Standard Grade

Revision Notes

Syllabus Area OneRepresentation Unit

Britain is a representative democracy___ we elect the following people to represent us:

1. Members of Parliament M.P.s,2. Members of the Scottish Parliament

M.S.Ps 3. Local Councillors. 4. Trade Union Officials

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Once they have been elected they decide the different issue on our behalf. It is their task to decide of what they think is the right thing to do. They are our REPRESENTATIVES.

Who do we elect as our Representatives?

Members of Parliament MPsMembers of the Scottish Parliament MSPsMembers of the European Parliament MEPsLocal CouncillorsTrade Union Officials

Definition: Democracy means power to the people. In a democracy the majority decides what should be done with the understanding that all citizens have certain RIGHTS. These rights include:

free votefree speechfair trialfree conscienceprivacy propertyno cruel or unusual punishments,others.

In a democracy no law should be passed which interferes with these rights.

In a democracy the citizens have the responsibility of obeying the law and taking part in the political process by voting.

Democracy = majority rule + rights

In a democracy the citizens have the RESPONSIBILITY to PARTICIPATE in the democratic process and obey the law.

Why should people vote?

1. Only two-thirds of the countries in the world are democracies in the rest people do not have the right to vote. People in democracies are lucky.2. Many people believe that if we don’t use our vote and turnout falls to well below 50% then it might be easy for governments to start to suggest that we should vote less often on less representatives. “Use it or lose it” is the warning here.3. Some suggest that because people in the past have died to defend democracy we

have a responsibility to them to use our vote.4. A recent government campaign to encourage voting has suggested that if you don’t vote you should lose the right to have an opinion on political matters. Essentially they are saying that if you don’t vote to choose the government then you can’t criticise then for what they do.5. Democracy is about the government representing the wishes of the people. If some people don’t vote then the government will only represent those that vote. As a result the government becomes unrepresentative which damages democracy.

On the other side of the argument it is said that

1. People are free to vote or not to vote. Democracy is also about rights and people have the right not to vote if they don’t want to.2. Not voting doesn’t mean the people have no opinion. It means they are expressing dissatisfaction with the political system and the parties and people in it. Essentially they see anything or anybody worth voting for. If they were to be offered a worthwhile choice at the ballot box then they may start to vote.

Three ways in which we ensure a FREE VOTE

1. Secret ballot2. Electoral register__ one vote per

person3. Equal sized constituencies__

Boundaries Commission.

Three ways that we ensure FREE SPEECH1. Free press__ The Broadcast Media (TV,

radio) has to be balanced in its reporting. This is not the same as having free speech. Only newspapers have true free speech.

2. Election expenses__ These ensure that rich candidates gain no advantage__ however spending on national campaigning is unlimited.

3. Party Political Broadcast___ These ensure that all political opinions get free access to television and radio. It

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also gives equal amounts of time to parties of equal size.

Electoral System

1. First Past the Post _ candidate with the most votes wins.

2. One MP elected for each constituency (659 in 1997)

3. Constituencies roughly equal in size__ 62,000 voters (Boundaries Commission)

4. Usually produces an election result in which one party wins a majority of the seats in parliament, though not a majority of all the votes cast in the country.

N.B. safe seats, marginal seats

Election Campaign

Supporters can help the candidates by organising the following:

1. Election Meeting2. Canvassing3. Posters4. Photo-opportunities

Electoral Reform

Criticisms of the First Past the Post System

1. Winning party does not win 50% or more of the votes.

2. Unfair to small parties (Lib. 1974 19.1% votes, 2.4% seats)

3. Many MPs elected with less than half the votes.

Alternatives: STV, Party List Alternative Vote

Defn. Proportional Representation is the name for a family of electoral systems in which the % votes cast equals the % seats won. Such systems have multi-member constituencies.

Advantages and Disadvantages of P.R.

Advantages Disadvantages

1. P.R. result 1. Coalition Government

2.Fair to small parties 2.Extreme parties will

win seats eg. NF3. Better for 3. Complicated women/Blacks

Countries using PRGermany Party ListIreland STVItaly STVNew Zealand, STVIsrael STVScottish Assembly Party ListEuropean Elections STV

Party Policies

“Broad Church”__ range of views in both Conservative and Labour.Policy differences often a matter of emphasis.

Minorities

Women 51% of populationBlack Britons 6% of population

Both groups under-represented in Westminister Parliament, women better represented in Holyrood, but minorities are not.

ElectionsWomen Blacks All MPs

1987 40 4 6501992 60 6 6511997 121 7 659

Although figures shown that women and blacks have made progress in recent elections they are still considerably under-represented.

Why are Blacks and women underrepresented?

1. Prejudice against them2. Parties try to pick “ideal” candidate seen

as white married man. Where selected Blacks and women are more likely to be selected for seats where they have little chance of winning.

3. Blacks and women less likely to be members of political parties. They are

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dominated by “white men”. Political parties are often organised to suit “white men”_ many political clubs are “drinking club” which puts off minorities. Times of meeting often suit men rather than women who often have children to look after.

Why should something be done?

1. Many of our laws affect minorities differently than the rest of society.eg. abortion, divorce, murder (women)

immigration, religious law (Blacks)It is important that these groups have a fair say in these laws. At present many of our laws are made for “white” men but affect Black men and women.

2. If women and Blacks are discouraged from standing for parliament then we are effectively cutting off the talents of over half the population.

What could be done to increase the number of Black and Women MPs?

1. Introduce a system of PR. This would mean that the parties would have to put up a selection of candidates rather than “one white man”. UK has the second lowest % of women MP in Europe. The rest of Europe has PR.

2. Make Political Parties more “woman and Black” friendly__ Black Sections.

3. Reform parliament to make it less of a “Gentleman’s Club” eg. working hours, crèche facilities etc.

4. Every short leet of candidates should include one woman and one Black. Minorities are often illuminated by not be included on the short leet of candidates who are interviewed by the party.

5. Women should campaign through Pressure Groups such as Adams Rib and the 300 Club for more female MPs.

NB Mohammed Sarwar is the first Muslim to be elected to parliament.

Participation Unit

What is an M.P.’s job?

1. He/she represents his/her constituents. This means that he/she makes up his/her mind on the issues in parliament on behalf of his/her constituents.

2. He/she supports the party he/she belongs to in parliament. The party Whip System instructs him how to vote on most measures.

3. He/she ensures that the rights of each of his constituents is protected. If a constituent feels that his/her rights are being denied him/her then he/she can turn to his/her M.P. for help. They can do this by seeing their MP at his/her surgery.

What are the pressures on an M.P.?

1. Different constituents will want him/her to do different things. eg. local support/opposition for a factory. The M. P. as the REPRESENTATIVE makes up his/her own mind as to what he/she thinks is best.

2. The Whips This is the Party organisation which tries to ensure that an MP will vote with his/her party.

3. Conscience issues such as abortion, divorce etc. require the MP to follow his/her own conscience. Such issue are often dealt with in the House by a “free vote”.

4. Pressure Groups These are organisations which attempt to influence the MP opinion on different matters.

How does an MP represent his/her constituents in Parliament

1. Questions to Ministers If a constituent has a problem with their RIGHTS then the MP can raise the issue in parliament asking a Question of the minister in charge of the Department involved. eg. a constituent with a problem about the Army using his/her land then the MP would ask a question to the Secretary of State for Defence.

2. Adjournment Debate An individual MP can call for a half hour debate on certain days at the end of the House of Commons business (10.00) This could be about a constituency problem.

3. Select Committees These committees check the work of Government

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Departments. The MP checks that these Departments are working honestly and efficiently.

5. Private Members Bill Individual MP can get the opportunity to pass a Private Members Bill. These are usually about social issues eg. abortion, capital punishment, Homosexual reform Act. It is very difficult for an MP to do this.

How the Whips try to force MPs to obey their instructions

Each Party in parliament has a Whip System. The Chief Whip of the Government Party is an important Government Minister whose official residence is No. 12 Downing St. The Chief Whip and his/her Assistant Whips are the go-between for the Government and the Backbencher. They keep each side aware of the thinking of the other.

The Whips pressurise reluctant MPs in the following ways:

1. Remind the MP of the fact that it was the “Party label’ that got him/her elected.

2. Remind the MP that if he/she does not support his/her party then they will not be given a job in the Government . (91 jobs for MPs)

3. Remind the MP that they will not get a honour, e.g. Knighthood, Peerage etc.

4. Remind the MP that he/she will not get a QUANGO job when they retire.

5. Threaten to make trouble in the MP constituency so that they might be deselected at next election. The final sanction is the “withdrawal of the Whip” this means that in effect that the MP is suspended from the Party. However once he is out the Party then he is beyond the discipline of the Whips, it is therefore used very sparingly.

Local Authorities

32 LAs in Scotland

Main Services

Education 50% of moneyRoads

Social workLeisurePlanningHousingConsumer ProtectionPolice and Fire

Finance

1. Council Tax based on value of property2. Commercial rates_ level of rates decided

by the government3. Charges for Services__ eg swimming4. Government Grant

Why have Local Authorities

1. Efficiency_ further you are from a problem the more likely you are to get it wrong.

2. Democracy_ allows for local choice, local authorities are one of the oldest democratic bodies in Britain.

3. Accountability_ local people can hold local councillors accountable for their actions. “No taxation without representation”

Why do people become local councillors

1. Out of a sense of public duty2. As a hobby3. As the first step of a political career

How do councillors represent their electors?

