Signature Pedagogies in TESOL Teacher Education FINAL · Signature Pedagogies in TESOL Teacher...

UnderstandingandExploring SignaturePedagogies

forTESOLTeacherEducation

SarahElaineEaton,SantoiWagner,JenniferHirashiki&JulieCiancio

2018

SignaturePedagogiesinTESOLTeacherEducationPrograms 2

AcknowledgementsWearegratefultotheU.S.DepartmentofState,BureauofEducationalandCulturalAffairs,OfficeofEnglishLanguageProgramsforbringingustogetherandinspiringourcontinuedcollaborationandinparticular,toJohnMarkKing,whohascontinuallysupportedourworksincewefirstbegancollaboratingin2016.Weareequallygratefultoourpeerreviewersfortheexpertiseandcriticalevaluationofourworkandtooureditor.Yourfeedbackhelpedustostrengthenourwork.

DisclaimerTheauthorsdeclarenoconflictofinterestwiththiswork.Noteaboutpreviouspublication:Thisreportisacompanionpiecetoapreviouslypublishedwork,SignaturePedagogiesforE-learninginHigherEducationandBeyond,whichiscitedinfullinourreferences.Someofthecontentfromthecompanionpiecehasbeenincludedinthisreportforeaseofreading.

PermissionsThisworkislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.0InternationalLicense.Thisdocumentisnotconfidentialandcanbefreelysharedwithany

interestedparty.Thisreportmaynotbesoldorusedcommercially.Howtocitethisreport(APA6th):Eaton,S.E.,Wagner,S.,Hirashiki,J.,&Ciancio,J.(2018).UnderstandingandExploring

SignaturePedagogiesforTESOLTeacherEducation.Calgary:UniversityofCalgary.


TableofContents

Abstract.............................................................................................................................................................................4

Preamble...........................................................................................................................................................................5

SharingOurWorkasAnOpenEducationalResource...........................................................................5

Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................6

Significance:TESOLEntangledwithTechnology..........................................................................................8

FoundationsofTESOLasaProfession...............................................................................................................9

SituatingOurselveswithinHistoricalandProfessionalContexts....................................................9

OverviewofSignaturePedagogies....................................................................................................................11

OverviewofTechnologicalPedagogicalandContentKnowledge(TPACK).................................12

SignaturePedagogiesofTESOLTeacherTraining....................................................................................15

SignaturePedagogy#1:DevelopingtheTESOLKnowledgeBase................................................16

SignaturePedagogy#2:CultivatingReflectivePractice....................................................................18

SignaturePedagogy#3:EngaginginaTESOLTeachingPracticum............................................20

SignaturePedagogy#4:EducationalTechnologyforTESOLTeacherTraining....................22

LookingAhead:TheFutureoftheProfession.............................................................................................27

Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................................................29

References.....................................................................................................................................................................30


AbstractPurpose:ThepurposeofthisreportistoelevatethecollectiveunderstandingofwhatitmeanstobeandbecomeaTESOLprofessionalandwhatdifferentiates“TESOLers”fromotherteachers.WehaveintentionallypreparedthisreportasanOpenEducationalResource(OER),soitcanbefreelysharedwithaninternationalaudience.Methods:Thisreportsynthesizesliteraturerelatingtosignaturepedagogies,teachertraining,andeducationaltechnology.Results:Weexplorethesurface,deep,andimplicitstructuresofthreesignaturepedagogiesofTESOLteachereducation:(a)developingtheTESOLknowledgebase;(b)cultivatingreflectivepractice;(c)engaginginaTESOLpracticum.WealsosituateTESOLwithinatechnology,content,andpedagogicalcontent(TPACK)frameworkasameanstofurtherunderstandhowandwhyTESOLteachereducationcanandshouldincorporatetechnologyinavarietyofways.Implications:TESOLisarelativelyyoungdisciplineandhascomeofageduringatimewhentechnologyhasemergedasanessentialelementofteachingandlearning.Assuch,TESOLteachereducationprogramsmustaddresstechnologyasakeyelementofteacherpreparationfortheprofession.Additionalmaterials:Contains1table,1figureand81references.Keywords:signaturepedagogies,Englishasasecondlanguage,TESOL,teachertraining,teachereducation,TPACK


PreambleThisworkistheresultofourcontinuedcollaboration,whichbeganduringthe“TechnologyinEnglish”eventheldatTheWhiteHouseinNovember2016.TheeventwasajointeffortbetweenTheWhiteHouseOfficeofGlobalEngagementandtheU.S.DepartmentofState,BureauofEducationalandCulturalAffairs,OfficeofEnglishLanguagePrograms.Theeventwaspartoftheinter-agencyEnglishforAllinitiative,announcedbyPresidentObamaearlierin2016(UnitedStatesDepartmentofState,2016a,2016b).Theauthorsofthisreportwereamongagroupofscholars,practitioners,andindustryleadersinvitedtotakepartinthe2016event.Asaresultofthatexperience,wehavecontinuedourcollaborationwiththisresourceforTESOLtraineesandteacher-educators.

SharingOurWorkasAnOpenEducationalResourceOurpurposewiththisstudywastoofferahighqualityandfreelyavailableresourcethatwouldbeaccessibletoTESOLprofessionalsanywhereintheworld.ThedecisiontoshareourworkasanOpenEducationalResource(OER)wasadeliberateone.Wewantedourworktobewidelyavailable,withoutcostoraccessposingabarriertoprospectivereaders.Aswehavepointedoutelsewhere(Eaton,Brown,Schroeder,Lock&Jacobsen,2017),oneofthemostoftenciteddefinitionsofOERcomesfromTheWilliamandFloraHewlettFoundation:“OpenEducationalResourcesareteachingandlearningresourcesthatresideinthepublicdomainorhavebeenreleasedunderanintellectualpropertylicensethatpermitstheirfreeuse…”(TheWilliamandFloraHewlettFoundationwebsite).InkeepingwiththeintentionandspiritofOER,weofferthisreportfreeofchargetoeducators,learners,andresearcherseverywhereunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.0InternationalLicense.Weinviteyoutouseit,citeit,shareitwithothersandshareyourfeedbackaboutthereportwithus.Wewelcomeyourfeedback.


IntroductionTESOLremainsarapidlygrowingandexpandingfield.ThereisanincreasingnumberofEnglishlanguagelearners(ELLs)sinpublicandprivateschoolsacrosstheUnitedStatesandCanada,andthistrendhasincreasedtheneedforskilledTESOL-trainededucatorstofillthepositionswithintheseinstitutions(Lindahl,2017;Li,Myles,&Robinson,2012).AccordingtotheUnitedStates’BureauofLaborStatistics(2016),theneedforadulteducatorswhoarequalifiedtoteachELLsisexpectedtogrowapproximately9%bytheyear2022(USBureauofLaborStatistics,2016).WhatisitthatteachersofEnglishasanadditionallanguagedothatisspecialtoourprofession?Whatmakesusdifferentfromteachersofothersubjectsorcontentareas?Whatmakesusunique?Incontemplatingthesequestions,wediscoveredthatouranswersextendbeyondclassroompractices.ThosewhodedicatetheirprofessionallivestoTeachingEnglishtoSpeakersofOtherLanguages(TESOL)oftenhavecombinedexpertiseintheareasofsecondlanguage(L2)acquisition,linguistics,languageteachingmethodologyandpedagogy,amongothers.Inthispaper,weexplore“uniquecharacteristicsandcharacteristicpedagogies”(Gurung,Chick&Haynie,2009,p.xvii)ofTESOLteachereducation,endeavouringtodescribeandreflectonthedistinguishingfeaturesofteacherpreparation,butwithinthedisciplinespecificcontextofTESOL.OurpurposeistoelevateourcollectiveunderstandingofwhatitmeanstobeandbecomeaTESOLprofessionalandwhatdifferentiatesTESOLfromotherdisciplines.Effectively,wewantedtodivedeepintothenotionofwhatmakesTESOLprofessionalsinherentlyunique.WebeginbysituatingTESOLinsideitshistoricalcontextwithinbroaderacademicandpractitionercircles.WeacknowledgethequestforlegitimacyandrecognitionofTESOLasaprofession.Weexplorethenotionthatthequestforlegitimacyhascharacterizedtheprofessionitselfandremainsatopicofdiscussionamong“TESOLers”.Inthenextsection,weofferabroadoverviewofwhatsignaturepedagogiesarebroadly,drawingfromtheworkofShulman(2005a,b)andothers.ThenwemoveontodescribesomeofthemethodologicalsignaturepedagogiesthatcharacterizeTESOLasaprofession.ThisleadstoafurtherdiscussionaboutnotionsofteachereducationwithintheTESOLfield,withafocusonhowtraditionalnotionsofteachertraininghaveevolvedinrecentdecadeswithoptionsnowbeingavailableinblendedandonlineformats,inadditiontobrick-and-mortarclassrooms.OurdiscussionsandexplorationsledustorecognizethattheemergenceofTESOLasaprofessionhasalignedchronologicallywithsignificantadvancesinlearningtechnology.InadditiontoexploringsomeofthesignaturepedagogiesthatcharacterizeTESOLteacher


