Separate & Unequal

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SEPARAE AND UNEQUALHow Higher Education Reinorces the Intergenerational

Reproduction o White Racial Privilege

July


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AcknowledgementsW wd k x d dvd d z v d b.F, w k B & Md G Fd, L Fd, d Jy Fd v w y. I , w DG d E M B & Md G Fd, J M d Hy Zv L Fd, d Wy S Jy Fd. W d b dy d A.

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W wd k k Cdy Dk d J C Gz vd b dd y ; J C d Eq P d d v wk; Ny Lw d S S Sk d d y d, d d wk b ; d vy M, , y M O d Ky.

O k , w w v : Adw H d AG vd d d ; N S dS J. R b b d d d d; Ad P d d d d ; A C w d vdv ; d Adw Db bb . Fy, w w k y , w vdd d .

My v bd d dbk d . T d,

, , d vw by .

Te views expressed in this publication are those o the authors and do not necessarily represent those o the Bill &Melinda Gates Foundation, Lumina Foundation, or the Joyce Foundation, their ocers, or employees.


6/61Separate and Unequal

able o ContentsList o Illustrations

Introduction

Part 1.Arican Americans and Hispanics Access to Postsecondary Education Is Increasing,but Racial Polarization Is Growing at the Same ime.

Part 2.Racial and Ethnic Polarization In Postsecondary Education Matters BecauseResources Matter.

Part 3.Te Racial Bias In Postsecondary Education Persists Even When Accounting orCollege Readiness.

Part 4.Both Race and Class Matter In Determining Postsecondary Outcomes, but Raceand Class Are Not the Same Ting.

How Do We Choose?

Endnotes

Appendix A. Data and Barrons Selectivity.

Appendix B.Enrollments, Enrollment Flows, and Disproportionality inEnrollments.

Appendix C. Low Hanging Fruit High Achieving Minority Students WhoEither Dont Complete or Dont Attend College.

Bibliography

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List o IllustrationsFigure 1. Whites with a college-educated parent are three times as likely to earn a Bachelors degree as AricanAmericans and Hispanics with a parent who dropped out o college or earned an Associates degree.

Figure 2. Between 1995 and 2009, postsecondary enrollment grew signicantly or Arican Americans and His-

panics compared to whites.

Figure 3. Between 1995 and 2009, enrollments in the top colleges grew at a rate nearly our times that o theopen-access colleges.

Figure 4. Te white share o enrollment in open-access schools plummeted 12 percentage points.

Figure 5. New white student enrollments have owed to the 468 most selective colleges while Arican-Americanand Hispanic student enrollment growth has been conned mostly to open-access schools.

Figure 6. White students captured most o the enrollment growth at the top schools (72%) but had no enrollmentincreases at the open-access schools. Arican Americans and Hispanics captured virtually all the enrollment growth atthe open-access, two- and our-year colleges (92%) but very little o the enrollment growth at the 468 most selective

colleges (17%).

Figure 7. Relative to their declining share o the youth population, whites are overrepresented at the top schools;relative to their growing share o the youth population, Arican Americans and Hispanics are underrepresented.

Figure 8. Te 82 most selective colleges spend almost ve times as much and the most selective 468 colleges spendtwice as much on instruction per student as the open-access schools.

Figure 9. Recipients o Bachelors degrees rom the top schools get graduate degrees at a rate o more than one and ahal times that o similar graduates rom open-access colleges.

Figure 10. Equally qualied students have a higher graduation rate at the more selective schools with better resources.

Figure 11. Arican-American and Hispanic students with above average SA/AC scores graduate at a rate o 73percent rom the top colleges, compared with a graduation rate o 40 percent at the open-access schools.

Figure 12. Tere are 111,000 Arican Americans and Hispanics who graduate rom the top hal o the nations highschools but do not graduate college; 62,000 o them come rom the bottom hal o the amily income distribution.

Figure 13. Among students with an A average in high school, 30 percent o A rican-American and Hispanicstudents attend community college, compared to 22 percent o white students.

Figure 14. Regardless o SA/AC scores, whites have higher graduation rates or certicates and degrees (Associ-ates, Bachelors, and graduate degrees) than equally qualied Arican Americans and Hispanics.

Figure 15. High-scoring whites, Arican Americans, and Hispanics attend college at the same rate.

Figure 16. High-scoring white students complete college at a much higher rate than similarly qualied AricanAmericans or Hispanics.

Figure 17. High-scoring white students who earn a postsecondary award earn a Bachelors degree or better moreoten than Arican Americans or Hispanics.

Figure 18. Te Bachelors degree is the threshold where racial and ethnic diferences in educational attainment beginto decline.