1. By helping to decide council policy on the provision of services.

2. By helping their voters with any problems they are having with local government services.__ councillors surgeries. Councillors can also be lobbied by their eletors in the same way that MPs can.

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Trade Unions

Trade Union Membership 1979 13 million1999 7 million

Why has Trade Union membership declined?

1. Many of the industries where union membership was most common have declined eg. shipbuilding, steel making, coal mining.

2. More jobs are part-time and temporary. Workers see a change of job as the best way of improving conditions_ not joining a union.

3. Working conditions in many new industries seem are perceived as being good. eg. call centres. Strikes in these industries are therefore much less common.

4. Many new industries actively discourage trade union membership.

5. Since the 1980s there have been changes in the law which make TUs less powerful. Strike action is a much less powerful weapon for trade unions because of this.

What does a Trade Union do?

1. Unity is Strength Individual workers have little power. Collective Bargaining means that the union negotiates on behalf of all the workers. Once a worker has joined a trade union great stress is laid on the fact that they must follow the decisions made by that union. This is their responsibility.

2. Pressure Group Trade Unions campaign for laws and policies which favour their members eg. Minimum Wage.

3. Friendly Benefits TUs provide help for members who have fallen on hard times eg. widows orphans.

4. Legal Expenses TUs will pay legal expenses for cases of unfair dismissal, industrial injury.

5. Affiliation to Labour Party Some unions allow members to pay part of their union fees to the Labour Party. In return they have a say in the running of the Labour Party.

How do Trade Unions take industrial action?

1. Strikes_ refusing to work. Trade union members cannot be sued even although a strike is a breach of contract.

2. Work to rule_ working as slowly as possible.

What does a Shop Steward do?

He /she is a lay official. That means he/she is not paid. He/she represents anything fro 2-200+ workers. The important point is that he/she knows them and they know him/her.

Duties:

1. Collect union due (membership fees)2. Recruit new members.3. Settle minor disputes.4. Hold work place meeting

How can union members participate in their union?

1. Become a shop steward2. Attend a branch meeting- only about

2.5% do. This allows militants to dominate branch meetings.

3. Become a delegate to the Conference.4. Vote in election for the Executive

Committee, president and General Secretary

What is wrong with Branches?

All trade unions organise them selves into branches. The size of the Branch will depend on the Union and can be anything from 5 or 6 people to several thousands. All members belong to a branch and are entitled to attend its meetings. The Branch meetings are a very important part of the democratic structure of the union. At these meetings the branch members decide who will represent them at the annual conference and what motions they will send to the conference. The motions are the decisions that they would like the Conference to take. The people who attend the Branch therefore decide who attends the conference and what the conference talks about. Unfortunately very few members attend branch meeting. This means that the policies of the union are often decided by a handful of the members. Often it is only the keenest members of the

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union that attend the meetings. They are sometimes called militants. This means that unions can often end up following policies that the majority of their members do not really support.

Recent Changes in Trade Union Law

1. All strikes must be preceded by a postal ballot

2. All full time union officials must be elected by postal ballot

3. Strikes must be over industrial issues- no political strikes.

4. Strikes must be between workers and their management_ no sympathy strikes.

Minorities in Trade Unions

Trade unions are often criticised for being dominated by white men even in a time where increasing numbers of women and blacks are becoming members of trade unions.

What can trade unions do to increase the participation of black and women members?

1. Traditionally many union meetings are held in clubs where alcohol is served. This often discourages women and members from religious groups who prohibit alcohol.

2. Hold meeting at times which are suitable for mothers.

3. Give special representation to minorities on union committees to encourage these groups.

Rights and responsibilities of Trade Union Members

While on strike a trade unionist is protected from being sued for “Breach of Contract”. A strike breaks a worker’s Contract of Employment. However unlike anyone else he/she cannot be sued for damages as long as:

(i) the strike is preceded by a secret ballot in favour.

(ii) The dispute is between the worker and his/her employer.

The worker on strike or taking other types of industrial action still must obey the normal

criminal laws of society. This can cause conflict in areas such as picketing where workers on strike try to convince others to join the strike. Trade unionists would say that because any decision they make has been democratically arrived at, then the membership have a moral duty to support the decision. The motto of the Trade union movement is “Unity is Strength”.

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Pressure Groups

Def. Pressure Groups are organisations which try to influence the policies of: parliament, government, local authorities, big business, individuals.

Examples of Pressure Groups: major charities, trade unions, religious organisation, employers organisations.e.g. RSPPC, NRA (USA), Pro Life, Stonewall

How do Pressure Groups operate?

1. Public Meeting 2. Writing to newspapers, MPs and

councillors3. Hold protest meetings and rallies4. Lobby parliament5. Support Private Members Bills

Why are pressure Groups good for Democracy?

1. Pressure Groups can force the public to face up to issues they would rather ignore eg. Childline, Pro Life etc.

2. They provide evidence and information.3. They provide counter arguments for other

pressure groups.

Why Pressure Groups can be bad for Democracy?

1. Some Pressure Groups would claim that they have the right to break the law because they are being denied their rights. eg. Anti-poll Tax Federation, Suffragettes. This is a very dangerous argument.

2. There are a large number of Lobbying Companies which sell their services to companies. They organise meeting with Government Ministers. Many MPs are employed by these companies. The worry must be that they can “buy” changes in the law or changes in Government policy which benefit their clients.

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Syllabus Area Two

The Elderly Unit

Concepts Equality, Ideology, Need

Why are the number of elderly people increasing

1. People are living longer - better housing, medical care, food, better working conditions.

2. Birth rate is falling _ therefore proportion of population which is old is increasing Average family size down from 2.4 to 1.9 children.

3. Baby boom after First War _ these babies are now elderly people. By year 2000 1 in 4 people in Britain will be retired.

More old people are women than men as women life longer on average (81 for women, 70 for men) _ the fact that women tend to marry men who are older than them means that many women spend a long time as widows.

Care of the Elderly

Pensions

State pension among lowest in Europe. Pensioners with no other source of Income have to claim Social Security --many do not due to pride ( Means tested) or the fact that they are not aware that it is available.

Since the 1980s state pensions have risen in line with inflation rather than as they formally did , in line with average wages. This means that living standards for OAPs have not risen, while the standard of living of the rest of the population has increased considerably. Poverty is a” relative position” ___ many more OAP are now living in poverty.

Increasing number have occupational pensions __ they will be reasonably well off _WOOPIES

Occupational Pensions__how they work?

Paid in usually between 4-6% of income (usually called superannuation).Get out Many are 1/80 schemes. Employee gets 1/80 of final salary for every year work + a lump sum of perhaps 11/2 years salary. Therefore a man retiring from a job paying £20,000 per year would receive a pension of £10,000 + a lump sum of £15,000.

When taking into account that retired people do not pay National Insurance (9%) and no longer pay superannuation (4-6%) and will have saving and perhaps a large family house to sell then many of them will be as well-off as they were when they were working. In the last few years there have been increasing worries that pension funds do not have enough money in them to pay pensions for the increasing number of people who are living for longer lengths of time. This has led to many pension schemes no longer offering “final salary” schemes and instead pensioners are having to use the funds that they have accrued to buy an annuity, which is a sum that is worked out by estimating how long they will live. For many workers this will mean they will receive lower pensions.

However people on small occupational pensions lose out as it often takes them just above the level for Social Security benefits. Estimated that people on small pensions lose up to 85% of the benefit.

In future fewer people will get pensions based on their final salary. This is because they cost too much. Occupational pensions are likely to be smaller for most people in the next ten to twenty years.

In 1988/89 less than 100,000 pensions households had an income over £10,000 per year.

Housing

Pensioners tend to be the worst housed in society because they live in oldest houses.

All pensioners need the following from their homes: Accessibility, Safety, Comfort

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Types of Housing for the Elederly

1. Adapted Houses. Often their own homes with adaptations.2. Sheltered Housing . Offers some or all of the following: warden, alarms, good heating, lifts etc. Very Shelterd Houses offer most of these.3. Residential Homes These offer ’hotel like ‘ services eg. Food, laundry etc.4. Nursing Homes These provide ‘hotel like’ facilities with nursing care FOR FRAIL RESIDENTS.

If old age pensioners leave moving house then they can be trapped in unsuitable housing. “Moving house second most stressful activity after divorce.”

Technology and the elderly There are a number of device which could be used to help the elderly. These are things such as; special handles for cupboards sinks and windows, personnel alarms, bath lifts, etc. Remember technology means something that is man made. They do not need to be particularly complicated.

Residential Care

Many old people will go into residential homes. The Government encourages Private (Profit Making ) homes. They are sometimes referred to as “Granny Farms” because conditions can be very poor as owner must try to make a profit.

NB More pensioners than ever live with there families than ever. This is due to rising living standards. However

a. smaller families b. the fact that they are more likely to be

geographically spread will make this very difficult for many families.

Housing_ Who provides what?

Private

L.A.s

Charities

Adapted Housing

yes yes yes

Sheltered yes yes yesResidential yes yes yesNursing Homes yes no yes

Health

40 % of all National Health Service money is spent on the Elderly. As medicine advances we must expect people to live longer and then to die after expense treatments.