training,wefurthersituateTESOLteachereducationwithinthetechnological,pedagogical,andcontentknowledge(TPACK)frameworktoshowhowtheseelementsarekeycomponentsoftheprofession.WerecognizethatoneofthecharacteristicsofTESOLitselfisthatithascomeofageasaprofessionduringatimewhentechnologyhasbecomeinextricablyinfusedwithteachingandlearning.WearguethatTESOLprofessionalsmustaddressthisprofessionalrealityfromtheverybeginningoftheirtrainingtobecompetentTESOLteachers.WeconcludewithareflectionaboutwhattheimplicationsoftheintersectionsofTESOLandtechnologymeanforthefieldasitcontinuestomatureasaprofession.ThisreportisintendedforbothemergingandestablishedTESOLprofessionalswhoareinterestedinbetterunderstandinghallmarkapproachestoteachingandlearninginourprofession,aswellasthosefacultywhoinstructinTESOLteachereducationprograms.Finally,thereportmayalsobeofinteresttothoseinterestedinthescholarshipofteachingandlearning(SoTL)whoareeagertounderstandhowtheconceptofsignaturepedagogiesapplieswithintheTESOLfield.


Significance:TESOLEntangledwithTechnologyItisnoteworthythatduringthesamedecadesthatTESOLhasbeenemergingasaprofession,withitsmembersadvocatingforlegitimacyintheacademyandbeyond,therehasbeenaparallelandsimultaneousshiftinteachertrainingitself.ThequesttoestablishthelegitimacyofTESOLasaprofessionbegantoemergeasastrongdialogueamongthoseworkinginthedisciplineinthe1990s(Jenks,1997).Atthesametime,dialoguebegantoemergeamongteachertrainingprofessionalsingeneralabouthowtomeettheneedsofaspiringteachingprofessionalsinblendedandonlineenvironments(Yildirim&Kiraz,1999).Inotherwords,asTESOLbegantocomeintoitsownasaprofession,sotoo,didtraditionalnotionsofteachertrainingalsobegintoshift.Moreover,asTESOLprofessionalsbeganadvocatingforlegitimacyasprofessionals,sotoodidinnovatorsinteachereducationalsobegantoadvocatefornewwaystoforaspiringprofessionalstoearncredentialsandlearnhowtobecomeexpertteachersintheirrespectivedisciplines.Itcouldbearguedthen,thatwhilemembersoflong-establishedprofessionssuchaslawandnursinghadtheirrootsinbrick-and-mortarclassrooms,thereisnowanentiregenerationofTESOLprofessionalswhohaveonlyhadtraininginblendedandonlineenvironments,beitinNorthAmericaorglobalcontexts.AlthoughTESOLmaybea“young”profession,whencomparedwithtraditionalfieldssuchaslaw,history,nursingandsoon,ithasevolvedduringatimeofextraordinarytechnologicaladvancementsintermsofteachingandlearning.This“comingofage”oftheTESOLprofessionduringaperiodinhistorywhenteachereducationitselfistransforming,isoneoftheuniqueaspectsofTESOLthatdifferentiatesitfromotherdisciplines.HowwethinkaboutTESOLhas,almostsincethebeginningoftheprofessionitself,includedconversationsabouthowwethinkaboutandincorporatetechnologyintotheteachingandlearningofEnglishasanadditionallanguage.


FoundationsofTESOLasaProfession

SituatingOurselveswithinHistoricalandProfessionalContextsWhetherTESOLorEnglishlanguageteaching(ELT)canbeconsideredaprofessionhasbeenopentodebate.Breshears(2004)highlightedthesignificanceofexclusioninthesenseof“knowers”(theprofessionalgroup)and“non-knowers”(laypeople)andrelatesthisto“standardsandprocessesforentryandlicensure”(Freeman,1992,ascitedinBreshears,2004,p.27).ForthefieldofTESOL,thishaslongbeenamurkyarea.Firstly,thenativespeakerfallacy(Phillipson,1992)andtraditionalnotionsofnativespeakerstatusandthesufficiencyofthistobeanEnglishteacherstillholdswayinmanyareasoftheworld.Secondly,Breshears(2004)pointedtothelackofcontroloverstandardsandcertificationbyteachersthemselvesandsuggeststhatthisislargelycontrolledbythebusinesssector.Overtheyears(evendecades)thedebatehasbeguntoshift(Jenks,1997,Jenks&Kennell,2012).TESOLprofessionalsarenowclaimingtheirpositionwithinacademicandscholarlycirclesaslegitimatecontributorstoclassroompractice,aswellasappliedandtheoreticalresearch.ThenotionofcertificationandqualificationitselfhasevolvedwithintheTESOLprofession.Therearedifferentwaysinwhichateachercanbe“certified”.Forexample,certificateprograms,suchastheCambridgeESOLCertificateinEnglishLanguageTeachingtoAdults(CELTA)ortheTrinityCollegeLondonCertificateinTESOL(CertTESOL)arepre-service,relativelyshortintensiveprogramsofapproximately120hours(Brandt,2006).DiazMaggioli(2014)statedthatapproximately20,000newteachersarecertifiedeveryyearbythesetwoexaminationbodiesandthatsuchprogramsgenerallyaimtoequipthestudent-teacherwithasetofstandardizedskillsthatare,tosomeextent,contextfreeandcanthusbeusedinanyteachingcontext.DiazMaggioli(2014)alsonotedsomecriticalissueswithprogramqualityandsuggeststhatimprovementscouldbemadeintermsofamorelearner-centeredapproachandmoreauthenticanddevelopmentalopportunitiesforthestudent-teacher.Asauthorsofthisreport,weworkinNorthAmericanhighereducationcontextsandthishasshapedourlivedprofessionalexperienceintermsofhowweworkwithaspiringandnoviceTESOLprofessionals.Asaresult,thisreportfocusesonEAL(Englishasanadditionallanguage)teachereducationthatissituatedinuniversityorhighereducationcontextsinwhatWright(2010)hastermed“Anglo-Saxonsecondlanguageteachereducation(SLTE),”primarilyintheBANA(Britain,Australia,NorthAmerica)countries.ThisrouteintotheprofessionisviaaBachelorofArtsoraMaster’sdegreeinTESOL.Maggioli(2014)suggestedthatlearningtoteachinthesecontextsincludesagreaterfocus


onbecomingfamiliarwithacademicresearchcomparedtocertificateprograms,withtheteachereducatorseenlessasatransmitterofknowledgeandaccreditorofthestandardskillsandmoreasan“intellectualandscientificmentor”(DiazMaggioli,2014,p.189).Additionally,insuchprograms,thereisagreaterpotentialforteachingtechnologyskillstonoviceTESOLprofessionalsgiventherelativeeaseofaccesstotechnologyresources/theInternet.Thefocusinthispaperonuniversityprogramsisbynomeansacommentontherelativebenefitsofabachelor’sormaster’sdegreevs.acertificate(orothertypeof)program.ThefocusontheNorthAmericancontextshouldalsonotbetakentoindicateanyprimacyofEnglishlanguageteachereducationherecomparedtootherpartsoftheworld.However,wehavelimitedourscopetoreflectourownprofessionalandpersonalexperiences,andalsobecausewethinkthattheconceptofsignaturepedagogiescanbeproductivelyappliedtotheNorthAmericanuniversitycontext.