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Separate and Unequal:How Higher

Education Reinorcesthe Intergenerational

Reproduction o WhiteRacial Privilege



Introduction

W y bbd y bb y vd

vy-vd . T d d yd K-12 d y y dd A d v.1 R w- d -y d vy y 4,400 yzd dy ( dx A).2

Ev k w z v d v- . W d yd dy, v , 468 w-dd, v -y d v w A-A dH d d d 3,250 w-dd, -, w- d-y .3

Te American postsecondary system is a dual system oracially separate and unequal institutions despite the

growing access o minorities to the postsecondary system.Pz by d y dy y b K-12 qy d x d . T dy y d d qy d K-12y d j qy bk.

Te education system is colorblind in theory. In act,it operates, at least in part, as a systematic barrierto college or many minorities who nish high schoolunprepared or college. It also limits college andcareer opportunities or many Arican Americans and

Hispanics who are well prepared or higher educationbut tracked into crowded and underunded collegeswhere they are less likely to develop ully or to graduate.I d z bb x Ad y K-12 d d

w dy y.4

Te polarization o the postsecondary system mattersbecause resources matter. T 468 v

d yw w v d. H d v d d , d d ,d b b k,w w w, A-A,d H d w qy qd bd v . G dy d w dd 468 v b b k dv, d $2 d d , d d jb, w b d w.5

Auent white students as well as prestige seeking our-year colleges are owing to the top tiers o selectivitywhile lower income minority students are ooding lowtuition, open-access, two- and our-year institutions. Idd, w b d v w, b -, -y d v vy . T dy d d d v d vwd d dd d - (dx A d dx B, b 1 d 4).

Te postsecondary system is more and more complicitas a passive agent in the systematic reproduction owhite racial privilege across generations. M w b d v by vd y dd d dv d. H by xv bb w b d d . T yybw w v dd d by v k


10/61Separate and Unequal8

d d dd d .6 A , y d d by dvd.7

Preparation or higher education matters in allocatingaccess and success at the 468 most selective colleges,but its not the whole story. D ,, d v qyqd w, A A, d H.T v k K-12 A A d H d xy w d dy d bq .

T dy y d y

qd w d A-A Hd qy d by b dvdy d w vb . My AA d H d ,b w w qy d dy . Mv, A-A d H d w d dy kd wddd ddd w-y d --y . T dy y v

b b qd d wy d w d d .

Arican American and Hispanics access to postsecondaryeducation over the past 15 years is a good news/bad news story. T d w AA d H d b dy d. T bd w b d v v v w .

T b b A A d

H dy vd kdy d 468 d y 1990. B bw 1995 d 2009, 10 w w d v 468 v d v 10 w A-A d H dv 3,250 -, w- d -y .9

Sy, w b

v d w -. E v d bd w y (78%), d dd -qy dyd; v jy w w w d. A -, -y w b y w (21%), b y w d , d wd d w d.

M 30 A Ad H w d v (GPA) 3.5 y d w 22 w w GPA ( . 13).

A A-A d H d w 1200 b 1600 SA/AC, 57 vy , A d, B d b; w d 77 ( . 14).8

A A-A d H d w bw 1000 d1200 SA/AC, 47 A A d 48 H , A

d, B d bd w 68 w.

A A-A d H d w bv 1200 SA/AC, 57 AA d 56 Hd w , Ad, B d bd w 77 w ( . 14).



S 1995, 82 w w v 468 v ,w 72 w H d 68 w A-A

v w-y d -y - .



A v w, w 468 d, d w - dd v w - ( 18-24). Cvy, v w A A d

H 468 v dd w A-A d H 3,250 - d v -.

T z dy d w,A-A, d H v - . Wv d 468

v - ( dx B dd y).

T w 3,250 -, w- d -y ddv w -

.

T A A dH 468 dd v - .

T A-A d H 3,250 -, w- d -y d v - .

I 1995, w - w 68 , d w 468 w 77, 9 dv v .

By 2009, w - w 62 d w 468 w75 , 13 dv v d 4 w - ( . 7 d dxB).

I 1995, A-A d H - w27 , d 468 w 12 , 15 d d w .

By 2009, A-A d H - w 33, d

468 w 15 , 18 d v d d 3 w - .

I 1995, A-A d H - w 27, d 3,250 -, w- d -y w 24 , 3 d v .

By 2009, w - w 62 d w 3,250 -,w- d -y w 57 , 5 d

v d d 6 w -.

I 1995, w - w 68 d w 3,250 -,w- d -y w 69 , b bw d .



