Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender...

31
Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma Bouchama and Estelle Loiseau 21 January 2011

Transcript of Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender...

Page 1: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations?

Gender inequality and social cohesion in a

converging world

Karen Barnes, Nejma Bouchama

and Estelle Loiseau

21 January 2011

Page 2: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

2

Rationale for this research

Despite growth and structural changes of the past two decades, women continue

to lose out in terms of wealth and well-being as compared to men across much of

the world

WHY?

Discriminatory social institutions drive gender inequalities in hidden and

unexplored ways, even in countries that have experienced fast growth or growing

income levels

SO WHAT?

Structures and practices that discriminate against women have a negative impact

on social cohesion and are an obstacle to sustainable and inclusive development

Page 3: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

3

Discrimination against women leads to poor development outcomes

In the 21 countries that have the highest level of discrimination

against women as measured by SIGI, primary school completion is on average 15% lower, nearly twice as many children suffer from malnutrition and maternal mortality rates are twice as high

Three key factors are over-looked and under-researched:

•Women’s limited access to and control over resources

•Women’s lack of decision-making power

•Widespread violence against women

Page 4: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

4

Measuring discrimination against women

Social Institutions Variables

• Early marriage

• Polygamy

• Parental authority

• Inheritance

• Freedom of movement

• Freedom of dress

• Female genital mutilation

• Violence against women

• Access to land

• Access to bank loans

• Access to property

Ownership Rights Civil Liberties Physical Integrity Family Code

• Missing women

Son Preference

Page 5: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

5

• Highest inequality: sub-Saharan Africa; Middle East and North Africa; South Asia

• Lowest inequality: Latin America; Europe and Central Asia

• Region with both high and low performers: East Asia and Pacific

SIGI: The Social Institutions and Gender Index

Page 6: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

6

Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations?

• Changing dynamics of inequality

• Structural changes in labour markets

• New trade patterns

• Technological advances

• Increased migration flows

Faster growth and rising incomes (for some)…but what does this

mean for development, gender equality and social cohesion?

Page 7: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

7

Average SIGI score

Average SIGI score according to country classification in the four-speed world

0.01

0.110.13

0.17

0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.20

Affluent Converging Struggling Poor

Ave

rage

SIG

I va

lue

Four-speed world classification

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), OECD Gender and Institutions Database (2009)

Page 8: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

8

Converging countries and discrimination against women

Low-income Lower-middle income Upper-middle income

Bangladesh (90)

Chad (97)

Ethiopia (89)

Mali (99)

Sierra Leone (100)

Zambia (85)

13 other countries

China (83)

Egypt (82)

India (96)

Iran (95)

Nigeria (86)

Pakistan (94)

Sudan (102)

24 other countries

22 countries

Page 9: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

9

Two things to keep in mind

Growth doesn’t tell the whole

story…

… and averages hide more than

what they tell us about society

Page 10: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

10

Maternal mortality ratios

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

BGD CHN EGY ETH IND IRN MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB

Mat

ern

al m

ort

alit

y ra

te

Maternal mortality rate (MMR)

Average MMR for converging countries

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009)

Page 11: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

11

Births attended by skilled staff

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

BGD CHN IND MLI SDN% d

eliv

eri

es

atte

nd

ed

by

skill

ed

st

aff

% deliveries attended by skilled staff

average % deliveries attended by skilled staff for convergers

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009)

Page 12: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

12

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

BGD CHN EGY ETH IND IRN MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB

Ave

rage

he

alth

exp

end

itur

e p

er

capi

taHealth expenditure per capita

Average health expenditure, upper-middle income convergers

Average health expenditure, lower-middle income convergers

Average health expenditure, low income convergers

Health expenditure per capita

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009)

Page 13: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

13

Physical integrity and maternal mortality

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), OECD Gender and Institutions Database (2009)

In the ten countries where

women‟s physical integrity

is least protected (Mali,

Somalia, Sudan, Egypt,

Sierra Leone, Ethiopia,

Liberia, Guinea-Bissau,

Eritrea, Guinea), maternal

mortality ratios are on

average twice as high as

elsewhere.

Page 14: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

14

Education

Significant increase in enrolment and completion rates in primary

education…

…But, for every 100 boys out of school:

270 girls are out of school in Yemen, 316 in Iraq and 416 in

India and 257 in Benin (UNESCO, 2007)...

...And progress is not as significant at the secondary level.

Page 15: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

15

Ratio of female/male enrolment in primary education

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

BGD EGY ETH IND MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB CHN

F/M

pri

mar

y e

nro

lme

nt

rati

o

Ratio F/M primary enrolment

average ratio F/M primary enrolment for convergers

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009)

Page 16: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

16

Ratio of female/male enrolment in secondary education

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009),

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

BGD CHN ETH IND IRN MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMBRat

io F

/M s

eco

nd

ary

en

rolm

en

tratio F/M secondary enrolment

average ratio F/M secondary enrolment for convergers

Page 17: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

17

Literacy

Female literacy in high-SIGI countries is strikingly below average female

literacy in other converging countries.