OverviewofSignaturePedagogiesSignaturepedagogiesarethe“typesofteachingthatorganizethefundamentalwaysinwhichfuturepractitionersareeducatedfortheirnewprofessions”(Shulman,2005a,p.52).Shulman’sworkfocusesontheprofessionsasastartingpointforsignaturepedagogies,notingthatakeyfeatureishownovicesareinstructedinaparticulardisciplinetobuildtheirunderstandingoftheprofession.Inthiscase,weareexaminingthecaseofnoviceteachersofEnglishtospeakersofotherlanguages.Shulman(2005a)notedthreedimensionsofinstructionalstrategiesofsignaturepedagogies:1.Surfacestructure;2.Deepstructure;and3.Implicitstructure.Surfacestructureinvolvestheoperationalelementsofteachingandlearning,howlessonsareorganizedandhowteachingisdonewithinaparticulardiscipline.Deepstructuredelvesintotheassumptionseducatorsmakeabouthowknowledgeisbestlearnedandhowadevelopingpractitionerlearnstothinklikeaprofessional.Finally,theimplicitstructuresincludethemoralaspectsofteachingandlearninginagivendiscipline(e.g.TESOL),includingbeliefs,values,andattitudes.Shulman(2005a,2005b)conceptualizedhisnotionofsignaturepedagogiesaroundprofessionssuchaslaw,medicine,nursing,andengineering.WithinthefieldofTESOL,therehasbeenalong-standingadvocacytopositionTESOLasaprofession(Breshears,2004;MacPherson,Kouritzin,&Kim,2005).OurworkstartswiththeassumptionthatTESOLhaslegitimacyasaprofessionasmuchaslaw,engineering,nursing,oranyotherrespecteddiscipline.


OverviewofTechnologicalPedagogicalandContentKnowledge(TPACK)Whilesignaturepedagogiescharacterizethetypesofteachingandlearningwithinadiscipline,itisimportanttoacknowledgeTESOL’schronologicaldevelopmentthatparallelstheemergenceofeducationaltechnologiesaspartofteachingandlearning.Teachingisacomplexprocessthatreliesonanddrawsupondifferenttypesofknowledge(Mishra&Koehler,2006).Weproposetousethetechnological,pedagogicalandcontentknowledge(TPACK)frameworktofurtherunderstandtherelationshipofTESOLto–andwith–technology.TPACKcomponentsconsistoftechnological,pedagogical,andcontentknowledge,andwhilethesesectorsareindependentlyimportantforteachers,thecombinationoftheseareasisincreasinglyimportantfordevelopinggoodteachingandbestpractices(Koehler,2012).Contentknowledgeistheteacher’sknowledgeofthesubjectandwhatistobetaught(Koehler&Mishra,2009).Historically,contentknowledgewasthefoundationofteacherknowledgeandeducation(Shulman,1986).Pedagogicalknowledgeistheteachers’knowledgeabouttheprocessandpracticeofteachingandlearning(Koehler&Mishra,2009).Recenttrendsinteachereducationhavechangeditsfocusfromcontentknowledgetopedagogicalknowledge,emphasizinggeneralclassroompedagogyapartfromthesubjectmatterbeingtaught(Ball&McDiarmid,1990).Thecombinationofcontentandpedagogicalknowledgehasnowpermeatedthefieldofeducationandteachersaretrainedforbothsubjectmatteraswellaspedagogy,blendingtheseparateconcepts(Shulman,1986).Technologicalknowledgeistheknowledgeofworkingwithandapplyingtechnologicaltoolsandresourcesinordertoassistinachievingagoal(Koehler&Mishra,2009).Withtheincreaseoftechnologyintheworkplaceandlife,educationandteachertraininghasblendedathirdknowledgeintothemix:technologicalknowledge.


HereisavisualrepresentationofTPACK:

Figure1:TPACK–Reproducedbypermissionofthepublisher,©2012bytpack.org.Retrievedfrom:http:tpack.orgThecombinationofthethreeareasoftechnological,content,andpedagogicalknowledgehasmultiplepointsofintersectionandinterplayonareasofknowledge,allofwhichcanbeappliedtolearningandteachinginavarietyofways.“TPACKisthebasisofeffectiveteachingwithtechnology,requiringanunderstandingoftherepresentationofconceptsusingtechnologies;pedagogicaltechniquesthatusetechnologiesinconstructivewaystoteachcontent;knowledgeofwhatmakesconceptsdifficultoreasytolearnandhowtechnologycanhelpredresssomeoftheproblemsthatstudentsface;knowledgeofstudents’priorknowledgeandtheoriesofepistemology;andknowledgeofhowtechnologiescanbeusedtobuildonexistingknowledgetodevelopnewepistemologiesorstrengthenoldones”(Koehler&Mishra,2009,p.66).


Thefollowingtableillustratesexamplesofeachtypeofknowledge,whichtraineesareexposedtoaspartoftheirTESOLteachertraining:TPACKelement Examples

(Notanexhaustivelist)ContentknowledgeofTESOL Secondlanguage(L2)acquisition,

linguistics,grammarPedagogicalknowledgeofTESOL Methodology,lessonplanning,assessmentTechnologyknowledgeofTESOL Computer-assistedlanguagelearning

(CALL),mobile-assistedlanguagelearning(MALL)technologies,Technology-enhancedlanguagelearning(TELL),aswellasotherlearningtechnologiestosupportstudentlearning

Table1:TPACKcontextualizedforTESOLteachertrainingInthesectionthatfollows,weshowhowTPACKandsignaturepedagogiesofTESOLteachertrainingalign,intersectandattimes,overlap.


SignaturePedagogiesofTESOLTeacherTrainingAlthoughtheconceptofsignaturepedagogieshasbeenappliedtovariousaspectsoftheteachereducationfield,Kieletal.(2016)suggestthattheoverallpedagogicsignatureofthisfieldhastobesupplementedwithsubjectorcontextspecifics.OneexamplefromthelanguageteachingfieldisbyParra(2014),whoputsforwardaproposalforsignaturepedagogiesfortheteachingofSpanishasaHeritageLanguage(HL).ParrastatesthataparticularsignaturepedagogyisrelevantforSpanishHLbecauseitenablesafocusnotjuston“thegoalsandmeans...ofteachingasubject”but“alsoonourrole,hopesandvaluesasHLteachersservingaspecificpopulationandcommunity”(p.216).Ham&Schueller(2012)pointoutthat“althoughlanguageteachingandlearningaresteepedintradition,thedisciplineembracesitsevolutionarynatureandcapacitytotransformlearnersinprofoundways”(p.38).Theirworkreferstotheteachingofsecondlanguagesingeneral,makingitrelevanttoTESOL,butitisalsoworthnotingthatbecausetheirfocusisprimarilyonteachingforeignlanguages(i.e.inteachingalanguageinacontextwhereitisnotthelanguageofwidercommunication,suchastheteachingofFrenchintheUnitedStates),itdiffersfromTESOL,whichcoverstheteachingofEnglishasaforeignlanguage(e.g.,theteachingofEnglishinChina)andasasecondlanguage(e.g.,theteachingofEnglishintheUnitedStatesorCanada).Weexplorethe“typesofteachingthatorganizethefundamentalwaysinwhichfuturepractitionersareeducated”(Shulman,2005a,p.52).TESOLprogramsintheUnitedStatesandCanadatendtoattractawidevarietyofstudentsintermsofincomingbackgroundsandfuturedestinations,particularlyingeneraltrackmaster’sprograms(i.e.,thoseprogramsthatdonotleadtoK-12statecertificationintheU.S.,orprovincialcertificationinCanada).Forexample,giventhepermeabilityoftheentryrequirementsforpractitioners,programsoftenattractEALteacherswithyearsofpracticalexperiencebutnopreviousformalteachereducationexperience,aswellasthosecompletelynewtoEnglishlanguageteaching.Students’futureteachingcontextsarealsovaried,andmayincludecommunityadultESLprograms,privateorcharterschools,intensiveacademicEnglishprograms,orinternationalschoolsoruniversities.TESOLprogramscanthusbeexpectedtodifferdependingonthetypesofstudentstheyattract.However,therearecorecharacteristicsthatprogramstendtoexhibit,andforthisreport,wefocusonthekeysimilarities.InthenextsectionweexplorefoursignaturepedagogiesthatweconsidertobefoundationalinTESOLteachereducation.Thereareothers,ofcourse,butwepresenttheseforillustrativepurposesandtohelpgeneratefurtherreflectionanddialogue.ThefourwehavechosentoalignwiththeTPACKframework:


1. DevelopingtheTESOLknowledgebase(Contentknowledge)2. Cultivatingreflectivepractice(Pedagogicalknowledge)3. EngaginginaTESOLpracticum(Pedagogicalknowledge)4. EducationaltechnologyforTESOL(Technologyknowledge)

Weanalyzeeachofthesefromtheperspectiveofthesurface,deep,andimplicitelementsofsignaturepedagogy.

SignaturePedagogy#1:DevelopingtheTESOLKnowledgeBase

ContentknowledgeFormuchofitshistory,L2Englishteachingwasseenasapredominantlypractical,skills-basedendeavor.Itwasnotuntilthe1960s,withthedevelopmentofappliedlinguisticsasadisciplinaryfield,thatcontentknowledge,whatitisthatESLandEFLteachersneedtoknowaboutlanguageitself,becamesalient(Richards,2010;Tsui,2011).

SurfacestructureThecontributiontoandinfluenceofappliedlinguisticsontheknowledgebaseofL2teachereducationisstillclearlyreflectedinthetypeofcoursesofferedacrossTESOLMaster’sprograms,aswellasinthefacultywhoteachthem.Coursesthataretypicallyofferedincludecontentrelatingtofoundationallinguistics,phoneticsandphonology,semantics,syntax/pedagogicalgrammar,secondlanguageacquisition/development,assessment,sociolinguistics,psycholinguistics,multilingualism/multiculturalism,anddiscourseanalysis.However,Tsui(2011)arguesthattheconceptualizationofL2teachereducationanddevelopmentasaseparatefieldofinquirycamesubsequentlyinthelate1980swithagreaterrecognitionandincorporationoftheoriesandissuesfromthefieldofgeneralteachereducation,forexample,criticalreflection,actionresearch,andteacherlearning.Theseareasarerepresentedinsecondlanguageteachereducation(SLTE)programstodaythroughexplicitcoursessuchaspractitionerinquiry,andthroughthereflectiveorientationtakeninmanyteachingpracticums.Thus,thescopeoftheknowledgebaseforL2teachersisincreasinglybroadanddeeplycross/interdisciplinaryinnature.ForESLteachers,inparticular,advocacyfortheirlearnersandunderstandingthesocioeconomicandsociopoliticalclimateinwhichlearnersandorganizationsaresituatedhavebecomepressingconcerns.


DeepstructureTherehasbeenalong-standingdebateinthefieldovertherelativestatusandnatureoftherelationshipbetweentheoryandpractice.Richards(2010)suggeststhatthisispartlyduetoalackofdistinctionbetweendisciplinaryknowledge:thatis,“thecircumscribedbodyofknowledgethatisbythelanguageteachingprofessiontobeessentialtogainingmembershipoftheprofession”(p.105),andthat,asnotedabove,hastraditionallycomefromappliedlinguisticsandrelatedfieldsaswellaspedagogicalcontentknowledge;thatis,the“knowledgethatprovidesabasisforlanguageteaching”(p.105),suchasclassroommanagement,curriculumplanning,andreflectiveteaching(cf.Shulman,1986).Hegivesaclearexampleofthedifferencebetweendisciplinaryknowledgeandpedagogicalcontentknowledgebycomparingtwobooks:Ortega’s(2013)UnderstandingSecondLanguageAcquisition,andLightbownandSpada’s(2006)title,HowLanguagesareLearned.EllisandShintani(2014)alsoseeadifferencebetween“research-baseddiscourse”aimedatresearchersand“pedagogicdiscourse”aimedatteachers(p.2),buttheyacknowledgethatthedistinctionisnotclear-cut.Fewwoulddisagreethatbothaspectsofcontentknowledgeareimportantforlanguageteachingprofessionals.Whatseemstobedebatedistheirrelativeimportance.FreemanandJohnson(1998),incallingforareconceptualizationoftheknowledgebaseofSLTE,delineatethescopeofthefieldasbeing“primarilyconcernedwithteachersaslearnersoflanguageteachingratherthanwithstudentsaslearnersoflanguage”(p.407),adistinctmoveawayfromthelanguagelearnerfocusofSLA(secondlanguageacquisition)andappliedlinguistics.AsTsui(2011)notes,therehasbeenpushbackbyappliedlinguisticsresearcherswhoarguethatthereisdirectrelevanceofSLAfindingstoL2teaching.Arguably,thedegreetowhichsuchresearchfindingscanbeappliedtopracticeintheclassroommaybelimited,andindeed,manyteachersandteacher-educatorswouldtakeissuewiththeimplicationthatthekeydirectionalityisfromresearch/theorytopractice.Forexample,Tsui(2009)highlightsbidirectionalityintherelationshipbetweentheoryandpracticeinsuggestingthattheabilitiestopracticalizetheoreticalknowledgeandtheorizepracticalknowledgearecentralinthedevelopmentofteacherexpertise.

ImplicitstructureThemovetoamorecross/interdisciplinaryperspectiveonthescopeofSLTEisindicativeofanumberofvalues.Firstly,thesharpenedfocusontheactofteachingandtheteacher’sownlearningindicatesagreaterunderstandingofthecomplexityandnuancesofwhatmakesaneffectiveteacher.Inotherwords,effectiveteachingisnotjustabouthowmuchateacherknowsaboutlanguageorthelanguageacquisitionprocess,butalsoabouttakingaccountoffactorssuchasteachercognition,teacherlearningandprofessionaldevelopment,aswellasteacheridentity.


Secondly,inthecurrentsociopoliticalclimate,advocacyisanincreasinglysalientfactorformanyL2teachers(Haneda&Alexander,2015;Linville,2016).AdvocacyisanintegralpartofTESOL’sStandardsforAdultESLteachers.Standard5.b.5callsuponTESOLprofessionalsto:(a)“advocateforELLs’accesstoacademicclasses,resources,andinstructionaltechnology,”(b)“...understandtheimportanceofadvocatingforELLs,”(c)“...sharewithcolleaguestheimportanceofELLs’equalaccesstoeducationalresources,”and(d)“...serveasadvocatesandESOLresourcestosupportELLsandtheirfamiliesasfamiliesmakedecisionsintheschoolandcommunity”(TESOLInternational,2010,p.68).However,althoughthisseemsanimportantvaluetotheTESOLcommunity,itsadvancementandrealizationwithinSLTEprogramsisanunder-developedandunder-researchedarea.