College readiness is important in explaining lowcompletion rates, but the polarization o resources inthe higher education system is one o the root causes oincreasing college dropout rates and increasing timerequired to complete degrees. F vy 300 d, dy d w d200 d.10 T 468 v -y 82 ,

d w 49 -, w-d -y ( . 10). Vy d d wdw d - ; b b y wdd dddd.11

A A d H ky -, w- d -y d ky v B d b b . Uy d w d

d dd y v d d.

Tis dynamic leads to signicant loss o talent amongminorities and lower-income students. T dy d 240,000 dvy y, w d d b db, d w- -yd w y d . T d w y (62,000)

-, w- d AA H ( dx C).

M 111,000 A A d Hw d y d v w- -y dw y. I d d dd 468 d dd , 73 d v dd ( . 11 d . 12).

Whites, Arican Americans, and Hispanics who score inthe top hal o the SA/AC test score distribution go tocollege at the same rate (90%). Yet whites have higher

graduation rates and graduate school attendance becausethey attend more selective colleges.

A d w

- db dd :

Access to the 468 most selective our-year colleges andtheir greater completion rates are especially important to

Arican Americans and Hispanics.

A w d :

By 2009, A-A d H - w 33, d 3,250 -, w- d -y w 37 , 4 v

v .

Ty w d dw 48 A-A d d 51 Hd d d ; d

Fy-v w d B d b d wy 37 A-A d36 H d.

M 81 w B d b d w

72 AA d H; d

L 19 w w A d dw y 27 A Ad H.

A A d H 21 dv w yd v dw 15 w w d .12



Moreover, this studys data support the axiom that theBachelors degree is the crucial postsecondary threshold

or racial and ethnic equality. W, A-A, d H d w dw B d 468 v d .

A A d H w d wB d - d y (23%) w (20%).

Stratication by income is strong. E d d by qk ( Cv d S, 2010). H-d w 45 vdd v w w d w y 15

vd. A-A d Hd w dd v, v by 9 ; w- d w ddby 20 . W , d k wy d .

Race- and class-based inequalities in education overlapconsiderably, but race has a unique negative eect oncollege and career opportunities. A Ad H y vb -bd ddv b y d w- d b y

d b y d y y.

A A d H y d bd, v dvd y . A , v dd w v w- d v , b , d d v.15 H, dy d by

qy d d b w v d w.

T d by, d, y d AA d H ( . 1). I w d w dd byd , A-A d H d d (34% v. 27%), b A d (21% v.

18%), d d B d (8%v. 14%).

A d d b v w. A A dH b w d . A d w v d B d,A-A d H d d d w y dw d (15% v. 7%), d

(37% v. 25%), d d w B d b (35% v. 58%)( . 1).

Exb b w- d A-Ad H d y d w. Cd w w

A A A d Hw SA/AC- db, w d 468 d 73 d w 40 qy qd w d - ( . 11).

O-d - A Ad H w B d 468 d dd w 23 wd - ( . 18).13

A A d H b v v w

v dd bw v .14



d w b db, A A (55%) dH (59%) d w (45%) w A A

w vy (24% v.17%). Lw- w ky dw B d (23%) w-A A (12%) d H (13%).16

Figure 1.W w -dd ky Bd A A d H w w dd d A d.

SOURCE: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk d N EdLd Sdy(NELS) 1988/2000

High schoolor less

College dropout/Associates degree

Bachelorsdegree +

Parents Education

Arican American and Hispanic

White

41%

18%

19%15%

7%37%

27%

35%

46%

37%25%

34%

18%

16% 16%

12%

10%

21%

14%

31%20%

35%58%

8%

Bachelors degree

or better

Certifcate/Associatesdegree

College dropout

Do not attend college

Percentages show the attainment level othe next generation



I d y k w d d d dv b,b vd b vy d d y d w b. T d ddv , , d

y d.T wy -bd -bd ddv x ,k d w, y , d, d , x d.

Cvy, b v ddv. A x wd b k v xy bw v -bd v : T

dd v , bd Grutter v. Bollingerd d Fisher v. Universityo exas, dvy d b b d dd d. B , d dvy w d . S w- w v x v y, w d y d

10 .T x 10- d b w b dvy x dy y b dd d d d .



Part 1.

Arican Americansand Hispanics Access to

Postsecondary Education

Is Increasing, but RacialPolarization Is Growingat the Same ime



A A d H dy d w. S

1995,A-A d H

v d by 73 d 107, vy, d w 15 w .

73%

107%

15%

Hispanic

Arican American

White

Netnew

reshman

enrollmentgrowthatall

postsecondaryinstitutions,1995-2009

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk Id PdyEd D Sy (IPEDS) d; v y

Figure 2. Bw 1995 d 2009, dy w y AA d H d w.