Average costs of treating different age groups

The average cost of treating someone who is between 65-74 years is almost double the average for all of the population and the average cost of treating over 75 years is more than 4 times the average.

Under 1 £5261-4 years £2045-15 years £13016-24 years £13825-44 years £15745-64 years £23065-74 years £47375 or over £1080All ages £254

Why do some elderly people suffer more health problems than others?

1. Wealthy people have had better food and housing than the less well off. This effects their health in old age.

2. The jobs that people have done in their lives has affected their health in old age eg. Miners and people working in other unhealthy occupations.

3. Poor pensioners might suffer more from the diseases of old age eg. arthritis, heart disease.

What advances have there been in Medicine to help elderly?

1. Joint replacement2. Cancer treatment3. Heart operations

“Care in the Community” should mean that every old person in need should have a “care manager” who will be able to spend

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money in the way best suited to serve his or her needs.

Elderly Blacks

Elderly Black Britons might face the following problems:1. Cultural differences__ Elderly Asians might

find that provision that is made for the elderly might be unsuitable for them eg. mixed sexes, alcohol.

2. Elderly Blacks for whom English is a second language might face difficulties when dealing with officialdom eg. forms etc.

3. Elderly Asians might have special religious requirements for food etc. (Muslim_ Halal)

Meeting the Needs of the Elderly

The Family is still the major provider for the needs of its elderly members. However as families become smaller and more geographically separated this will become more difficult. However as families generally become better off they will have more money to spend on their elderly members.

Families help with:a. Housing many elderly members live

with members of their family.b. Personal care is provided by

members of family. eg. washing, medicine.

c. Financial help is given to many elderly members.

Local Authorities They provide the following:a. Residential Homesb. Meals on Wheelsc. Home helpsd. Free or subsidised travele. Sheltered Accommodationf. Care in the Community_Care Manager

to look after elderly person’s needs

The Government They provide:a. State Old Age pensionsb. Income Support for the poorest

pensionersc. Health Care

Private Sector They provide:

a. Nursing Homes for the elderly who need nursing care.

b. Sheltered Housing to buyc. Holidays and other facilities at

cheap rates during times where there is a low demand from the general public.

Charities They provide:a. Nursing Homes and other

kinds of residential careb. Special Equipmentc. Pressure Group activities

Examples of Elderly pressure groups, Help the Aged, Age Concern.

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The Family

Family life in Britain has changed over last fifty years:

Major change has been the increase in divorce. This due to

1. Change from Extended family to Nuclear family. Makes relationship between husband and wife more important. Therefore if this relationship breaks down divorce becomes more likely.

2. Expectations of women have risen therefore less likely to accept unhappy marriage.

3. Increased prosperity and the Welfare State means that divorce is a financial possibility.

Divorce in Britain 1961 per 1000 married couples 2.1 1971 5.9 1981 11.9 1991 13.6

The increase in the divorce rate coupled with the increase in young women having children out of wedlock has led to a massive increase in lone parent families.

Lone Parent Families in Britain 1971 8% 1975 10% 1979 12% 1981 13% 1983 14% 1987 14% 1989 17% 1990 20% 1991 19%

Families Headed by a Lone Woman 1991 Single 35.3% Widowed 23.5% Divorced 35.3% Separated 23.5%

Nine out of ten single parent families are headed by a woman. In 1989 it was estimated that three-quarters of children growing up in a single parent family were living in poverty.

Why do many lone parent families find it harder to get suitable employment?

Nine out of ten lone parents are women. On average women only earn 70-75% of what the average man earns. From this salary a woman has to pay for child care costs. If she uses official child cares then the government will give considerable amounts to help pay for it. However such child care can be very expensive. If she uses unofficial child care then it is cheaper but there is no government help available. In simple terms it can be very difficult for many women to earn enough so that after child care costs it is worth while working rather than living off benefits.

To help with this problem the Government has introduced a system called Tax Credits which is designed to pay low paid workers benefits while doing low paid work. It also pays some of the costs of child care. Child Support Agency CSA

This organisation was established in 1993. Its task is to ensure that the fathers who are separated from their families pay towards there support. Under its rules absent fathers should pay no more than 30% of his income to the CSA. Any money recovered goes to the mother. However if the mother receives benefits, the sum is subtracted from the benefits.

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Employment

CONCEPTS: EQUALITY, IDEOLOGY, AND NEED

SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF UNEMPLOYMENTLoss of self-respectHealthRelationshipsLose the habit of WorkPoor standard of livingIncrease of crime

Britain is a welfare state, this means that the British Government accepts it is responsible for the well being of its citizens. Therefore they provide an income and help the unemployed find another job.

INCOME1. NATIONAL INSURANCE SCHEME2.SOCIAL SECURITY

NATIONAL INSURANCE - All workers pay 10% of their salaries into the National

National Insurance scheme. They are entitled to

1. Job Seekers Allowance2. Sickness Benefit3. Old Age Pensions4. Maternity Allowance

SOCIAL SECURITY

People not covered by the NI Scheme can claim Income Support -MEANS TESTED

Points to note about Benefits1. Levels of benefits low in comparison to salaries2. Young people find it difficult to claim benefits3. Loans (Social Fund)

Government Initiatives to help the Unemployed

Job CentresRetrainingYouth Training Schemes (YTS)Employment Training Scheme (ETS)Enterprise Allowance Scheme (EAS)Restart ProgrammesJob start Allowance

Minorities and Unemployment

N.B. Often questions on minorities give you a choice between Blacks, women and the disabled. You have not studied anything about the disabled__ so choose Blacks and women.

Women and Ethnic Minorities employment figures are lower than the general population.

Minimum Wage

In 1997 the Government introduced the Minimum Wage for all workers over the age of 21.

Advantages of Minimum Wage

a. It will stop unskilled workers with no bargaining power from being paid “starvation wages”

b. Some workers will no longer be caught in the “poverty trap” where any increase in wages would mean a decrease in benefits leaving them no better off.

Disadvantages of Minimum Wage

a. Some employers will pay the minimum wage who may have paid more before

b. Fewer people might be employed because the minimum wage is more than they got before and employers may not be able to pay them.

Women

Women face the following problems:1. Discrimination from men how see their

jobs as being for males. The “Old boys network” keeps out women. Women sometimes talk of a ‘glass ceiling’ in that they can see the top job as they progress up the promotion ladder but are stopped from achieving them.

2. Problems of child care. Many women would like to work but cannot afford childcare costs.

3. Women who take time off to look after their children lose valuable experience and promotions which they find difficult

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to regain when they return to the workforce.

The position of women seems to be changing. Women will soon be/already are more women in the workforce than men. This is because:a. There are more low skilled/low paid jobs.

They are often done by women. On average women only earn between 70-80% of men.

b. Women have made great strides in recent years. Girls are now out performing boys in schools. In many courses at University more than 50% of students are girls. However women are still in short numbers at the top of business and the professions. This has led some people to talk of a “glass ceiling”. This means that male prejudice keeps them out of the top jobs.

Laws helping women

Sex Discrimination Act 1975 - Unlawful to discriminate either directly or indirectly in the workplace. Equal Opportunities Commission - set up to monitor and promote equal rights.

Equal Pay Act 1970 - Women should receive equal pay to men in work that is similar.

Employment Protection Act 1976- gave women the right to return to their job up to 6 months after having a baby.

Black Britons

Black Britons find the following problems looking for work:

1. Prejudice from white employers and workers.

2. Problems with language. This is perhaps particularly true of some Asian women when applying for jobs in writing.

Race Relations Act 1976 - illegal to discriminate against a person on racial grounds. It is illegal to discriminate in EMPLOYMENT, EDUCATION and the PROVISION OF GOODS AND SERVICES.Commission for Racial Equality - Monitors the effectiveness of the Act and attempts to

eradicate racial discrimination encourages equal opportunities and encourages good community relations.

Institutional Racism ‘An action does not have to be discriminatory in intent merely in effect to be illegal.

Effects of Technology

Technology in the workplace is increasing due to the increase use of machinery such as Micro Computers. the changes taking place are sometimes called a “Communications Revolution”. This is because massive amounts of information can be

storedcollated (counted)and transmitted almost anywhere in the world, almost instantaneously.

Problems

a. Many skills are becoming obsolete. b. Workers it is claimed are “deskilled”.c. Increased workload by new technology in

the workplace eg mobile phones, faxes etc.

Positive aspects of new technology

a.New jobs are created to work the new technology.

b. The workplace, increasing divided into highly trained designs and programmers of computers/ unskilled pushers of buttons on the computers.

c. Increasing computers will allow people to work from home where they will be able to work the hours that they wish

Polarisation of the workforce

Skilled workers, highly educated, earning high salariesUnskilled, low salaries, temporary or part-time, little security of employment.

Regional Employment Policy (Scotland)

Unemployment rates vary between different regions - high in the North of England, Northern Ireland and Scotland - Old Industrial Base (concentration of heavy

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industry which in recent years have declined)

Aid available from

1. Government pay firms grants and allowances to set up factories in the North

2. Scottish Development Agency _Locate in Scotland

3. European Social and Economic Fund

Particular Problems associated with the Regional Policies

- Transnational Companies (Branch Factories) Often the first to close in a recession.