0

20

40

60

80

100

BGD CHN ETH NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB

Female literacy in high-SIGI countries

Average female literacy in other convergers

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009)

Page 18: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

18

Early marriage and primary school completion rates

In the countries where

more than half of girls

aged 15-19 years are

married (DRC, Niger,

Afghanistan, Congo

and Mali), on average

fewer than half of

primary school aged

children are in school

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), OECD Gender and Institutions Database (2009)

Page 19: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

19

Female labour force participation

Page 20: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

20

Changing employment patterns

• Feminisation of “bad jobs”: while there has been an increase

in the quantity of job opportunities, women lose out on the

quality of jobs available

• Women are most often segregated in sectors with low pay,

long working hours and informal working arrangements,

without access to benefits or social protection

• Women carry out a disproportionate amount of unpaid care

and domestic work

• Women are over-represented in agriculture and services

• A significant proportion of contributing family workers are

women for some converging countries

Page 21: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

21

Ratio of female share/male share in employment status

by region

Page 22: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

22

Contributing family workers by gender for selected converging countries

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

BGD COL BRA EGY ETH IRN ZAF VNM

Female contributing family workers Male contributing family workers

Page 23: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

23

Employment by sector, 2008

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

F M F M F M F M F M F M F M

East Asia South-east Asia and the

Pacific

South Asia

LAC Middle East

North Africa

Sub-saharan Africa

Shar

e in

to

tal e

mp

loym

en

t

Selected regions

Services

Industry

Agriculture

Source: ILO 2009

Page 24: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

24

Female agricultural employment

Source: Author‟s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), OECD Gender and Institutions Database (2009)

0

0.5

1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

BGD EGY ETH PAK

Emp

loye

es,

fe

mal

e,

agri

cult

ure

Employees, female, agriculture (% of female employment)

Average employees, female, agriculture (% of female employment) for

other convergers

Access to land

Page 25: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

25

Percentage of female parliamentarians

0

5

10

15

20

25

BGD CHN EGY ETH IND IRN MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB

Pe

rce

nta

ge o

f fe

mal

e

par

liam

en

tari

ans

2009 Average for other convergers

Page 26: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

26

Change in % of women in parliament in low income converging countries

5.69

15.08

3.00

6.72

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

14.00

16.00

1990s 2000s

% w

om

en

in

pa

rlia

me

nt

Other

converging

countries

High SIGI

converging

countries

Page 27: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

27

Son preference

In many countries, particularly China and India, there is strong evidence of „missing

women‟ as a result of son preference due to female infanticide, sex-selective abortions

and neglect of the well-being of girl children.

This phenomenon has direct consequences on social cohesion as it:

• Perpetuates discriminatory practices against women and girls if men are not

able to find wives, early marriage, forced marriage, bride-knapping etc.

• The perception that investing in boys will yield a greater return than similar

investments in girls who will eventually marry and leave the family is reflected

in the allocation of household resources

• Could increase likelihood of conflict as the number of single, young men

increases

• In China, recent research has found that the shifting demographic reality is

already changing household saving behaviour, and may be a factor driving

global imbalances

Page 28: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

28

Linking women’s access to resources and social cohesion

Problem Impact on women and girls Policy options Implications for

social cohesion

Limited land

and

property

rights

Limits women’s agricultural

productivity and food

security

Lack of collateral prevents

women from accessing

bank loans or financial

services

Land-titling projects

and resettlement

schemes

More access to and

control over

resources :

Women more

active in the formal

economy

Improves women’s

socioeconomic

status

Increases their

sense of belonging

Increases social

mobility

Limited

access to

financial

resources

Restricts women’s

entrepreneurship Training and

networks to support

women’s

entrepreneurship

Limited

inheritance

rights

Widowed girls and women

may be left homeless

Increased vulnerability of

young girls

Legislative reform to

protect women and

girls’ right to inherit

Page 29: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

29

Linking women’s decision-making power and social cohesion

Problem Impact on women and girls Policy options Implications for social

cohesion

Limited

decision-

making

power in the

household

Increased likelihood of losing

out in intra-household

allocation of resources

Increased likelihood of high

fertility rates and unsafe sex

Cash transfers

directly to women

and girls

Awareness-raising

campaigns

targeting men

Increasing women’s

decision-making

power:

Promotes their sense

of inclusion and

participation in civic

life

Increases their

bargaining power in

the home

Improves health and

welfare of children

Low

representa-

tion in local

government

Limits women’s community

engagement

Quotas and

affirmative action

Proportional

representation

Constitutional

reform

Low

representa-

tion in

national

government

Limits women’s voice and

participation

May decrease likelihood of

gender-sensitive service

delivery and resource

allocations

Page 30: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

30

Linking security for women and social cohesion

Problem Impact on women and girls Policy options Implications for

social cohesion

Physical

and

sexual

violence

Physical and psychological

health problems

Compromises the education of

girls when violence occurs in

schools

Lowers earnings and

productivity when women are

unable to work

Restricts women’s freedom of

movement

Publicity and media

campaigns

Strengthen data

collection on VAW

Adopt and enforce

national laws

against VAW

Prohibit and

criminalise marital

rape

More security for

women:

Avoids the erosion

of social capital

due to stigma and

isolation

Enables women to

participate in social,

political and

economic life

Increases their

sense of trust in

society

Prevents the

perpetuation of a

culture of violence

FGM Short and long term risks to

physical, sexual and

psychological health

Increased risk of mortality

during pregnancy and

childbirth and of HIV/Aids

Public awareness

campaigns

Community led

initiatives to

abandon FGM

Page 31: Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender ... · Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma

31

Key findings

• Hidden gender inequalities are being driven by these discriminatory institutions: negative consequences for human development and the economic and political participation of women

• Gender can be a useful lens to see the social costs and inequalities that are being exacerbated by shifting wealth

• Quality of jobs and access to decent work for women needs to be at forefront of policy responses to adapt to changing labour markets

Next step:

Country case studies to determine which factors (early marriage, violence, land rights, etc) are most relevant and what policies have been effective in transforming discrimination against women