Netnew

reshmanenrollmen

tgrowth,1995-2009

T d dy d 10 d w d 4 A A d H by 2009. A , w w 63

; A A, 16 ; d H,13 ( dx B).

A y d, dy z b vy . E w 468 w 78 w wd vy w, w 92 w - w w w j 21 , w A-

A (48%) d H (44%) d (dx B).

32%

78%

21%

468 most selective our-year colleges

All Title IV postsecondary institutions

Open-access, two- and our-year colleges

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk IPEDS d (v y) dN C Ed S (NCES) B

Ad Cv Idx D F

Figure 3. Bw 1995 d 2009, w y - .



Whites captured the growth in the top 468 colleges,while shiting out o the open-access institutions.

Arican Americans and Hispanics moved into theseats vacated by whites in the open-access institutions.T dy w d dd 12

- w A-A dH d by 6 d7 , vy.

-12

6

7Arican American

White

Hispanic

Netnew

reshman

enrollme

ntgrowth

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk IPEDS d (v y) dN C Ed S (NCES) B

Ad Cv Idx D F.

Figure 4.T w - d 12 .

T w d, d 69 57 .

T A A w 14 20 ; H, 10 17 .



W v d d 468 -y . A w v dd 73 63 , w d w -. T A A

d H dv. By 2009, w:

Te racial polarization has intensied rapidly as whitestudents have captured the new enrollment ows to

the 468 most selective colleges, cementing their historicoverrepresentation in the nations best schools (see g.5). Arican-American and Hispanic students havebeen let behind in open-access, two- and our-year

schools since 1995.

W 75 ;

A A 7 ; d

H 8 .

Ey-w w w b 468 v -y .

By , y 9

A-A d d13 H d v d .

Cvy, v d, 68 d 72 , vy, w A A dH v b -, w- d-y .

Figure 5. Nw w d v wd 468 v w A-A d H d w b d y - .

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk IPEDS d (v y) dNCES B Ad Cv Idx D F.



White

Arican AmericanHispanic

82%

9%

68%

13%

72%

0%

Share of net new freshman enrollment

growth, 1995-2009



233,000 d, 34 , w;

186,000 d, 28 , A A; d

192,000 d, 29 , H.

Figure 6. S 1995, w d d w (72%) b d - . A A d H d vy w -, w- d -y (92%) b vy w 468 v (17%).


Open-access two- and our-year colleges

468 most selective colleges

White

Arican American

Hispanic

A A d H d d ddd, wdd, -,w- d -y . A vy A A d , 72 d -dd .T dy d y d

v y A A dH by k ddy ; 74 H -, w- d -y ( dx B).

A wy vw wz j k. O 254,000 w 468 1995, 182,000, 72, w w . A

A d 17,000 d H 25,000 17 w . Tis occurred at the same time overallenrollment gains or whites, Arican Americans, and

Hispanics were relatively similar (see g. 6):

72%

44%

48%

7%

10%

92%



Comparing enrollments to youth population shares, thispolarization is even more evident. I 2009, w 468 w 75, 13 bv 62 w (d 18-24y). Cvy, w -

w 57 , 5 w . F A Ad H, w vy d 15 d 18

y , d. A A w ddby 8 dvd by 5 - . H w 10 dd d 1

dd - .(S dx B dd d dy d dy.)



13%

-5% -8%

-10%

-1%

5%

White

Arican American

Hispanic

Figure 7.A 2009, v y , w w vd ; v w y , A A d H wdd.




T dy y d q b 468 , ddby w d, v d v . T d v b d d d b . I vwdd, ddd,

- y, w A A dH v d , d w; d v w A d; w d; d v - vd b.



Part 2.Racial and EthnicPolarization in

Postsecondary Education

Matters BecauseResources Matter.



R, d, d v b v vy 1995. W v bv k, xv,

vd, - , bd, , 468 ( d 12). T 250,000 w d d v

w y d d k-w w.Ov d 140 v vd v , B , 326 1995 468 2009. A db , v d w .

A 300,000 d v vd w-dd, - b -, -y , b d

v dd. Cwd w-d,- d v d w v q yw d v ( dxA, d dx B, b 1 d 4).

T d qy qd w, A A, dH dv A-A d H d wdd, ddd, -, w- d

-y . Sd d dy d d

v dv dd dd d d v yA A d H d .

A q w ,d, d , w d q

y v vvd dy y.W d v d vy b . Cd 3,250 -, w- d -y , 468 v vd dby d, d d , w dd d, d , d y vd w d d

( . 8).T dy d y xd y vy d d d v d d. T dvd ( w , , d dvy) bw v d -, w- d -y .Sv vd dby d, d - - y , ,

d d , v qy qd d.