- They tend to use a lot of equipment and very few workers. Most Grants are based on the cost of equipment. Each job created is very expensive.

- Employment of cheap labour. This means they often employ women. Women are now more numerous in work-force than men, largely because of this.

Syllabus Area ThreeThe USA

Beliefs in the USA

American society emphasises the Rights of the individual citizen. each citizen of the USA has the following rights which are guaranteed to him or her in the American constitution. these rights are:

1. free conscience, right to his or her own religion.

2. free speech, the right to express and hold opinions.

3. free vote, the right to vote in which ever way they choose.

4. fair trial, the right to trial by jury, the right to know the case against you, the right to a lawyer, the right to remain silent.

5. private property, the right to own things and dispose of them as you see fit.

6. privacy, the right protect your private life.

The economic system of the USA is capitalism. This system encourages people to start their own businesses and become wealthy. The idea of personal freedom in the USA is sometimes summed up in the "American Dream". This claims that any American no matter how humble can by hard work rise to positions of great wealth and importance. eg. Andrew Carnegie, poor Scottish immigrant became richest man in world.

Hard + Free + citizens = AmericanWork enterprise rights Dream

American society stresses the responsibility of the individual to look after himself and his family. This explains why the USA almost alone of all the countries of the developed world has no system of national health service.

In the USA the citizens have the right to be very rich or very poor. What many Americans do not accept is that many of its citizens do not get an equal chance. For instance for generations Black Americans have been kept at the bottom of the heap due to the prejudice of the White majority.

The USA a Superpower

Def. A Superpower is a country that is so wealthy that its influence is felt throughout the world. This influence can either be military or economic.

The USA is the only country in the world that can be called a Superpower. The other two Great Powers, the USSR and China do no have the wealth to be considered as Superpowers. The USA has a financial interest in every country in the world. All the nations of the world trade with the USA. It is

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estimated that Coca Cola is on sale in every country in the world. In many countries US companies have made a direct investment in the country by opening factories. The USA has an interest in safeguarding these investments and trade. For this reason the USA maintains large forces in different parts of the world.

What makes the USA a Superpower, what make the USA rich and gives its citizens a high standard of living?

The enormous wealth of the USA stems from the following:

1. The USA has a large well educated population. The population of the USA is 226 million. On the whole this population is well educated. Since the last quarter of the 19th. century the USA has been the world leader in technology.

2. The USA has a large land area. Much of this land is suitable for agriculture. The USA has the most productive agricultural system in the world. Every US farmer produces enough food to feed 59 people. The USA is a major exporter of agricultural products. Its main crops are soya beans, cotton, fruits, maize, wheat, sugar tobacco and grapes.

3. The USA is rich in natural resources. She has large deposits of coal, oil, and wood. Much of the USA also has more than adequate supplies of water. She has used these natural resources to build up large industries. By as early as 1870 she was the world's leading manufacturing country. The USA produces 25% of the world's steel and 25% of the automobiles.

4. The USA has a free enterprise system. This system encourages people to work hard and build up wealth. The "American Dream" is that any citizen no matter how humble their origins can by hard work become a millionaire. The free enterprise system allowed the USA to develop very quickly. In 1787 when the USA gained their independence from Britain they were a scattering of small states on the edge of a wilderness. Less than one hundred years latter it was the world's most powerful economy.

The fact that the USA has so much wealth means that many Americans enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the world, while at the same time others who are less successful (many from minorities) live in poverty.

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The Constitution of the United States of America

A constitution is simply a set of rules by which a country is governed. When writing the constitution the Founding Fathers wished to base it on three principles. These principles are:

CITIZENS RIGHTS All American citizens are guaranteed certain rights by their constitution. The constitution forbids Congress, the law making body in the USA, from passing any law that would interfere with the citizens' rights. Most of these rights are to be found in the first ten amendments to the Constitution which is often called the Bill of Rights. In order to protect these rights the Constitution is deliberately made difficult to change.) This is called having an Entrenched Constitution. Among the rights guaranteed to US citizens are the right to:

free consciencefree speechpeaceful protestfree votefair trialprivate propertyprivacyfreedom from cruel punishmentother rights which are not written down

STATE RIGHTS Originally the USA was not intended to be one country. Rather each of the former thirteen colonies was to be a country on its own coming together with its neighbours for defence and trade. Each state in the USA still makes its own laws on most issues apart from these. This is called a Federal System of government. Laws can vary widely from State to State, however all laws must conform with the Federal Constitution.

SEPARATION OF POWERS WITH CHECKS AND BALANCES The Founding Fathers were concerned that they did not invent a system that would lead to a tyrant coming to power. A tyrant is a powerful, unreasonable ruler. Their solution was to separate the different functions of the system into the hands of different people. They divided their system into three parts. These parts are shown below:

The PresidentThe CongressThe Supreme Court

Under the American system if a person belongs to one of these three Branches of Government he or she cannot belong to either of the others. Furthermore the Constitution gives each branch a role in 'checking and balancing' the power of the other two.

The Congress

This is the Legislative Branch. The Congress has three duties: 1) make laws 2) decide taxes 3) supervise the Executive, that is

to make sure that it is working honestly and efficiency

Congress consists of two Houses. These are:the Senatethe House of Representatives

All Federal laws must be passed by both Houses of Congress. They must then be signed by the President. If there is a difference of opinion between the two houses they must negotiate and find a compromise.

Each State has two Senators irrespective of size in order to protect State Rights.

The Senate and Checks and Balances

Under the Constitution the Senate tries to control the power of the President in the following ways:

1. The President appoints members of his Cabinet, Ambassadors, heads of Government Agencies, however all these appointments must be ratified (approved) by the Senate.

2. The President signs Treaties and Declares War and Peace but they must be ratified by the Senate.

3. The President appoints the Members of the Supreme Court and the Senate ratifies their appointment.

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4. The Senate has the power to Impeach (remove from office) the President and the Supreme Court Justices if they commit "High crimes or Misdemeanours".

The President

The President is elected for a four year term. The Twenty -second Amendment (1951) forbad Presidents serving more than two terms in office. The President must be over 35 years of age and be a native born American.

Just how influential a President will be depends on his ability to use the Roles which are given to him under the Constitution. To become a powerful President he will manipulate these roles to his advantage.

THE ROLES OF THE PRESIDENT

HEAD OF STATE CHIEF OF THE ARMED FORCES CHIEF EXECUTIVE CHIEF LEGISLATOR GUARDIAN OF THE CONSTITUTION

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court has the job of interpreting the Constitution. For instance is a person who is listening to the news on a radio at the beach exercising his right of free speech or is he interfering with his neighbour right to privacy. It is the Supreme Court who have to decide how the Constitution interpret such things.

The Court is the highest court of appeal in the USA. Cases are sent to it from lower courts and the decisions it makes create precedents for all courts in future cases.

The Supreme Court consists of 9 Justices. It can come to majority decisions.

The Independence of the Supreme Court

To protect the Courts independence the following steps are taken:

1) The President appoints the Justices but they have to be ratified by the Senate.

2) The Justices are appointed for life3) The President is restricted to two terms

The Supreme Court is lead by the Chief Justice, his colleagues are called Associate Justices. The attitude of the Justices are very important in the American system. For instance the 8th. Amendment to the Constitution states that " Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted". In the early 1960s the Court ruled that capital punishment was a cruel and unusual punishment. The effect of this ruling was that capital punishment was stopped throughout the USA. However in the 1970s the Court reversed this ruling. This came about because the Justices on the Court had changed. Presidents will therefore be very careful when picking Supreme Court Justices that they chose someone who share, their outlook on the Constitution. A President is only in office for eight years his appointments to the Supreme Court can be there for twenty years or more. This is why the President is limited to two terms. It is an attempt to ensure that no one President gets the opportunity to appoint the majority of the Justices.

Famous Supreme Court Cases

Brown Vs. Topeka School Board 1954

In 1896 the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in the South was constitutional as long as the treatment of the parties was equal. This is known as the "Separate but Equal Judgment". In 1954 Brown brought a case against the Topeka School Board claiming that the segregation of its schools was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court ruled in Brown's favour. The effect of this judgment was to set a precedent that all segregation was unconstitutional. This judgment laid the basis of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

Wade Vs. Roe 1973

The Constitutional position of abortion is one of the most controversial issues that the

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Supreme Court has had to deal with. In essence the argument is does the constitution protect the woman's right to choose whether or not to have an abortion or does it protect the right of the unborn citizen to life.

Perhaps the most important judgment on this was the Roe versus Wade case. In this case the Court ruled that the right to privacy enshrined in the 9th. and 14th. Amendments "includes the right of a woman to decide whether or not to terminate her pregnancy".

The Rights of American Citizens

American citizens Rights are guaranteed for them under their constitution. Congress cannot make any law which removes or interferes with the Rights of the Citizen. The Courts of the United States would refuse to convict a citizen of any crime if his or her rights had been interfered with. The Supreme Court is the final judge of the meaning of the Rights guaranteed to American Citizens. Most of the rights of American Citizens are to be found in the First ten Amendments to the Constitution which are often called the Bill of Rights. Below is a copy of the Bill of Rights plus some other Amendments to the Constitution which have increased their Rights.