SignaturePedagogy#2:CultivatingReflectivePractice

PedagogicalknowledgeReflectivepractice(Schön,1983)isaconceptthathasbecomeverypopularinteachereducationprograms.Farrell(2015)definesreflectivepracticeas“acognitiveprocessaccompaniedbyasetofattitudesinwhichteacherssystematicallycollectdataabouttheirpractice,and,whileengagingindialoguewithothers,usethedatatomakeinformeddecisionsabouttheirpracticebothinsideandoutsidetheclassroom”(p.123).Inaddition,itfocuses“notonlyontheintellectual,cognitiveandmeta-cognitiveaspectsofourwork,butalsothespiritual,moralandemotionalnon-cognitiveaspectsofreflectionthatacknowledgestheinnerlifeofteachers”(Farrell,2016,p.224-225).

SurfacestructureSomeofthemainreflectivetoolsusedinSLTEprogramsare:gatheringfeedbackfromlearners,otherteachers,andmentors(throughquestionnaires,focusgroups,interviews,etc.);discussionanddialogue(includingteacherdiscussiongroupsandpost-observationconferences);retrospectivefieldnotes;journalwriting;classroomobservations(selfandpeer);videoandtranscriptanalysis;actionresearch;narrative;andlessonstudy(Farrell,2016;Murphy,2014).Theuseoftechnologyisalsonotableintheuseofmanyonlineformatsforreflection,suchasblogs,podcasts,chats,andforumdiscussions(theroleoftechnologyisaddressedlaterinthispaper).

DeepstructureReflectivepracticesignalsachangeinTESOLteachereducationpracticefromapedagogythatconcentratedonthetransmissionofdecontextualizedknowledgeprimarilyfromthedisciplineofappliedlinguistics(Crandall&Christison,2016)toonethatemphasizesthe


student-teacherasaknowerandthedevelopmentofapractitionerwhodevelopstheirowntheorizedpracticeandautonomousjudgment(e.g.,Crandall,2000;Richards,2004;Wright,2010).Italsorecognizesthecomplexityofteachers’mentallives(Freeman,2002;Johnson,2006),particularlywithrespecttopre-existingbeliefsandassumptionsaroundlanguagelearningandteaching,inunderstandinghowteacherslearntodotheirwork,andthat“teacherlearningissocial,situatedinphysicalandsocialcontexts,anddistributedacrosspersons,tools,andactivities”(Johnson,2006,p.243).Giventhatteachersareabletolearnanddevelopfromtheirownpersonalunderstandingsofwhathappensintheirclassrooms,thenself-inquiryandreflectionareproductiveandusefultoolsfordevelopmentthatcanleadtochange.Indeed,fromhissurveyofresearchintoreflectivepracticebyTESOLteachers,Farrell(2016)claimsthat“thepositiveimpactreportedinmostofthesestudiesontheincreasedlevelofawarenessthatisgeneratedfromsuchreflectionsseemstoprovidefurtheropportunitiesandmotivationforTESOLteacherstofurtherexplore,andinsomeinstancesevenchallenge,theircurrentapproachestotheirpractice”(p.241).AdistinctionthatcapturesthischangeinthedeepstructureofTESOLteachereducationismadebetweenteachertrainingandteachereducation.Whereasteachertrainingisseenaspreparingteacherswithasetofdiscreteskillsforaparticularcontext,teachereducationisalignedwithamuchbroader,holisticviewofpreparationthatconcentratesonfundamentalconceptsandthinkingprocessesthatcanguideteacherstobeeffectiveinwhatevercontexttheyfindthemselvesteaching(Crandall&Christison,2016).

ImplicitstructureReflectiveteachingembodiesanumberofvalues.Firstly,learningtobeareflectivepractitioneranddoingreflectiveteachingispartoftheprocessoflifelongprofessionaldevelopment.Anotheraspectofthisisthatgainingexperienceofteaching(thatis,thenumberofyearsputintoteaching)isnotsufficienttodevelopexpertise(Tsui,2009).Furthermore,weseetheimportanceofself-direction.Forexample,Bailey,Curtis,andNunan(2001)reiteratetimeandagainthatthekeytodevelopmentisthatteachersthemselvesmustbefullyengagedandinvestedintheprocessinordertoensureauthenticlearning.Thirdly,althoughself-initiated,thereisastrongcurrentofcollaborationthroughoutthereflectivepracticemodel.Collaborationisseenasrewardingandvaluable.However,itisnotdifficulttoseehowthiscanbeproblematicinsometeachingcontexts.Reflective


practicemaybetimeandenergyconsumingandthusneedsinstitutionalsupportandrecognitionfromadministratorsandcolleagues(Murphy,2014).

SignaturePedagogy#3:EngaginginaTESOLTeachingPracticum

PedagogicalknowledgeTheimportanceoftheteachingpracticumseemswidelyrecognizedgivenitisaubiquitousandcorefeatureinTESOLprograms.McKay(2000)citesasurveybyRichardsandCrookes(1988)thatshowspracticumcoursesaregenerallycompulsoryandinvolvebothindirectanddirectexperiences.

SurfacestructureIndirectexperiencesincludeobservationsofexperiencedteachersorofpeersandviewingrecordedlessons.Directexperiencesincludetutoring,micro-teachingtopeers,assistingaclassroomteacher,orleadteachinginactualclasses.Whenleadteachingoccurs,thestudent-teacherisoftenassignedamentorwhoobservesher/himteachingandconductsafollowuppost-observationmeeting.Baecher(2012)notesthattheteachingpracticumwasoftenplacedattheendoftheprogrambut,inrecentyears,thereislikelytobeanintegrationofthepracticumorfieldexperienceswithcourseworkthroughoutaprogram,andthusthereisthepotentialforthepracticalexperiencetobemorecarefullyandthoughtfullyscaffolded.However,Baecheralsopointstoanumberofissuesthatimpactintegration,suchasthewiderangeofhomedisciplinesofTESOLprogramfaculty,therelativelyshortnatureofsomeprograms,themajorityoffieldsupervisorsormentorsbeingpart-timeoradjunctinstructors,andthefuzzinessinhowfieldworkhoursareutilized.Inaddition,anotheraspectofintegrationthatdeservesgreaterattentionisincorporatingaspectsofbeingateachingprofessionalthatgobeyondone’sownclassroomwallstothewidercontextoffellowteachers,theschoolorinstitutionadministration,parents,andthecommunityatlargethrough,forexample,service-learning(Wagner&Lopez,2015).

DeepstructureTheintegrationoftheteachingpracticumthroughoutacoursereflectsthechangingassumptionsinthefieldabouthowdevelopingteacherslearnhowtoteach.Asnotedearlier,therehasbeenamoveawayfromatransmissionmodelofpedagogywherestudent-teachersareseenasconsumersofreceivedknowledgeandastechnicians,andthus,supposedly“learned”teachingknowledgefirstinmoretheoreticalcoursesandthen


“practiced”theteachinginpracticumsites.Therehasbeenamovementtomoresociocultural,constructivist,andexperientialviewswithgreateremphasisonbecomingathinkingteacherorknowerwhocantheorizepractice(Richards,2010)andonlearningfromexperience(Wright,2010)withinthereflectivepracticeframework.Alongsidethis,theroleoftheteachereducatorhasshiftedfromanall-knowingexperttoafacilitatorandmediatorofstudent-teacherlearning.Experienceandexpertisearestillvaluedasevidencedbythecontinuingimportanceofobservationsofothersandbeingobservedandmentoredbyothers,butnotpurelyfortheirvalueasmodelsofeffectiveteaching.Forexample,Faez(2016)showsthatateachereducator,inadditiontomodelingeffectiveteachingstrategiesinherclass,wasalsoabletocreateasupportivelearningcommunityandacultureofcaring,payingattentiontoissuesofsocialjusticeandequity,aswellasprovidinglanguageandculturalsupportforimmigrantteachers.

