Woman’s Suffrage Party.Woman’s Suffrage Party.

Why Did Women Why Did Women Participate?Participate?

PatriotismPatriotism Altruism, outlet for reformAltruism, outlet for reform Educational and training opportunitiesEducational and training opportunities Economic opportunitiesEconomic opportunities AdventureAdventure To promote woman’s rightsTo promote woman’s rights Key: Women interrupted education Key: Women interrupted education

and life plans to participate!and life plans to participate!

Who Were They?Who Were They?

Mostly white, urban and middle classMostly white, urban and middle class YoungYoung Majority college-educatedMajority college-educated Most unmarried Most unmarried Some trade workers (impt for class Some trade workers (impt for class

laboratory)laboratory) Leaders: professionals, educators, Leaders: professionals, educators,

reformers, lots of cross-reference with reformers, lots of cross-reference with suffrage movementsuffrage movement

““Every morning, when Every morning, when you started off, it was you started off, it was with a feeling of with a feeling of adventure – no telling adventure – no telling what might happen what might happen before you got home. No before you got home. No one minded taking one minded taking chances.”chances.”

- Helen Kennedy - Helen Kennedy StevensStevens land worker, Feb land worker, Feb 19181918

Building a Cold Frame: Building a Cold Frame: Overview of the WLAOverview of the WLA Organized in 1917, immediately after Organized in 1917, immediately after

war declared on Germany.war declared on Germany. Organized by multiple groups: WNFGA, Organized by multiple groups: WNFGA,

Ambler staff, Woman’s Suffrage Party, Ambler staff, Woman’s Suffrage Party, State Council of Defense, Garden Club State Council of Defense, Garden Club of America, YMCA.of America, YMCA.

WLA 15,000-20,000 in number; only a WLA 15,000-20,000 in number; only a portion of all female land workers.portion of all female land workers.

Cold FrameCold Frame Centralized, national structure, Centralized, national structure,

minimally staffed, but what was minimally staffed, but what was staffed was importantstaffed was important

Staffed entirely by womenStaffed entirely by women Entry into states via councils of Entry into states via councils of

defense.defense.

Cold FrameCold Frame

Organized locally by community-Organized locally by community-based organizations, institutions, based organizations, institutions, groups, in collaboration. groups, in collaboration.

Funded by other women!Funded by other women! Relationships, relationships, Relationships, relationships,

relationships.relationships.

What Was Life Like for What Was Life Like for a Farmerette?a Farmerette?

Unit system, para-military structure.Unit system, para-military structure. Many of most successful units Many of most successful units

organized at elite women’s college…organized at elite women’s college…reform ethic, woman’s rights there reform ethic, woman’s rights there already.already.

Systematic training, communal Systematic training, communal living, standardized work hours and living, standardized work hours and wages, organized labor deployment.wages, organized labor deployment.

What Was Life Like?What Was Life Like?

Camps (tents, houses). Camps (tents, houses). Deployed into smaller work units Deployed into smaller work units

to a variety of farming operations.to a variety of farming operations. Unit manager negotiated wages Unit manager negotiated wages

for entire group.for entire group. Health and nutrition key.Health and nutrition key. Moral uplift and education.Moral uplift and education.

What Was Life Like?What Was Life Like?

All-women communities.All-women communities. Fun and recreation…singing, Fun and recreation…singing,

swimming, “husky harvesting.”swimming, “husky harvesting.” National organization published a National organization published a

newsletter…lots of cultural newsletter…lots of cultural expressions and forms.expressions and forms.

What Was Life Like?What Was Life Like?

Training and education keyTraining and education key Not an unskilled ag labor forceNot an unskilled ag labor force Extension models utilizedExtension models utilized Civic orgs provided training as Civic orgs provided training as

wellwell At colleges (UC Farm at At colleges (UC Farm at

Davisville, etc.)Davisville, etc.)

What Did What Did Farmerettes Do?Farmerettes Do?

Tasks…fruit picking, grading, Tasks…fruit picking, grading, packing; hoeing; truck gardening; packing; hoeing; truck gardening; grain silo work; trucking; thinning, grain silo work; trucking; thinning, raising, harvesting vegetables; hay raising, harvesting vegetables; hay making; general farming; equipment making; general farming; equipment operation; field work; dairying; operation; field work; dairying; poultry farming; livestock poultry farming; livestock management; tobacco harvesting; management; tobacco harvesting; timbering; road building.timbering; road building.