First Amendment (1791)Guarantees the right to freedom of religion, free speech, peaceful protestSecond Amendment (1791)Guaranteed citizens the right to own guns needed in connection with State militiasThird Amendment (1791)Guarantees freedom from having troops billeted in a citizens house during peacetime.Fourth Amendment (1791)Guaranteed the right to privacy. Homes can only be searched on production of a warrant from the courts.Fifth Amendment (1791)Guaranteed the right of the accused to remain silent during a trial. Sixth Amendment (1791)Guarantees right to a fair trialSeventh Amendment (1791)Guarantees the right to a speedy public trial, the right to a lawyer, the right to an

impartial jury, the right to know the case against you.Guarantees right to trial by jury.Eighth Amendment (1791)Guarantees the right to bail, right not to suffer cruel punishmentsNinth Amendment (1791)Guarantees that powers of Federal Government are limited to those listed in the Constitution.Tenth Amendment (1791)Guarantees that the rights listed in other amendments are not all the rights of American citizens, they have others which are not listed.Thirteenth Amendment (1865)Guarantees freedom from slavery.Fourteenth Amendment (1868)Guarantees equal treatment under the laws of the USAFifteenth Amendment (1870)Guarantees vote regardless of race. Nineteenth Amendment (1920)Guarantees vote irrespective of sexTwenty-Fourth Amendment (1964)Makes it illegal to deny any citizen a vote for failure to pay a Poll Tax

How are the Rights of American Citizens protected?

1. The constitution and particularly the Bill Of Rights list citizens rights.

2. American courts must rule on cases based on the constitution.

3. Citizens can (eventually) appeal to the Supreme Court which gives the final ruling.

4. If anybody refused to accept the ruling of the Supreme Court then the President as the Guardian of the Constitution will take action against them.

Elections in the USA

The USA is a Federal country. Each of the fifty states is internally self governing and has its own legislature which decides its laws. The Congress decides the laws that affect all Americans. As well as this Americans elect a number of officials who would not be appointed in Britain such as county sheriffs, district attorneys, judges. A number of states hold referendums

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(referenda) on single issue topics such as smoking in public places. For these reasons there are a large number of elections in America.

There are two main political parties in the USA, the Republicans and the Democrats. The Democrats is still probably the biggest of the two and is traditionally supported by minorities, farmers and trade unionists. The republic party is perhaps the more right wing and is seen as being the party of big business.

Before elections in many states they hold a contest in which the candidates for the major parties are chosen. In some states Primary Elections are held in n which supporters or members or both are allowed to select the candidate. In other states Caucuses (party meetings) are held where the candidate is chosen. The rules of caucuses and primaries vary from state to state. Many Americans play an active part in these events by campaigning, fund-raising and standing for election as delegates to party primaries or caucuses or as candidates at federal state or local level.

Elections in the USA

Presidential 4 yearsSenate 6 yearsHouse of Representatives 2 yearsGovernors 4 yearsState Senate 6 yearsState HoR 2 yearsCity CouncilCountyCounty Officials eg. Sheriff, eg.State Referendums

Political Parties in the USA

The political scene in the USA is dominated by two major parties the Democrats and the Republicans. All the seats in Congress are occupied by supporters of these two parties.

The Democratic Party

This is the larger of the two parties. There are about twice as many members of the

Democratic Party as there are of the Republican Party. The Democrats have held the majority in the House of Representatives since the New Deal era in the 1930s.

They are supporters of the free enterprise system but they are prepared to introduce what they see as necessary reform and controls. Because of this they are sometimes compared with the Labour Party in Britain however a more useful comparison would be the Liberal Democrats as the whole spectrum of politics is much further to the right in America than in Britain.

Democrats get most of their support from, farmers, blacks and other minorities, north eastern city dwellers and trade unions.

The emblem of the Democrats is the mule or ass. This is presumably because of its roots as the farmers party.

The Republicans

This is traditionally the party of big business. " What's good for business is good for America " could be a slogan of the Republicans. They would like to see Government interfering as little as possible with business. This was the policy carried out by Reagan, the so-called Reaganomics.

The Republicans have little chance of winning a majority of seats in the House of Representatives but they do sometimes win a majority in the Senate as many of the small states, which make up the majority of the states of the USA, tend to be Republican.

Of the nine Presidents who have been elected since 1945 four have been Republicans. This shows that party labels mean much less in the USA than they do in Britain.

The emblem of the Republicans is the elephant.

Minorities in the USA

The population of the USA is made up of people from many different backgrounds

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countries and cultures. The motto of the United States is E pluribus unum "out of many people". During the 18th. and 19th. century the majority of arrivals came as immigrants from Europe or as slaves from Africa. In the twentieth century immigrants have arrived from all the other parts of the world.

Immigration 1820-1969 Total number 44 million %Germany 15.8Austria-Hungry 9.9Canada 8.7England 6.9Scotland 1.8Ireland 11.0 Mexico 3.8Scandinavia 5.7Russia 7.0Others 17.0

At one time the USA used to be called the "Melting pot of nations". It was felt that the USA could take people of different languages, cultures and religions, mix them all together and produce Americans. This was a process known as assimilation. On closer inspection this was not what was happening. Firstly, black American, because of racismwere never assimilated into main line American society. Furthermore other groups retained their language and traditions, although being solidly patriotic. Nowadays US society is referred to as being a "salad bowl" of nations. A salad is one dish, but within that dish can be seen the different, distinct vegetables. This is the situation with the different cultural groups in the USA. This is often called a multi-cultural approach.

The USA is perhaps the only country in the Western World that welcomes immigrants and refugees with the population rising 13.1% between 1990 and 2000.

Population of the USA by Race (2000)

Total Population 291 mil. Blacks 12.3%Hispanics (Latinos) 12.5%

American Indians 0.9%Asians 3.6%

Black Americans

Of all the minority groups in the USA today the Blacks face the worst problems of poverty and prejudice. Blacks first came to America as slaves to work the plantations of the Southern States. At the end of the American Civil War 1865 they were freed.

By the 1870s the whites of the Southern States established a system known as Segregation. This system legally separated whites from blacks in the South. The laws which segregated housing, schools, transport and denied Blacks the vote were often called the "Jim Crow Laws". The Jim Crow System existed in the South until the 1960s.

During and immediately after the two World Wars many Blacks had migrated to the cities of the North-east in search of work. Once there they found themselves at the bottom of the social and economic heap due to the racism of the Northern whites.

The Jim Crow System of the Southern States began to be broken down in the 1950s when the Supreme Court ruled that Segregation was unconstitutional. During the '50s and '60s the Civil Rights movement led by Dr. Martin Luther King, campaigned to force the Southern States to abide by the Supreme Court ruling.

In the 1960s President Johnson forced Congress to pass two Acts, the Equal Voting Act and the Civil Rights Act. The effect of these Acts and the Supreme Court ruling was that for the first time in their history Blacks had legal equality with whites and racialist behaviour was outlawed. However these laws could not by themselves give equality to Blacks who for two hundred years had suffered from white racism.

Land Mark Dates for Civil Rights

1954 Brown versus Topeka School Board

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In 1896 the Supreme Court had ruled that segregation in the South was within the constitution as long as there was equal treatment. The case of Brown versus Topeka reversed that judgment. The case was won against segregated schools however the effect was to make any type of segregation unconstitutional.

This case did not lead to the immediate end of segregation. Segregation continued in some places until the middle of the 1960s. Much of the activity of what is known as the Civil Rights Era was young Blacks challenging the segregation laws of the South.

1964 Civil Rights Act

The election of John F. Kennedy to the Presidency in 1961 seemed to offer hope of advancement for Blacks. Just how committed he was to the Civil Rights cause is a matter of some debate. In the election he had gained the support of the majority of the black voters. His assassination in 1963 brought Lyndon Baines Johnson to the Presidency.His expertise of the workings of Congress and his use of the memory of Kennedy enabled him to force through the Civil Rights Act. This Act outlawed discrimination in public places.

1965 Voting Rights Act

In many States and cities Blacks comprised large minorities or outright majorities. In the South in order to deny them the power of the ballot box whites had devised a number ways of stopping them voting. One of the simplest was to levy a Poll Tax. The mainly poor Blacks could not afford to pay the tax and therefore could not vote. This Act outlawed these practises. Blacks could now vote. However, even to this day, too few do. If social justice was to be created in the USA for blacks and other minority groups then they were going to need help. The policy of help that has been pursued in the USA for the last twenty years is called Affirmative Action or Positive Discrimination.

Statistics showing poverty of Black Americans

12% of population Black 50% of prisoners Black Americans completing a college education25% whites 12% blacksLife expectancy in USAWhites 77.2 years Blacks 72.5 years

WHAT IS AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

The policy of Affirmative Action has its origins in the Supreme Court ruling of 1954. Having ruled that it was unconstitutional to have schools for different racial groups in its subsequent ruling the Court went on to rule that where schools were segregated, whether or not it was as the result of deliberate policy, the school authorities must take steps to correct the situation. This led lead to the policy known as bussing.

BUSSING

Because most Blacks live in the ghettos situated in the central areas of the cities while the Whites mainly live in the more affluent suburbs the local schools tend to be either all white or all black. The policy of bussing simply takes half the children from the all white schools and busses them into the all black school while doing the reverse with the Black pupils. In this way a racial mix is achieved.