ImplicitstructureOnekeyvaluementionedinthediscussionofdeepstructureisthatteachersarenotsimplytechnicianswhoimplementtasksoractivitiesintheclassroom.Teachershavemultifacetedidentities,anditispartlythroughtheteachingpracticumthatthissenseofteacheridentityisdeveloped.Forexample,KannoandStuart(2011)arguethat“becominganL2teacherrequiresthecommitmentoftheself,notjustplayinganassignedroleintheclassroom”(p.239).Afamiliarrefrainfrompracticuminstructorstostudent-teachersis“fakeittillyoumakeit”,underscoringtheimportanceoftakingonthe“mantle”ofteacherandthecentralityofthistodevelopingateacheridentity.KannoandStuarttakethisfurther,claimingthat“thecentralprojectinwhichnoviceL2teachersareinvolvedintheirteacherlearningisnotsomuchtheacquisitionoftheknowledgeoflanguageteachingasitisthedevelopmentofateacheridentity”(p.249).ItisalsoimportanttonotethatwhatisdistinctivetoteacheridentityintherealmofL2teachingisthatthemajorityofL2teachersworldwidearenon-nativespeakersofEnglish,andthushavebeenELLsthemselves.Thepersistenceofthemythofthesuperiorityofthenativespeakerasalanguageteacher(i.e.,onewhois,apriori,asuperiorteacherofEnglishbymeansofbeingborn“into”thelanguage)isanunfortunatechallengewithinTESOL.Itthreatenstheperceivedlegitimacyandidentityofnon-nativeEnglish-speakingteachersandisacontinualsourceof“conflictandstruggle”(Tsui,2011,p.34)formany,aswellasasourceofdiscriminationinhiringpracticesinmanycountries.


SignaturePedagogy#4:EducationalTechnologyforTESOLTeacherTraining

TechnologyknowledgeInmanyTESOLprograms,student-teachersareintroducedtotechnologyandmayknowhowtouseitfortask-likepurposes(e.g.,submittingassignments,creatinglessonplans,communication,ortoolanalysis).Theymaybeaskedtoidentifyanddiscussthedifferentmodesoftechnology.Althoughstudent-teacherawarenessoftechnologymayberaised,thesetypesoftasksmaynotleadtoadeepunderstandingofhowtoeffectivelyimplementthetechnologyortorecognizeandrealizethepotentialforinnovativetechnologyuseinEALclassrooms(AmericanCouncilontheTeachingofForeignLanguages,2011),noristechnologyinfusedwithintheprogram’scurriculumasawhole(Arnold,2013).ManyTESOLprofessionalsstruggleintheirownclassroomswiththetechnologicalissuesandplanningthattheyhavehadlittletrainingorpreparationwith(Kessler&Plakans,2008).Itisincumbentuponcurrentprogramstoofferhands-onpracticalexperiencesforteachers,modellinghowtousetechnologyinpedagogicallysoundways(Pawan,Wiechart,Warren,&Park,2016).Becausethereisadifferenceinplanning,instructing,andclassroommanagementwithtechnology,situationallearningopportunitiesforlogisticalplanning,“inthemoment”technologyissues,troubleshooting,technologyuseandengagementtraining,andtrialanderrormustbeincludedthroughauthenticmodelingandpracticeineacheducationalprogram,regardlessofcontext,platformorstyleofcontentdelivery(online,onground,synchronous,asynchronous,hybrid,flipped)(TESOLTechnologyStandards,2011).

SurfacestructuresFortheTESOLeducator’sclassroom,aswithmosteducators,surfacestructuresconsistoflessonplanningandtheorganizationofcontent.WhenwelookatintegratingtechnologyintotheEALclassroom,teachersneedtobeeducatedaboutthewhyandthehowofusingtechnology(Reinders,2009).Theyneedtobeexposedtoavarietyoftechtoolsthatcanbeused.IncorporatingtechtoolsintoTESOLtrainingprogramsinawaythatdemonstratesusageofthetoolandthatmaximizesitslearningpotentialiscrucial.Intheface-to-facesetting,thismaybedemonstrated,forexample,usingcellphones,tablets,orapps.Theteachercandemonstratetheclassroommanagementaspectsofclasseswithtechnologyandallowformicro-teachingdemonstrationstotakeplacewiththestudent-teachers.


Inonlinesettings,thetechnologycapabilitieschange.Itmaynotbeaslogisticallyeasytomodelandgivechancesforstudent-teacherstopracticeusingtechnologyfromateacher’sperspective.Inordertoincludethissurfaceknowledgeandexperienceintheonlineclassroom,theassignmentsanddiscussionboardswillneedtochangetoadaptaccordingtotheneedsandlogistics.Byreplacingthetraditionaldiscussionboardquestionresponseformat,itispossibletoincorporatedifferenttoolsandappswithinthediscussionboards,givingincreasedopportunityforstudent-teacherstouseandbecomeconfidentwithvarioustechnologytoolsontheirown,priortoteaching(Gallardoetal.,2011;Murphyetal.,2011).Anexample,drawnfromourprofessionalexperience,includescreatingavoicethreadtoanswerthequestion,respondtoothers,andpresentinformation.Insteadoflearningaboutthetool,thestudent-teachersareabletoactuallyusethetoolinasimilarmannerastheywouldinafutureclass(onlineoron-ground)anduseittodemonstrateknowledge.

DeepstructuresTESOLeducatorsassumethatstudent-teachersneedamplerealisticopportunitiestopracticewiththeuseoftraditionalteachingtechniques,aswellaswiththeimplementationoftechnologytoolsinordertodevelopaconfidentandcompetentpracticethatwillunfoldonceinsidetheirownclassroom.Echoingsentimentsnotedearlierinthispaper,RankinandBecker(2006)state“amodelofteacherdevelopmentbasedonknowledgetransmissionis,atitscore,profoundlyinadequate”(p.366).Therefore,learningabouttechnologyandinstruction(e.g.,solelyviathereadingofarticlesandone-sidedmodeling)needstobeexpandedupontoincludepracticalandrealisticopportunitiesforuseandintegration.TheincorporationoftechnologyintheEALclassroomisadouble-edgedsword—theteachermustteachthefundamentalsoftheEnglishlanguageaswellastheuseofthetechnology,butthetechnologyismoreofameanstoanend.Itisnottheultimategoalofthelanguageclassroom.Inordertobeabletodothis,thenewteachermustgainconfidenceandagilitynotonlywiththelanguagecontent,butwiththetechtoolsaswell,selecting,evaluating,andintegratingtechnology(Al-Seghayer,2017).Thisconfidenceisgarneredthroughcompetence,whichisgainedthroughpracticeandincorporatingfeedbackfromtheTESOLeducator,peers,andstudents.ThedevelopingpractitionereventuallylearnshowtothinklikeaTESOLprofessionalthroughthissequenceofpracticeopportunitiesandincorporationoffeedback.Inorderforthestudent-teachertogainexperienceandconfidence,realisticpracticeopportunitiesandreflected-uponcriticalincidents(Richards&Farrell,2005)needtobeprovidedinallthreecontexts:onground,onlinesynchronous,andonlineasynchronous.ThesamePresent,PracticeandProduce(PPP)modelthatispopularinmanylanguageclassroomscanbeusedforteacherdevelopmentactivitiestoincorporatetheuseoftech