How Were Farmerettes How Were Farmerettes Received?Received?

Encouraged by Teddy Roosevelt, Encouraged by Teddy Roosevelt, Charles Lathrop Pack, Progressive Charles Lathrop Pack, Progressive LeadersLeaders

Mixed reception by govt officialsMixed reception by govt officials Press extremely positivePress extremely positive LOVED by farmers (and wives!)LOVED by farmers (and wives!) But concerns existed…But concerns existed…

Ventura CountyVentura County

While more prevalent north of the While more prevalent north of the Tehachapis and in LA Basin, a Tehachapis and in LA Basin, a WLA crew brought in the fruit WLA crew brought in the fruit harvest at the Philbrick’s farm in harvest at the Philbrick’s farm in Ojai. Local newspaper reports Ojai. Local newspaper reports were highly complimentary of the were highly complimentary of the “Farmerettes.”“Farmerettes.”

StatisticsStatistics

By summer 1918, approximately 1000 By summer 1918, approximately 1000 units in operation in at least 21 states.units in operation in at least 21 states.

Many units affiliated with elite Many units affiliated with elite women’s colleges: Vassar, Barnard, women’s colleges: Vassar, Barnard, Mills.Mills.

Some affiliated with public ag schools: Some affiliated with public ag schools: Cornell, UC.Cornell, UC.

High wage states: CA, NYHigh wage states: CA, NY Low wage states: PA, VALow wage states: PA, VA

StatisticsStatistics

Very strong in West, Northeast; Very strong in West, Northeast; middling strength in Midwest; middling strength in Midwest; didn’t flourish in the South. didn’t flourish in the South.

In West and Northeast, many In West and Northeast, many leaders also affiliated with leaders also affiliated with suffrage movement and other suffrage movement and other reform efforts.reform efforts.

Wages & Working Wages & Working ConditionsConditions

Great sensitivity re: labor Great sensitivity re: labor relations in US during this periodrelations in US during this period

Enormous issues around race and Enormous issues around race and immigrationimmigration

Ag labor shortageAg labor shortage WLA provided a plausible WLA provided a plausible

response to these challenges…response to these challenges…

Wages and Working Wages and Working ConditionsConditions

National organization somewhat National organization somewhat conflicted (larger sensitivity to labor conflicted (larger sensitivity to labor issues in US).issues in US).

Regional variations.Regional variations. Harder work = higher wage.Harder work = higher wage. California workers demanded and California workers demanded and

received higher wages than their peers.received higher wages than their peers. Awareness by some in WLA that they Awareness by some in WLA that they

were workers.were workers.

CaliforniaCalifornia

One of first states to mobilize.One of first states to mobilize. Growers took laborers seriously – Growers took laborers seriously –

built housing (Vacaville – built housing (Vacaville – AMAZING!)AMAZING!)

Women begin to be viewed as Women begin to be viewed as farmers in own right (court farmers in own right (court decision)decision)

CaliforniaCalifornia

No. California unit published No. California unit published manifesto, secured favorable manifesto, secured favorable working conditions.working conditions.

UC contributed to success in impt UC contributed to success in impt ways.ways.

Katherine Phillips Edson and other Katherine Phillips Edson and other reformers led the way.reformers led the way.

RecruitmentRecruitment

World War I standard: infant mass World War I standard: infant mass media industry.media industry.

Posters…”until the boys come Posters…”until the boys come back”back”

Speeches…Speeches… Articles…Articles… Colleges provided incentives…Colleges provided incentives… Media charmed by “farmerettes”.Media charmed by “farmerettes”.

Hoeing the Tough Hoeing the Tough Row: ResistanceRow: Resistance

Women’s suitability for hard Women’s suitability for hard physical labor questioned physical labor questioned repeatedly.repeatedly.

Imperil future health (read: child Imperil future health (read: child bearing capability?)bearing capability?)

Regional resistance.Regional resistance. Some of Wilson’s administration Some of Wilson’s administration

doubted.doubted.