This policy is very unpopular with many whites. It is criticised for the following reasons:

1. Money is spent on transport rather than education.

2. Although blacks and whites attend the same school there is little evidence that they mix.

3. Many affluent whites simply move their children out of public schools into private schools, other leave the cities. This is called "urban flight" and it causes problem as their tax payments leave with them. Many cities, particularly in the North-east face a shrinking tax base.

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However without Bussing virtually all cities would have all white and all black schools.

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN EMPLOYMENT

The 1964 Civil Rights Act stated that there should be no discrimination in employment. In 1968 a second Civil Rights Act stated that employers should keep a record of the ethnic background of their employees so that they could ensure that the proportion of employees from the different ethnic backgrounds was equal to their proportion in the local community. This was the start of "quotas". Large employers now have to ensure that the proportion of workers they employ and promote is in proportion to the ethnic make up of the community. If it is not then a worker can challenge them in the courts and the courts can order the employers to change his employment practices.

Similarly to bussing, this policy is very unpopular with many whites, as they interpret it as discriminating against them, however the Supreme Court has consistently ruled such practices as being constitution, stating that it is necessary to make up for the "historical racism" suffered by minority groups. Without quotas you would be simply allowing white employers to continue with their discrimination against minority groups.

Affirmative Action in employment has been criticised for the following reasons:

1. It is unfair to whites who are denied employment and promotion in favour of less well qualified minority members.

2. It is "Tokenism". A few of the ablest Minorities are helped while the rest gain little.

3. It is inefficient as it limits employers ability to employ the most able workers.

By 2005 Affirmative Action programmes are in decline.

Blacks and Voting

Until 1964 most Black Americans who lived in the Southern states were denied the vote. Since then the number of Blacks who register for the vote and who actually vote has gradually increased. However as can be seen from the table below there are still too few Blacks who vote.

Why do so few Blacks and other Minorities vote?

Reasons

1. Social Unlike Britain it is up to the individual to register for the vote. Many Americans simply can not be bothered. Poor Blacks who often have a poor education are even less likely to bother. (This possibly also explains the low level of voter turn-out of all Americans)

2. Economic To register for the vote you have to go to the registration office. These offices are usually open during working hours. This suits middle class whites better than working class blacks.

3. Social Many Blacks particularly whose living in the ghettos are now so demoralised that they see little point in voting.

4. Political Because fewer minorities vote, fewer minorities get a chance to stand for election

Voting Registration by Race 1972-1988

1984 1996

Reg. Voted Reg. Voted

White 69.6 61.4 67.7 56.0Black 66.3 55.8 63.5 50.6Hispanic 40.1 32.6 35.7 26.7

Other deprived minority groups are in the same position. Until this situation fewer Blacks or other minority members will be elected to public office than might be the case. many White politicians say that they are unwilling to adopt policies which would help minorities as so few of them vote away.

Hispanics (Latinos)

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By the start of the 20th. century Hispanics will be the largest minority group in the USA outnumbering the Blacks. Hispanics are know found in large numbers throughout the USA. 20% of the population of Chicago is Hispanic. In 1975 23% of Hispanic families were living below the poverty line and half of all Hispanic youths did not graduate from High School. The term Hispanic describes any American whose first or native language is Spanish. This classification covers a wide range of different groups. Hispanics can be divided into:

total pop. % of Hispanics

Mexican origin 8 700 000 59.8Puerto Ricans 2 000 000 13.8Cuban origin 803 226 5.5Others 3 105 447 20.9

source: 1981 Census

The Hispanic population is rising so quickly because of the following factors:

1. An increase in immigration from Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico and other South American countries. They are seeking shelter from repressive government's at home.

2. The birth rate among Spanish Americans is among the highest in the USA. It is 60% higher than Blacks and twice that of Whites.

SPANISH AMERICANS

These are Spanish speaking Americans those ancestors settled in the South West before it became part of the United States.

MEXICAN AMERICANS

The true rate of immigration from Mexico is unknown. Clearly large scale illegal immigration takes place. This has been estimated as being as high as half a million a year. These illegal "wet-backs" find work in low paid agricultural jobs.

It is unlikely that tighter immigration controls would solve the problem of illegals as the

motive force of the immigration, the poverty of Mexico would still remain. The solution, perhaps lies with with taking action against employers who use "wet-back" labour. However such action would be very unpopular with the farming lobby.

PUERTO RICANS

Puerto Rica has been part of the USA since 1900. It is a Territory of the USA. This gives Puerto Ricans the right to enter the USA when they want. As a group they tend to concentrate in the cities of the North East.

Puerto Ricans tend to have larger families than the population as a whole and are more likely to have a family headed by a woman.

Their educational achievement is lower than the population as a whole. This is in part due to language difficulties.

CUBANS

Cubans began to settle in large numbers in Florida in the early 1960s having fled Cuba as political refugees. These early settlers had little trouble settling in as for the most part they possessed skills which were in demand. A more difficult wave of immigrants began in 1980 when the Cuban authorities opened their jalousie and allowed 120 000 Cubans to emigrate to the USA. Their arrival in Florida caused tension in the following ways:

a. The influx of these new settlers was seen as a threat by the blacks. These settlers were mainly poor and unskilled and were seen as undercutting wages.

b. Many whites felt threatened as Florida became increasingly Latin. In 1950 80% of the population was classed as white and 4% Hispanic. By 1985 it was estimated that 42% were white while 43% were Hispanic. In 1981 95% of all people leaving Florida were white.

c. The arrival of so many immigrants straight out of jalousie led to an immediate rise in crime rates. By 1981 three out of the ten most crime ridden cities in the country were is South Florida.

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Amerasians

Asians immigrants are one of the fastest growing groups in the USA. Most of these new migrants are from South east Asia, mainly Korea.

Asian immigrants in America are on the bottom rung of the ladder of opportunity as Blacks, Hispanics and others have been before. The article below explains the rapid progress many of these immigrants are making in American society.

Amerasians are making faster progress up the social ladder than other immigrants before them had and in particular they are quickly passing the position of Black Americans. There are perhaps a number of explanations as to why Black Americans are firmly anchored at the bottom of the social pile in the USA. The reasons may be as follows:

1. Prejudice behaviour in the USA is particularly against Blacks. This is because fro centuries White culture has seen Black culture as alien and inferior. Furthermore many Americans are frightened of Blacks having stereotyped them as "muggers" and "drug addicts".

2. In of the ghettos family life has broken down for Blacks. They, unlike Amerasians do not have the support of a stable family and therefore underachieve.

3. Many Blacks have now fallen so far behind in American society that they form an underclass which is unlikely to improve its position.

Is the position of Minorities improving?

Politics More minorities are being elected to the House of Representatives but are still finding it difficult to be elected to Governorships or the Senate due to white not voting for them. However Coin Powell a Black American became the Secretary of State under George W. Bush and was succeeded by Condeleesa Rich, a Black woman.

Economics About 27% OF Blacks would now be considered to be middle class.

Social Minorities in the USA are now represented in every aspect of American life, BUT too many are still stuck at the bottom of the social, economic and political pile.

2005 Flooding of New Orleans re-opened the debate as it became clear that poor New Orleans citizens were largely abandoned and that most of them were Black

Poverty in the USA

Although the USA is the world's richest country with some three million people who can claim to be dollar millionaires there is also considerable amounts of poverty.

Who are the Poor

It is estimated that a Black American is three times more likely to be living in poverty than a white American. Families headed by a woman are five times more likely to be living in poverty than a family headed by a man. Families where the head of the household has had no more than 8 years of education is 5 times more likely to be living in poverty than a household headed by a college graduate.

Most poor American live in the inner city areas. These are largely areas of old decaying houses. Such areas are often referred to as ghettos. In many cities the Ghettos are almost totally populated by Black Americans. Black Americans were attracted to the cities of the North-east by the prosperity created by the First and Second World Wars. Once there they were trapped at the bottom of the social and economic pile by the racial prejudice of their fellow white citizens. The last twenty years has seen a decline in these cities as the old industries of steel and motor manufacture have declined. Many Americans have migrated to the States of the South-west, to the so-called Sun Belt where many of the high tech industries have established themselves.

This migration has left the cities of the North-east with tremendous social problems as the proportion of poor citizens increases while at the same time the tax base from

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which the city authorities can raise money decreases. For many ghetto dwellers drug abuse, violence and illegitimacy are the norm.

Life in the Ghetto

The oldest part of most American cities is to be found near to there centre. As the city has grown during the 20th. century new houses have been built and the more well-off citizens have moved into them. The old houses of the central area have been taken over by the poorest members of society. These have tended to be the latest of the many groups who have emigrated to the USA. These areas are often referred to as being ghettos. The word ghetto is used to describe an area where a large number of people of the same race or religion live. Usually the housing in such areas is very poor.

Many of the ghettos of the USA are populated almost totally by Black Americans and Puerto Ricans. Conditions in these ghettos are as bad as anything you will find anywhere in the world. A recent report from the United Nations suggested that although most people living in Ghettos in American cities have a higher income than people in the Third World, when live expectancy and quality of life is taken into account then they may well be worse off.