toolsintheclassroom.Forexample,theteachereducatorcanpresentthetechtooltostudent-teachersanddemoitsuse.Thenstudent-teacherscanbegivenanopportunitytopracticewithitandfinallyproduceanindependentlessonthatincorporatesthenewtechnology.Givingstudent-teacherstheopportunity,forexample,tocreatevideos,surveysandquizzes,andinteractivegamesenablesthemtouseandimplementthetools,ratherthanmerelyexperiencingthemfromonlyastudent’sperspective.Modelingandusesuchasthiscanleadtoincreasedconfidenceandlogisticalknow-howwhenthestudent-teachersgointotheclassroom(Gallardoetal.,2011;Murphyetal.,2011).ThePPPmodelinthisexampleallowsforflexibilitywhilestillprovidingastructuredapproachtoongoingexploration.Preparation,repetition,andexperiencecancreatetheconfidencethatteachersneedtobeabletodelivereffectivelessons,especiallyasunforeseenelementsariseduringclass,astheyalwaysdo.Togainexperienceindealingwiththecontingenciesofteaching(withtechandwithout),theteachereducatorcanthenthrowstudent-teachersacurveballbyintentionallyintroducingglitchesandbehavioralissuesthatneedtobeaddressedsimultaneouslyduringthelesson.AsFarrell&Baecher(2017)note,“many(language)teachereducationprogramsdonotpreparenovicestorecognizesuchteachingdilemmas.”(p.3).Givingstudent-teachershostingoradministrativerightstothetechtools,andtheresponsibilitytobeinchargeoftroubleshootingwhenproblemsoccurintheclassroom,canleadtosuccessfulandprofessionalTESOLeducatorswhocannavigatetechnology,staycalmunderpressure,andultimatelyhaveaplanBinmindifsomethinggoeswrong(Al-Seghayer,2017).IntheEALclassroom,teachersneedtheabilitytomultitaskandbereadyforallcontingencies.Whennoviceteachersentertheclassroom,itcanbechallengingtofindthelisteningtrack,forexample,whilesimultaneouslykeepingstudentsontask.Knowinghowtousenewtechnologyandguidestudentsthroughitatthesametimemaynotbesecondnaturetoanoviceteacher.HowcanthisbeaddressedinTESOLeducatorprograms?Inalltypesofprograms,toolssuchastheGoogleSuite(Forms,Docs,Slides,etc.),sharingandpollingtools,andgame-basedapps(e.g.,Kahoots,Socrative)canbeused.Intheon-groundTESOLprogram,student-teacherscanpracticethroughmicro-teachingdemonstrationsusingtechnologyandteachingatthesametimetobuildtheirconfidence.InonlineTESOLprograms,synchronouscoursescanincludepracticeteachingonlinewithcheckingchatandverbalresponses,controllingtheclassthoughmutingparticipantswithnoisybackgrounds,andpracticeusingawiderangeofteachingtoolsinthecourse.Ingeneral,microteachingopportunities,especiallyfornovicestudent-teachers,canboostconfidenceandteachingskills(Ralph,2014).Inonlineasynchronousprograms,thepracticeofusingandteachingwithtechnologycanbedonethroughasynchronousactivitiessuchasvideo


creationandscreensharingtasks,aswellasthroughleadingforum-baseddiscussionstopromotesocialandteachingpresence.Overall,manyoftheactivitiesmentionedabovecanbemodifiedoradaptedtoworkinallthreecontexts.Itisimportanttonotethatthepracticesshouldbefollowedupwithadeconstructionorreflectiveactivity.Student-teacherscanlookbackontheirpracticeswithacriticaleyeandusetheirexperiencesandknowledgefromtheprogramtodeterminewhatchangesshouldtakeplace.Itisoptimalifstudent-teachershaverealisticopportunitiesto“produce”forauthenticenvironmentswithrealstudents,andevenlargerclassesifpossible,notjustdemoormicro-teachinglessonswithintheTESOLclassroom.Fromourexperiencewehaveobservedthattheconnectionbetweentheactive(andreal)andreflectivepracticescanleadtodeeperunderstandingandtheabilitytoactlikeaprofessional.

ImplicitStructures“Oneimplicitstructureofallsignaturepedagogiesineducation(i.e.,beliefs)isthatstudentsdonotlearninisolation.Threekeyandinterconnectedelementsofacommunityofinquiryare(1)socialpresence;(2)teachingpresence;and(3)cognitivepresence(Akyol&Garrison,2008)”(AscitedinEaton,Brown,Schroeder,Lock,&Jacobsen,2017,p.15).Thecommunitythatiscreatedinonlineteachingandlearningenvironmentscanbecultivatedasasignaturepedagogywhenthevalueofcreatingauthenticrelationshipsbetweenstudentsandtheirinstructor,aswellasamongthestudentsthemselves,isactivelyandintentionallydeveloped.AnotherimplicitstructureofTESOLeducationisthattheEnglishlanguageandtechnologyshouldbemadeaccessibleforall.Thesetwoskillsareseentobeequalizersthatprovideopportunitiesforemployabilityandadvancement(Gorski&Clark,2002).Hand-in-handwiththisbeliefarethevalueandattitudeofembracingdiversity.Furthermore,theconceptofWorldEnglishes(Kachru,1990)recognizesthatEnglish,liketechnology,isatoolforpeopletoconnectandshare.Teacherlearningis“normativeandlifelong,emergingoutofandthroughexperiencesinsocialcontexts:aslearnersinclassroomsandschools,asparticipantsinprofessionalteachereducationprograms,andlaterasteachersintheinstitutionswhereteacherswork”(Johnson&Golombek,2003).Bymodelinglifelonglearning,TESOLeducatorscaninspiretheirstudent-teacherstodothesame.Connectedtothisistheideaoftheteacherasafacilitatortolearning,notthe“sageonthestage”(Harmer,2007).Thisisparticularlyusefulincontextswhereteachersareculturallyexpectedtobesuperiorandtohavealloftheanswers.Itisquiteliberatingforteachersinthesecontextstoembracethebeliefthatno


oneknowseverything;weareallcontinuallylearning,andconsequently,itisacceptabletomakemistakes.Thisseemsparticularlyappropriatefortheuseoftechnologyintheclassroom.Whileknowledgeandconfidencewiththeuseoftechnologyhelpteacherstofeelmorecomfortablewithitsuse,iftheyfeelthattheyneedtoknoweverything,theymayfeelinhibitedregardingexperimentingwithnewtechnologies.Holdingstudent-teachersaccountableforfairandethicalcontentuse(CCBY,copyright)caninstillacademicmaturity.Task-orienteddiscussionquestionsorassignmentscanbegintocreateawarenessinmaterialsuse,andonceequippedwiththeknow-how,student-teachersareabletoupholdthesefairandethicalusestandards.Assignments,suchascreatingcontentwithAmericanDisabilityAct(ADA)orequivalent,compliancy,creatingmaterialsformobileaccess,orcreatingtemplates,canpromoteawareness,andprovidestudent-teachersthechancetoseethechallengesthatdifferentcontextsandregionsfaceandhowtechnologyuse(ornon-use)impactstheEALclassroom.


LookingAhead:TheFutureoftheProfessionAfterexamininganumberofsignaturepedagogiesandhowtheycorrespondtoteachingwithtechnology,itseems,thefocusoftechnologyinTESOLeducationisshiftingawayfromitsusesolelyasatooltoconveyinformation.Astechnologyadvances,increasedopportunitiesariseonhowtechnologycanbeusedtomirrortheneedsofEALstudentsandcreatecreativeopportunitiesforinstruction.

OnlinepracticumThetraditionalface-to-facepracticumalreadyhastoaccountforthevariedcontextualneedsofeachstudent-teacherpractitioner.Technologyhasfurtherimpactedthiselementofthepracticumduetotheever-increasinglydigitalenvironment.Therearemoreoptionsforonlineteaching,andmoreabundantoptionsforobservingandcompletingpracticumteaching.Traditionalpracticumexperiencesareoffered“onground”.Student-teacherstypicallyfind,orareassigned,anobservationandteachinglocation,thenrecordtheirteaching,andmaybeobservedbyamentor/facultymember,andfinallycompletereflectivetasks.Byshiftingtoanonlineclasspracticum,student-teachersmayhavetheabilityandincreasedopportunitytoobserveclassesfortheirintendedteachingcontext.However,itmaybemorechallengingtogetpermission,beobserved,orrecordlessonsinanonlinepracticum.Weacknowledgetheneedforfurtherinvestigationstobeconductedonthistopictodetermineiftheseanecdotalobservationshaveanempiricalbasis.Itcangenerallybeassumedthatstudent-teachershavealreadyexperiencedmodelsofon-groundteaching,whetherasstudentsorasteachers,sotheymayhaveclearernotionsoraworkingknowledgeofwhatconstitutesqualityteaching.However,therearefewermodelsofonlinesynchronouscourses,bothinlanguagelearningandTESOLteachereducationprograms.Foreventhemostexperiencedinstructors,teachingonlinecanbefrustrating,confusing,andintimidating(King,2002).TherearevariousfactorsthatmaycauseTESOLeducatorswhoperformwellinon-groundclassestonotnecessarilyperformtotheircapacityinonlineclasses(APQC,2013).Forexample,theymayfeeldisconnectedfromtheirstudentsorfindclassroommanagementmoreofachallenge.Opportunitiesforonlineexperiencesshouldbeincludedthroughoutateachereducationprogram,andelementsofpedagogycanbeadapted,specificallyinthedigitalenvironment,byusingtechnologicaltools,lessonplanning,presentations,groupandpairwork,criticalandcreativethinking,eliciting,andfeedback(Brown,2007),sothatstudent-teacherscangainconfidencefortheonlineteachingplatform.Acknowledgingthedifferencesbetweentheon-groundandonlinepedagogicalstylesleadsustoencourageinclusionofbothmodalitiesinapracticumandinaTESOLeducatorprogram.