$6,000

$27,900

$13,400




I

nstructionalcosts

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk D C Pj d (v

y) d NCES B AdCv Idx D F.

Figure 8.T 82 v d v y dd v 468 d w d - .



T d v dy :

T 82 v -y d

$27,900 d y ; T 468 v d

$13,400 y dv $6,000 qv (FE)d xd - ;

T 468 v-y 82 , d w49 -, w- d -y;

Gd v d d qy qdd;

A - , d w dw SA v 1200 dd d 48 ,d w 26 y qd d w dd -, -y ; d

Ty-v d - b d d w10 y b B d,d w 21 d

- ( . 9 d . 10).

Figure 9. R B d d d d - .

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk

IPEDS d (v y) d NCES BAd Cv Idx D F.



35%

21%

Graduatedegreeattainment



Ad y v d,d , b d d d - . T d d dbq b d d

dv. T d

v , w b w d w.Arican Americans and

Hispanics clearly benet by going to selective institutionseven when their test scores are substantially below the

institutional averages at those schools (see g. 11).

Figure 10. Eqy qd d v d v w b .

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d d NCES B

Ad Cv Idx D F.

All students

49%

82%

84%

87%

52%

58%

1000+

1200+

1200+


468mos

tselectivecolleges

Completionrate

SAT/ACT



I d, q dv w d, wd , d . T d w x d . Cd

dd by d b Bd b y 26 ,w d dd by w d d PD B d b 73 ( d 7).

Figure 11.A-A d H d w bv v SA/AC d 73 , d w d 40 - .

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d d NCES B

Ad Cv Idx D F.



73%

40%

Completionrate



Part 3.Te Racial Biasin Postsecondary

Education PersistsEven When Accountingor College Readiness.



Cd w qy qd w d,A-A d H d y v dy

d , b dd 468 , B d, d d d.

C d y xd A-A d Hd v d. B dyd y w , v d - A A dH y- w b d d ky d w B d.

T dy d . Tdy y d y 111,000A-A d H d d d b d w y d ( . 12). T

, 56 , - AA d H, w w 37 - w d. Ab 62,000 - A A d H b y db (dx C).

Figure 12.T 111,000 A A d H w d b d d ; 62,000 b y db.

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d.

Hispanic and Arican-American high-scoring students

who do not graduate rom college

Bottom hal o the amily income

distribution

Top hal o the amily incomedistribution

62,000

49,000



Race and ethnicity also matter in the type o institutionattended, even among equally qualied students. Ab53 w d w d - w-d- y 2009 v 72 A-A d d 74 H d ( dx B).

F 13 w v d w GPA 3.5 (A d), A-A d H

d d w-y . Ty

A A d H d 22

w d w-y . J by v,

wy x wy

, y A A, d wd

w d A d,

w d dd w y qd d w

B d b ( . 14).

Figure 13.A d w A v , 30 A-A d Hd d y , d 22 w d.

S: A Pw S U.S. D Ed, NCES,2007-08 N Pdy Sd AdSd (NPSAS:08)

White students

Arican-American and Hispanic students

30%

22%Share

oAstudentswhoattend

communitycolleges



Sd - db d dy , d dy, b v w dw qy qd :

Figure 14. Rd SA/AC , w v d d d(A, B, d d d) qy qd A A H.

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d

White

Hispanic

Arican American

68%

77%

57%

56%

47% 48%

1000-1200

12

00+

Completionra

te(certifcate,

AA,andBA

orbetter)

W, A-A, d Hd (90%)

( . 15);

A w , 70 w d , Ad, B d b; 52 A-A d 49 H d d ( .16);

A - d w d , 9 A-A d d d j v 6 H d d 5 w d. ( dx C); d

A - dw , A d, B d, 81 w b B d b, w 72 A A d 73 H b B d b( . 17).



Figure 15.

H- w, A A, dH d .

Figure 16.

H- w y qdA A H

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d

White

Hispanic

Arican American

89%

91%

90%

70%

52%

49%

Postsecondar

yenrollm

entrat

eGraduation

rate



Te Bachelors degree is the tipping point in theeducational hierarchy where racial dierences begin

to decline appreciably. For example, racial and ethnicinequality diminishes signicantly in the transitionto graduate school. But postsecondary straticationlimits Bachelors degree attainment among minorities,restricting them to the educational levels whereinequality is strongest; even among whites, Arican

Americans, and Hispanics with the same test scores:

Figure 17.W w w dy wd B d b A A H.

Associates degree

Bachelors degree or better

81%

28%

Whites

Arican Americans

Hispanics

S: Gw UvyC Ed d

Wk NELS (1988/2000) d

72% 73%

27%19%

A A d H w B d 468 v d 33 , y wd (34%); d

A-A d H d w B d -,-y d

qy w 468 v , b d d wd w d --y ( . 18).