Over the last twenty years conditions in the ghettos have been getting steadily worse. Crime is now uncontrollable.

For males living in the Ghetto being murdered is the most common form of death between the ages of 19-45. The use of drugs is common place with violent gang battle taking place only a few blocks from the White House in Washington over who should control the drug market for the area. It has been suggested that the authorities are reluctant to try and control the sale of drugs because drugs stop the residents of the ghettos from rioting over their living conditions.

The poverty of the ghettos has meant that family live has been seriously damaged. Illegitimacy rates among ghetto dwellers is

much higher than amongst the rest of the population with some experts suggesting that in the worst ghettos it might be as high as 90%.

In 1984 it was estimated that the top 5% in terms of income had three times as much income as the bottom 20%. The official government poverty levels are given below

Poverty Threshold (1999)

Family members Income 1 $8,501 4 $17,029 9 or more $34,417

The median household income was $43,318 In 1999 35.9 million (12.5%) were officially living in poverty. Nine percent of the population were receiving food stamps.

The Rural Poor

The southern states of the USA have always tended to be poorer than the northern states. Much of this dates from the Civil War. In many of the Southern States poor farmers, both Black and White live. For them the American Dream has passed them by. In States such as Arkansas and Tennessee 'share cropping' farmers who rent their farmers in return for a share in the crop live a life of squalor and poverty. Educational standards among these people is appallingly low and malnutrition and related illnesses is common among both Blacks and White.

this area of the USA is sometimes called the bible belt. Fundamentalist religious belief mixes with intolerance, and low educational standards.

Is there a Welfare State in the USA

A Welfare State is defined as a country in which the Government are concerned for the well-being of its citizens. Most Americans would reject such a definition. They would say that the well-being of a citizen was his or her own responsibility. This does not mean that they do not make any provision for the needy. However the attitude behind most of

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their provision is that it is charity and that people should be dissuaded from making claims. Many Americans on Welfare are therefore given Food stamps.

The major form of welfare was Aid to Families with Dependent Children( AFDC). In many states AFDC was only available to families without a male head. This fact is often sighted as a cause of fathers abandoning their families as they are not eligible for help if he remains in the family home. Families receiving ADFC were also eligible for Medicare, that is free health care. The expense of health care is a major cause of poverty in the USA. In 1996 AFDC was replaced by Temporary Assistance for Needy Children (TANF) which imposed time limits and work requirements. (Welfare to Work, ‘tough love)

Some States are experimenting with a welfare system called Work Fare. Under this system the unemployed are expected to take work or training in return for benefits. Such people are expected to work alongside people who are being paid the standard wage.

Health care in the USA

Health care in the USA is generally provided through private health insurance. Most Americans get this benefit from their employer.

However it is estimated that their are 20 million Americans without health insurance. They are:

a. the unemployedb. people with high health risksc. the elderly

They have to depend on Medicaid and Medicare. These are Government funded schemes of variable quality.

The USA spends about 9% of GNP on medical care this compares with %% in Britain. the extra expense is caused by:

a. because insurance companies pay the bills and they can recoup costs through increased premiums their is little incentive to control costs.

b. doctors and nurses are very well paid. In Britain the NHS is a monopoly

employer and can therefore hold down there wages.

In the 1990s Hilary Clinton the President’s wife was appointed to devise a reform of the present system. She failed. This was because the big insurance companies were able to act as a pressure group to stop Congress accepting any change.

Poverty in the USA

1960 40 mil. 22% 1969 24 mil. 12% 1983 35.3 mil 1984 33.7 mil. 14.4%

Unfortunately Reaganomics was not a total success. Although Government spending on Welfare was reduced defence spending went through the roof. This spending was financed by borrowing. Reagan left the USA with massive debts. These debts will have to be repaid over the following years which meant that there was little money available for Welfare spending even if President Bush and Congress had been so minded.

Violent American

One aspect of American life that puzzles many Europeans is their attitude to guns. It has been estimated that Americans own over 200 million guns. Death from gun wounds is now the most common cause of death for American men between the ages of 19-45. Although the Second Amendment to the Constitution talks of the "...right of American citizens to keep and bear arms" they do not have an absolute right to own guns. In some parts of the USA gun controls are very strict. However there are so many illegally owned guns that even in these States it would be relatively easy to obtain a gun.

Any politician who suggested a national strengthening of the gun laws would have to deal with the opposition of a pressure group called the National Rifle Association. Millions of Americans belong to this organisation and its main aim is to oppose any control on guns. It is highly organised and enjoys the support of many politicians including ex-

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President Ronald Reagan, who incidentally was nearly killed in 1980 when shot by a young man.

Opponents of controls on the sale and ownership of guns present the following arguments:

1. Shooting for sport in a leisure activity enjoyed by hundreds of Americans. These sportsmen are worried that any restriction on gun ownership would affect their sport.

2. "If guns were outlawed only outlaws would have guns" Many Americans fear that restrictions in gun ownership would lead to criminals being able to terrorise unarmed citizens.

3. Americans lay great stress on the responsibility of the individual to look after and protect himself and his family. Gun ownership is one way of doing this.

The availability of guns either legally or illegally is clearly a major factor in the high rates of violent crime in the USA. One of the main reasons why guns are still readily available in many states of the USA is the activities of a Pressure Group called the National Rifle Association. This Pressure Group campaigns against any state which proposes to impose stricter controls over the ownership of guns.

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Syllabus Area ThreeEurope

Concept : NEED AND POWER

Needs of European NationsPeace, Economic Prosperity, DecomcracySecurity

After WWII, relations between USA and USSR were very tense -KNOWN AS THE COLD WAR.

Difference between East and West1. Ideology - Communism and Capitalism2. Occupation of Eastern Europe3. Development of Nuclear Weapons -ARMS

RACE

NATO_ Security Need

Founded 1949 in response to what was seen as Soviet aggression in Europe. (Berlin Blockade) - membership consisted of Western Europe, America and CanadaAim: Military Alliance, Members promised to assist each other in the event of an attack.

WARSAW PACT

Membership consisted of USSR and East Europe.Aim:Military Alliance, Designed to counter what the Soviet Union saw as the threat from the West.

Cold War ended in the mid 80’s, Gorbachev leader of the Soviet Union could no longer afford to maintain level of spending on defence (economy on the brink of collapse). His policies of Glasnost and Perestroika resulted in major changes in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and the Warsaw Pact.Communism collapsed and the Warsaw Pact was abolished in 1991.

Due to the end of the Warsaw Pact its been argued that NATO is no longer needed.

Arguments for NATO

1. Very successful in the past from preventing a major European War.

2. It could contribute to international Peacekeeping force with the UN.

3. Situation in East Europe unstable (Yugoslavia).

4. Gives former members of the Warsaw Pact or former states of the USSR security against future aggression by Russia.

Arguments against NATO

1. NATO formed to protect West Europe from the threat of Soviet Expansion, this threat no longer exists.

2. Europe should develop their own security systems to meet European needs. The USA is no longer needed.

3. If the former allies of the Soviet Union are admitted Russia itself might become more nervous. It should be remembered that the Soviet Union/Russia has been invaded twice in the 20th Century by Western Europe.

Problem for NATO post the Cold War

During the Cold War it was an organisation consisting of fifteen stable democratic countries who had one aim that being to protect the West from the Soviet Union. It fulfilled this aim by organising its fighting forces to fight an all out conventional and possible nuclear war in Europe which never happened. No serviceman serving with NATO was killed in action during the Cold War. Post the Cold War it is likely to be a collection of more than fifteen countries some of which are new democracies. These countries will have a variety of aims which they are seeking from NATO. NATO troops are likely to be killed which will have political consideration. NATO itself will have to retrain and reequip for more limited war or “policing activities”. Each of the member states will have different views and expect ions of any NATO action.

Why do many of the countries of Eastern Europe wish to join NATO?

1. NATO would offer them protection against Russia if it were ever to become powerful and aggressive again.

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2. NATO would offer protection if it were to be attacked by any of its neighbours.

By 2004 most of the countries of Europe except Russia had either joined or are seeking to join NATO.

ARMS RACE

Arms Controls Treaties in 1980s and 1990s

1. Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) in 1988 removed all Intermediate nuclear weapons from Europe.

2. Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty - major cuts in non-nuclear weapons.

3. Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty - reduced strategic (long range) weapons.

However it could be argued that Europe is now a less stable area than during the Cold War

1. The break-up of the Soviet Union has left a number of poor unstable countries two of which have nuclear weapons.

2. The condition of the nuclear arsenal of Russia is a cause for concern.

3. Local ethnic disputes which were kept under control by the Soviet Union are now breaking out. Eg. Chechnya

4. Many Soviet Nuclear scientists are now unemployed or under paid. They might be hired by countries trying develop nuclear weapons eg. Iraq.

What is Problems in the Balkins?

End of Soviet Domination in East Europe has resulted in new tensions in Europe.

Break-up of Yugoslavia.

Formerly six republics_ Slovenia, (relatively peacefully) Bosnia, Croatia broke away from Yugoslavia (Serbia). Civil War started in both breakaway republics. Kosov, was part of Serbia and was considered by Serbians as the heart of their country. However the majority of Kosovans are Muslims. Civil War broke out in the area in 1999.

a. Ethnic Cleansing (clearing captured areas of their ethnic population)

b. Displaced people c. Civil War

Response of International Community

United Nations - Monitoring cease fires, peace keeping duties and distributing aid. Established “safe havens”.European Community have tried to bring about talks, but so far failed to bring about a lasting cease fire.