VirtualrealityWhileonlinecourseshavebecomemoreprevalentsincetheturnofthemillennium,andnodoubttheonlinepracticumisarealitythatmanyTESOLprogramswilldevelopinthenearfuture,thinkingevenfurtherahead,thereisevidencetosuggestthatvirtualrealitywillbecomethenormaswemoveaheadintothetwenty-firstcentury(Garcia-Ruiz,Edwards,El-Seoud,&Aquino-Santos,2008;Kozlova&Priven,2015;O’Brien&Levy,2008).Virtualrealityisbothaconceptandpracticethatstillseemsfuturisticforbothteachersandlearners,butmaycrystallizeaspartofteachingandlearningpracticeatsomepoint.Wetakethispositionbecausethereisevidencetosupportthenotionthatforward-lookingTESOLeducatorsarealreadyencouraginginquiryanddialogueonthistopic(Kozlova&Priven,2015)andwecontendthatotherswillsoonfollowsuit.VirtualrealitymaywellbethenextbigadvanceinlearningtechnologyforTESOL,aswellasotherdisciplines.

Co-constructedteachingAsdigitalnativescomeintoTESOLtrainingprograms,itopensanewlevelofmutuallearning.Duetothenewnessofsometechnologiesandthereforethelackofhistoryandconsecratedbestpractices,co-constructedknowledgeofnewtechnologytoolsbyboththeteachereducatorandthestudent-teacheraremorelikelytooccur,yettheteachereducatorcanstillassumetheroleoffacilitatorandmentorbyguidingtheprocessandanticipatingclassroompedagogicalneeds.Technologyisquicklyevolving,makingitimpossibleforteacher-educatorstoestablishbestpracticesforeachtypeineachcontext.Perhapsthepotentialforadeepeningofco-constructedknowledgecouldcontributetoamodeloflife-longlearningandreflectionforstudent-teachersandteacher-educatorsalike.


ConclusionAsreflectivepracticeisoneofthesignaturepedagogiesoftheTESOLprofessionwehavehighlightedinourstudy(basedonourcontext),itseemsapttoconcludewithacontemplationaboutwhatitmeansforaprofessiontoemergeduringatimeofsignificanttechnologicaladvancement.Ithasbeenestimatedthatby2020,fiftypercentofallhighschoolclasseswillbeofferedonline(Christensen,Horn,andJohnson,2017).Teachereducationprograms,includingTESOL,andprofessionaldevelopmentthatfocusessolelyonlearninginatraditionalbricks-and-mortarclassroommaybedoingadisservicetothoseTESOLprofessionalswhoareonlyatthebeginningstagesoftheircareer.Nolongerislanguage-learningtechnologyconfinedtoalanguagelab(Eaton,2010).Technologyhasbecomeintimatelyandinextricablylinkedtolanguagelearningandteaching.Onlineandblendedlearningoptionscontinuetoemergeandexpandacrosstheworld.SocialmediahasbeenexploredasameanstoengageTESOLprofessionalsinprofessionaldevelopmentdialogue(Ciancio,Hirashiki,Wagner,Eaton,Sahr,&Howland,2017).ItwouldnotbeunreasonabletospeculatethatsociallynetworkedwaysofteachingandlearningbecomeevenmoreinfusedwiththeTESOLprofessioninthecomingyears.ForTESOLers,rapidtechnologicaladvancesinlearninghaveoccurredconcurrentlywiththeemergenceanddevelopmentoftheprofessionitself.Thisleavesuswithquestionsabouthowwebestpreparefuturepractitionersandleadersoftheprofession,aswellashowwecaneffectivelysupportthosewithlowerlevelsoftechnologyliteracyaccessorEnglishlanguageliteracytodevelopprofessionally.Teacherscannotbeexpectedtoimmediatelyimplementanewtechnologywithouttrainingortimetoreflectdeeplyonhowtheywilluseittoenhancetheirstudents’learning(Jacobsen&Lock,2004).Twenty-firstcenturyteachersmustthinkinnewwaysandnotsimplyrepeatthepedagogiesthattheylearnedbyobservationwhentheythemselveswerestudents(Jacobsen&Lock,2014).ForTESOLprofessionals,engagingindeepreflectionaboutthesignaturepedagogiesthathaveshaped,andwillcontinuetoshapeourprofession,canhelpustomakewisedecisionsabouthowwewanttoeducateourstudent-teachersandteachlanguagelearners.WerecognizethatalimitationofourworkisthatitiswrittenfromtheNorthAmericancontextsinwhichwework.Weconcludewithacalltoactiontoourinternationalcolleaguestocontributetothisdialoguebysharingtheirownperspectivesandinsightsontheideaswehavepresentedinthisreport.OnekeypointuponwhichtoreflectisthatitiscriticalforTESOLprofessionalsnotonlytodeveloptechnologyliteracythatwillservethemwellintheirteachingpracticetoday,butalsotolooktowardsthefuturetounderstandhowtechnologycanbenefitboththeirownteachingpractice,aswellasstudents’learning,intheyearstocome.


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AbouttheauthorsSarahElaineEaton,Ph.D.,isafacultymemberattheWerklundSchoolofEducation,UniversityofCalgary,Canada.ShehasconductedTESOLteachertrainingandprofessionaldevelopmentworkshopsinMexico,Honduras,andCuba.Herresearchinterestsincludethescholarshipofteachingandlearning(SoTL),academicintegrity,andeducationaltechnologyforteachertraining.SantoiWagnerisaSeniorLecturerinEducationalLinguistics,andAssociateDirectorofTESOLattheUniversityofPennsylvania'sGraduateSchoolofEducation.Herscholarlyinterestsincludethedevelopmentanddemonstrationofinteractionalcompetenceineducationalcontexts,theteachingofL2interactionalskills,andservice-learningwithinTESOLteachereducation.JenniferHirashiki,MA,istheMATESOLprogramchairatWestcliffUniversity,Irvine,California.Shehasworkedonseveralcurriculumdesignprojectsfornewandexistingonlinecourses,increasingtheengagementandinteractivecomponentsforadeeperlearningenvironment.Additionally,JenniferhasdevelopedandledhighqualityfacultyprofessionaldevelopmentandtrainingattheEFL,IEP,anduniversitylevel.Herresearchinterestsincludeeducationaltechnology,teachertrainingandprofessionaldevelopment,andcurriculumdevelopment.Dr.JulieCiancioconductsprofessionaldevelopmentworkshopsonTESOLaroundtheworld.ShehasbeenanadjunctfacultymemberintheCaliforniaStateUniversityCollegeofEducation,whereshehastaughtanddevelopedmanycoursesintheirMATESOLoverthelast10years.SheisalsotheDeanoftheCollegeofEducationandDirectorofInternationalDevelopmentatWestcliffUniversityinIrvine,California.

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