I , A-A d Hd ky A d d ky

B d b y d -, w- d -y ;

C d d , y d d Bd b k d ;



Figure 18. T B d d w d d d b d.

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NCES B dByd (1993/2003) d d NCES B AdCv Idx D F.

33%

468m

ostse

lectiv

efour

-yearc

olle

ges

Open-access,tw

o-andfour-yearcolleges

34%

20%

23%

White

Arican American and Hispanic

Graduate degree attainment



Part 4.Both Race and Class

Matter in DeterminingPostsecondary Outcomes,

but Race and Class AreNot Te Same Ting.



Cy w - x dy d d. Yet, controlling or income, race

matters: k , w- A-A d H d j d d w w- w. W d w

d (45%) w y db d qy A A (55%) d H (59%).T w- w B d y w A A dH d b y w b-bd. I , A-A d by .

Class and race overlap and are most virulent incombination. A w y , w

d qyb w A A dH b d by w.Uq d d y ddvd w b xdw vb k y , d,d x. T vb do not ullyx A A d H dd . E w y xd by bvb ,k d , w d by

y dw. T d vd ddv d b dd y . Y, d d d x d d d ; b,ddy, d d y.



I we are to reverse the polarization o the postsecondarysystem and achieve some measure o racial and economicdiversity, some combination o class-based and race-based admissions criteria are ultimately required.

I qy wd by b d , b d .Iqy -bd. T kby bb, v d v A Ad H. R d y v ddv d v d y y b d , y AA, v y v.

In the real world race-based and class-baseddisadvantages overlap substantially but do not

substitute perectly or each other. R d b d y v d d . T v v by v wd dy.W b x, y bd v d .18C v d w v bw d

d qy 1980. Mw bb ddv A A d x b H v k v.

Ddv w w d d. A A d H y vb -bd ddv b y yd w- d b

dd w v w- d dd v d d v. T bw d w bw wd by d dwwd by dd . M dy d by qy b y d jb

v d w-w jb k vb y kd . B , , yA A, d b w

v d w.

W d y dw b - d -bd dwd b by d, , b d , d vb b k d w 468.

Our study nds that more than 240,000 high schoolstudents every year, who graduate in the top hal otheir high school class and come rom the bottom hal othe amily income distribution, do not go on to one othe top 468 colleges and do not get a two- or our-yeardegree within eight years o graduation rom high

school. Te data show that about one in our (62,000) othese high-scoring/low-income students who dont earna degree are Arican American or Hispanic.

T -bd d

b -bd yv . Ad -bd b d d b - d-bd dvy wd b -bd by v, S C Fisher v. Universityo exas. W y v, db -bd d yd b A-A dH dd d -bd d.19 I , b

w w- d A-A d H dvb v d.

I bd d , , bd y , wdk d v dvy b w- wd

How Do We Choose?



vy w . T J. K (1999), x, x v -bd d wd b y x v .20

T dy v d. Ev w w

w- d w v w d dw y d, AA d H y qdd v , vy K d bv.

T by dy y d w w-d v wd bd v dv

d w v d vy. I wd qd d w byd b w w .

I d -bd d , w -bd -bdx, b w- dd y dvy v wd b d.S d dv

ddv vd by d () d d w d ddv b d (b) vy d ddv.

Some class-based metrics that reect class-baseddisadvantages in their most extreme orm, like spatialisolation by race and class, dierences in wealth, amily

structure, parental education, and occupational status,can translate into proxies or race in college admissions.

I d w d d d dv b,b vd b vy d d y d w b. I d ddv , ,d z d.

Class Rank Approaches: R b v ddv. A xwd b k v xy bw v -bd v: T dd v ,bd Grutter v. Bollingerd d

Fisher v. University o exas dvy d b b d dd d. B , d dvy w d.

S w- w v xv y, w d

y d 10 . T x 10- d , b w b dvy x dy y b dd d d d .

Sv v vd wd v w z d d bw d by d -

d w d . S v dv w k wy b d qy y w, y, d v.

T k w -bd v dvd , by z d y v d . I

, y bw v wd dvd d v , , dw- . I , k d . Ty -bd b d qy y dd d , , d .



A w v dy (Cv d R,2004), U.S. b d wd d w k w . M 75 A w- d w b d d b v d

( x k d q b b ). M 50 A w- d w b d db dd, d d v d d .

C k d w . H k dd db dvy by , b dv dvy d. C k

b qy vb, y k b y -bd,b b A A dH v w. H d x d b v dvy b d.