Both the EU and NATO have been slow to react to the situation in the Balkans. This is perhaps due to the following:

1. The sympathies of NATO members varies to some extent. This can be because of geography or historic ties.

2. NATO members are afraid they will make commitments which will tie them into the area for years.

The War against Terrorism

Since the terrorist attack on the Twin Towers in 2001 the countries of Europe have had to prepare themselves for terrorist attacks. Europe has been badly split by the US led invasion of Iraq with Britain, Spain and Poland joining the invasion coalition while France and Germany have not. This has led to very ‘cool’ relations between these countries and the US. The USA and Britain see this invasion and the invasion of Afghanistan as part of the War Against Terrorism.

Spain has suffered serious terrorist attacks with the bombing of Madrid railway station by Al Qaeda and many people feel that it can only be a matter of time until Britain is attacked. To this end Britain has passed a number of laws which restrict the rights of foreign nationals in the country.

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EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

1957 signing of the Treat of Rome established a European Community between member states. Allowed member states to remove barriers to trade such as custom duties and tariffs.The eventual aim is to establish a community which is united Politically, Economically and Socially.

The benefits that member states gain from EU membership are:

PEACE Trade between members makes them interdependent making war between them impossible. PROSPERITY Trade between members makes them richer DEMOCRACY All members must be democracies

Trade = Wealth

When two countries trade with each other they effectively swap the things they are good at making for the things they are bad at making. Because there are no trade barriers (taxes) between members of the EU then the members have greatly increased the amount of trade between them. This has made them all much better off.

What is the European Community?

1. A Common Market No member country can stop another member from trading with it. 2. European Citizenship Citizens of any one member country have the rights of citizenship in any other member country.

Issues in the European Union

Single Currency

All the member nations of the EU except Britain, Sweden, Denmark belong to the EURO.

Advantages of the Euro

a. There will be no expense involved in changing money. Probably costs between 3-5% to change money. This

will make travelling in the EU easier and will make trade easier.

b. It will be easier to compare prices within the EU. This will make the EU more competitive and should bring prices down.

Disadvantages of the Euro

a. Loss of Sovereignty National governments will no longer be able to set their own interest rates. This is a major way in which governments control their economies. Interest rates will be set by the European Central Bank for the whole of the EU.

b. Interest rates will be set as an average for the whole of the EU. If your country is not average then your economy might suffer. This might be the case for Britain which is not really an average EU member.

Enlargement of the EU

In 2003 there are 15 members of the EU. In May 2004 this will be enlarged to 25 when 10 new members join. Most of these new members are former members of the Soviet Block (Eastern Europe)

Advantages of the new members joining

a. Membership will bring peace, prosperity and democracy to these countries. Eastern Europe was the starting place of both the First and Second World Wars. All of Europe and the world will benefit from these places being members.

b. As these countries become richer they will provide new markets for the older member states.

c. The new members might help to control the EU problems with drug and people smuggling.

Disadvantages of Enlargement

a. Most of the new members are poor. Some are very poor. The EU Regional and Social Fund will have to divert money from the poor areas of the EU such as Scotland, Portugal and Southern Italy to these new areas.

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b. The EU will be more complicated to run. It will be much bigger and there will be more languages spoken.

c. Citizens from the new poor members might wish to move into the rich countries of the north-west. They will be welcome to fill the low paid jobs that many rich countries cannot fill but will be less welcome if they wish to take advantage of their social security systems.

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

CAP creates stable price sand stable quantities for staple foods.

France likes this policy because she has twice the land area of the UK and 3 to 4 times as many farmers. Money that the French sent to the EU is returned to their farmers.Britain dislikes the policy:

1. It costs too much. 51%+ of all the EU money goes CAP. Our food is dearer because of it.

2. CAP produces more food than the EU needs. This uses more fertilisers and pesticides which is damaging to the environment.

3. When the CAP produces more food than it needs it dumps the excess on the world market. This lowers the price that many poor farmers in the Developing World get for their produce eg. Sugar.

N.B. Poland is an excellent example of a country which has achived its needs through membership of the EU and NATO.

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Politics of Aid

The world can be divided into Rich North (Developed Countries,

industrialised nations)Poor South (Developing Nations, poorest

called Lest Developed Nations, agricultural nations industrialising nations)

This comes about due to Colonialism. During the 18th 19th. and first half of the 20th centuries the industrialised countries of Europe conquered most of the rest of the world. In Africa, Asia and South America they established Colonies. The purpose of these colonies was to provide the raw materials that they needed for their industries. The colonies were run to meet the needs of the colonial masters, not the people who lived in the colony. By 1900 virtually the whole of the continent of Africa was divided into colonies run by the British, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Germans and Belgians and Italians. After the Second World War the people who lived in these colonies began to win their independence from their colonial rulers. Colonialism is also sometimes known as Imperialism. (see Rich North) During the 18th 19th. and first half of the 20th centuries the industrialised countries of Europe conquered most of the rest of the world. In Africa, Asia and South America they established Colonies. The purpose of these colonies was to provide the raw materials that they needed for their industries. The colonies were run to meet the needs of the colonial masters, not the people who lived in the colony. By 1900 virtually the whole of the continent of Africa was divided into colonies run by the British, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Germans and Belgians and Italians. After the Second World War the people who lived in these colonies began to win their independence from their colonial rulers. Colonialism is also sometimes known as Imperialism. )

Many countries from the North help countries in the South for social, economic and political reasons:

social : governments and citizens in the countries of the north feel that

they have a moral duty to help poor people in the south.

economic: by helping the countries of the south develop their economies the rich countries of the north create new markets for their products.

political: Governments of countries from the north want to have the support of poor countries in the south. This was particularly the case during the Cold War when each side tried to influence poor countries in the south by giving them aid.

Trade between North and South organised to favour North. a. South provides raw materials for North.

Manufactured goods from South face tariffs(taxes) to stop them exporting to North.

b. North produces inefficient food rather than buy from South eg. sugar. Often it dumps excess on world market forcing prices down.

c. Arms Trade Rich North sells weapons to the South. Arms production a major industry in North.

d. North sells products such as powdered baby milk and tobacco products to South.

Aid from North to South

Bilateral___ one country gives to another . Often the aid is given with strings attached. It is often called “tied aid” (bad)Multi-lateral Trade___ trade distributed through a multinational organisation eg. United Nations (good)

Types of Aid

1. Emergency_ help given in emergencies eg famines, natural disasters N.B. famine in Africa is caused by War__ Africans have always had to deal with crop failures--”Joseph and the Amazing Techni-coloured Dream Coat”

2. Development__ Help to develop the country. Problems:a. Often bilateral aid. Strings attached.

Must purchase equipment from donor

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country, which often can be too high tech. (Intermediate technology)

b. Green Revolution__ encourage production of “cash crops” to produce foreign currency to buy equipment to industrial. Fluctuation in the world prices of raw materials can leave country no foreign currency and no food crops.

c. Much aid is in the form of loans. Risen in interest rates and falls in world prices can leave the country unable to repay the loans. At present there is more money paid by the Developing World in loan repayment than there is money going from the Developed World to the Developing World in Aid.

Solution to North/South Divide

1. Allow manufactured goods from the South into the North. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GAT_ this is part of the United nations Organisation. Since 1948 it has been trying to negotiate reductions in tariff barriers between countries. Such reductions are particularly important to Third World countries as their manufactured goods face considerable tariff barriers when they try to import their manufactured goods into the countries of the Developed World. In the present round of the World Trade Organisation WTO (formally GATT) talks the USA and the EU had great difficulty over the question of subsidising agricultural production. The USA is one of the most efficient agricultural producers has difficulty selling its grain to countries belonging to the EU because their inefficient producers can undercut US prices because of subsidies from the EU.

2. Distribute Aid through the UNO. This would avoid the problems of “Tied Aid”. Developed Countries have also promised to contribute 0.7% of their GNP to aid. few do son.

Specialist Agencies of the United Nations

These Agencies are seen as being “good” as they are “multi-national” aid providers.

World Health Organisation WHO improves health standards throughout world.Food and Agricultural Organisation FAO improve agricultural methods and standards throughout the worldUnited Nations Scientific Cultural and Educational Organisation UNESCO improves education in worldUnited Nations International Childrens' Fund UNICEF provides emergency relieve.

Case Study of an African Country: Sierra Leone Industry: diamonds

Situation: West AfricaColonial Ruler: Britain until 1961Population:4.9 millionLiteracy:36%Live expectancy: 34.5 yearsAccess to safe water: 57%Infant mortality: 182/1000Industry: diamonds, bauxite

History

Since independence it has struggled to maintain a democratic government. At present 2005 the government is democratic.

Among the aid agencies working in the country are:UN Specialist Agencies

UNICEF working with former child combatants from civil war.

UNICEF trying to improve immunisation rates for measles.

Other Agencies often called Non-Government Organisations (NGOs)

Oxfam Helping farmers with insecticides and fertilisers.

Christian Aid Work with HIV/Aids sufferers.

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