ResistanceResistance

Timing of entry, duration in labor Timing of entry, duration in labor force.force.

Resistance to promoting suffrage Resistance to promoting suffrage (put aside differences in (put aside differences in wartime).wartime).

Work outside domestic sphere.Work outside domestic sphere. Nativist concerns.Nativist concerns.

Gleanings: The Gleanings: The DemobilizationDemobilization

• WLA work continued on smaller scale WLA work continued on smaller scale as 3M men demobilized…patriotism, as 3M men demobilized…patriotism, which had been used to draw women which had been used to draw women into war work, was now used to push into war work, was now used to push them out (don’t take job from them out (don’t take job from veteran).veteran).

• Labor shortage less acute due to Labor shortage less acute due to increased mechanization, greater crop increased mechanization, greater crop yields.yields.

Gleanings:Gleanings:The DemobilizationThe Demobilization

Women involved at this point Women involved at this point working because ofworking because of– Economic need Economic need – Like nature of workLike nature of work– Engaging in more specialized ag Engaging in more specialized ag

workwork– View themselves as having earned View themselves as having earned

right to be laborersright to be laborers

“To the call both to conservation and to increased production, the American people have responded nobly. How quickly they have changed their attitude, how splendidly they have made good by adapting themselves to the new conditions! When the war garden movement was started, the problem of food production was on the way to be solved." ----- Luther Burbank

OutcomesOutcomes

Significant increase in food production Significant increase in food production Minimal labor disruptions due to WLA Minimal labor disruptions due to WLA

and other female labor forces and other female labor forces WLA members in CA lobbied for - and WLA members in CA lobbied for - and

was first group to receive concessions was first group to receive concessions from growers – temporarily increased from growers – temporarily increased status of ag laborstatus of ag labor

Some of these women spun off into Some of these women spun off into larger labor movementslarger labor movements

OutcomesOutcomes

So successful that program was So successful that program was institutionalized during World War II – institutionalized during World War II – more than 2 million women enrolled more than 2 million women enrolled via Federal Labor Dept (rural/urban)via Federal Labor Dept (rural/urban)

Real acceptance by US govtReal acceptance by US govt Post-WWI boom in conferences Post-WWI boom in conferences

promoting women’s work in ag, promoting women’s work in ag, including one key conference at including one key conference at AmherstAmherst

OutcomesOutcomes

Increased opportunities for Increased opportunities for women in education and fields women in education and fields such as horticulturesuch as horticulture

““Girl with the hoe” in WWI Girl with the hoe” in WWI became prototype for “Rosie the became prototype for “Rosie the Riveter” in WWIIRiveter” in WWII

OutcomesOutcomes

1919thth Amendment proposed 1919 Amendment proposed 1919 (June), ratified 1920 (August).(June), ratified 1920 (August).

““The right of citizens in the United The right of citizens in the United States to vote shall not be denied or States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. any State on account of sex. Congress shall have power to Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate enforce this article by appropriate legislation.”legislation.”

Individual StoriesIndividual Stories

Sarah Richardson went to Nebraska to work Sarah Richardson went to Nebraska to work for the ranch that employed her as a WLA for the ranch that employed her as a WLA workerworker

Linda Schroeder (“Tiny”) secured work as a Linda Schroeder (“Tiny”) secured work as a driver/tractor operatordriver/tractor operator

Mrs. Doble worked fulltime as “expert pruner” Mrs. Doble worked fulltime as “expert pruner” in orchardsin orchards

Katherine Sampson wintered in CA, took a Katherine Sampson wintered in CA, took a tractor course, and returned to Nebraska to tractor course, and returned to Nebraska to seek employmentseek employment

Many others returned to college, and/or Many others returned to college, and/or marriedmarried

Individual VoicesIndividual Voices

““Perhaps the greatest joy in the Perhaps the greatest joy in the work lies in the health and vigor work lies in the health and vigor of it.”of it.”

--- Marguerite Wilkinson--- Marguerite Wilkinson

Individual VoicesIndividual Voices

““We did not break down or get We did not break down or get sick or sun struck…We went sick or sun struck…We went home serene and brown and home serene and brown and strong.”strong.”

--- Cornelia Throop Geer--- Cornelia Throop Geer