C k w d v v d

d d d dq. N d k qy d d v Bd. E d k x, d 15 bw 1000. W v d w 50 , w d (82%) v .

A b w k , v w w d v w y bkd. Vy d d vy . Ev wd y -d d w q. Mv, 10 by d dy wy.

Uy, bd k w d -bd k q d Grutterv. Bollinger w dvy d . B v q

x y j , wd b d k, w, x . I b b d b vy b d v w. A d dw wd ydvy w d w dvy d w w y d (d 18-24).

Wealth-Based Approaches: A d v d y w, d -bd dbw w d ddvd . I - d bd w x qy d d - ddv. I2010, x, w w w H, b w d v x d w A Ad H.21 O v, w d $632,000 w d w $98,000 d $110,000,vy, A A d H.W y - x w A A dH bd w y . My d:

Student actors such as hours worked;

Family actors such as parental educationand amily structure;

Neighborhood actors attached to Censustract codes such as educational attainmentand crime rates; and

School actors such as test scores, graduationrates, and percentage participation insubsidized school lunch programs.



While afrmative action, both race- and class-based,seems clearly justied as a device to encourage race andclass mobility and compensate or persistent racial andeconomic inequality, it is not clear that afrmativeaction as it has been known is a remedy that gets at thedeeper root o race-based and class-based inequality.

I b, b - d -bd v y qd A-A, H, d w- d w-dd d v d . Av , w - -bd b w, w v d v dd yd vy dd v.T d d -bd y b . Ty d

wy k bd v y , , d y d b y.W -bd d-, y y d dd v d v A-A, H, d w- d.

I , y w bv b A d . F,

dd d d , y b d

v , d b d . Sd, d v v by b dd. By v, d w dy. Lv y d d, ,

d yk. B d by d d dvy by z d w v b dd by v d v d vb v.

S, vd k C,x, d Fd, w v b bd b v, d y w k v ,

d v , dvy vy - . Mv, d d - , bd by vy dv dvy byd x, v bd d d v.Lkw, w d K12 v wk v . By b wy v dvy by y

j .



1. C w d vy qy, y by , w bd. SH, Ed P A A d L Ud S 1950 1990: T I Ay d C, 1999; G, A Sd Ed Iqy, 2001; K, C A H Ed Ud S, 19801992, 2002;Cv d R, S S, R/Ey, d

Sv C Ad, 2003; Ld, A WyF C, C Gw Ov F, 2004; Ad O, T D Eqy A HEd, 2004; S d Bd, T R-P G

Wd C d Sd, 2006; F, M. MAd F I A, 2006; F, E C L Sv Ndy, 2006; S, F Dd SvyD A F Rv Wd SG, 2007; Wy, ., Achievement rap: How America IsFailing Millions o High-Achieving Students rom Lower-IncomeFamilies, 2007; Hxby, C Svy, 2009; Sk, HwC P Iqy, 2007; Sk, earing Down theGates, 2007; Rk, ., C H Ed d

S S Ud S, 2007; Bd dJq, I S d F Hy,2007; Hxby d Avy, T M O-O: T HddSy H-Av, Lw I Sd, 2012.

2. T d dy d xd, d. N-dd dy d dy A Ad H ( Cv, .,Certicates: Gateway toGainul Employment and College Degrees, 2012). Ev 468 , d y w by w A A d H d(bd CEW y D C Pj d: v

y). A dy by Gdk-Rb d Ky w b y ( SI d O D Py, 2013). T w db j w w dy d d w b k v v A

A, H, d w ( Cv, ., Whats ItWorth? Te Economic Value o College Majors, 2011).

3. T dy 468 v , B AdCv (k vy k). T b , w y, wv . I 1992 w 399 . W

v by b 2009 k yy b d v (.., Ivy L), b z

w y dd y. (Sdx A d w vy dd d d w b . S dx B d w d w by v vy.

4. T dv d d

Endnotes



d K-12 d. S Ok, Cy Ad D: S Eqy d Iqy Ed Py, 2009. A, d b-b d b B d d Ck, C-O F, HEd, 1960; Ck, C-O F Rvd,1980; B d Kb, T Dvd D, 1989; dRyb, C O Cy C, 2008.

5. T b d d w d d($1,547,000) d w d($3,648,000). S Cv, ., Te College Payof, 2011.

6. T vd w d w y d d y ( Rd, T Wd Ad

Av G bw R d P, 2011). I d y, -qy dyd d b y d

y. w x,dy dd d y k . F x, d w d y d w B d 13 , d 73 w v dvd d d.

7. T kd d w xd d w w Ud S y dvd .

CollegeDropout

HSDropout

AA

HS

Proffessiona

Voc/SomeCollege

BA

BA

MA

MA

PhD

1st ProfPhD

Wk w dvd d $2.1 d v .

Cd d y d w . Svy- d

w d PD d b B d b.

HS (d)BA (d)

FINKORIA

POLIRL

URESP

MEXSVKCZEGBRHUNNZLBELUSA

0 10 20 30 40 50 60I d by U.S.

w .

SOURCE: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk

y 2006 OECD PISA Db

SOURCE: Cv ., Te College Payof, 2011.

SOURCE: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk

b 341 D Ed S 2011 (d

6/18/13) .d.v//d/d11/b/d11_341.

53%

43%

26%

$1,550,000

$1,730,000

$2.1Md

ifferen

ce

$2,270,000

$2,670,000

$3,250,000

$3,650,000

22%

10%

49%

3%

65%

2%

73%

13%

6%



8. Sddzd d , dd dy SA/AC , d b SA, ddby Ed Sv d y d 400 1600, d AC, dd by AC I.,

w 36 ( v 36 ). F dy, AC w d qv SA 1600- , wd dvd by ES.

9. T dy bd -y d Id

Pdy Ed D Sy (IPEDS) ; b x. D d .

10. T w dvd by y / w by kw d by d v vy.

11. T v dy y w b d b ,d v B AdCv Idx. T d qy d by d d d vy. T -, -y d v w b , b

v vy d d d v . T v d wd d dd v d v . T w b d , w b-b d A d. B d d w d dd. Bd, . w wd d d d d d d d d d ( Understanding the Decrease in College CompletionRates and the Increased ime to the Baccalaureate Degree, 2007).I bq dy, Bd, . d: () d d b w d d d b -v

b -y d d y. W d bvd d d d d d ,d y d d. W d ,

w b y , . (S Wy Hv C C RDd? 2009. A, O d Pjv MkC W I 2013, d C E Adv,Preparing the Workers o oday or the Jobs o omorrow. 2009.

12. A A d H b $52,000 $63,000 v - v -

y , b 21 d 15 bd by w.

13. Gd y d(35%) d A A d H (33%) 468. M d (21%) d (23%) - .

14. Ed d Rdd d wd v w SA/AC w(No Longer Separate Not Yet Equal: Race and Class in Elite CollegeAdmission and Campus Lie, 2009). Hwv, dy d v d

d y qd - .

15. L, Separate and Unequal: Te Neighborhood Gap or Blacks,Hispanics and Asians in Metropolitan America, 2010, 2011.

16. A w- d, b x.W d d b B d b y w A A d H.

17. Cv d S, Hw I C A I Iqy, d W D Ab I, 2010.

18. T y v b bdd d dv v v

w dd. I , y vd b dd . S b d w ( Hd Fk, Dz Lw Lw: NR Ex O-G, 2006). Fd w d y, dwd z b bd. Sy d k d y b wk z bv. T d x b b d dd d dy k d. y ddv vy d b v , b y jd, y w y dy qky d . M dd

dv wk bv vby by Nb L D K( vky d K, Avby: A H JdFqy d Pbby, 1973; d K, M Bdd Ry, 2003). K wd w wk v d dv dy d d y d dv y. A, Hd, Human Judgment and Social Policy,1996.

19. I v wk, CEW d w d d v dvy v d w xy y bd (Cv d R, S S, R-Ey, d

Sv C Ad, 2004; d Cv d S, HwI C A I I Iqy, Ad W D

Ab I, 2010). Px dvy d w -bd v

wd d x .

20. T J. K, M Db v AvA C Ad, 1999.

21. MK d R, L T Eq: R D W A, 2013.

Cd

(%)

C(%)

Ad

(%)

Bd b(%)

W 45 17 15 23

A A 55 24 10 12

H 59 16 12 13



Appendix A. Data and Barrons SelectivitySection 1. Data

D - w bd U.S. D Ed IdPdy Ed D Sy (IPEDS).1 T y xd d W , w

w d b d d 1997 1998 (96,017 32,910).2 T yw dd w b IPEDS d W d d b xd. T C Ed d Wk (CEW) y d dd d v , y vy. Nd d /- dw d b by b v .

D B vy w dd, N C Ed S (NCES)d B Ad Cv Idx D d w kd d by ID(UNIID).

D w bd by vb D C Pj.3

D d d db d by d vy w d NCES d N Ed Ld Sdy (NELS) 1988/2000 .

D SA/AC qv d wk d by Ed Sv (ES). M d SA/AC w d q dbw - dd NELS vy.

D d d by d vy w d d NCES d B d Byd Ld Sdy (1993/2003).

Y d w d by vb d A Cy Svy, U.S. C B, d C P Svy.

IPEDS (d 10/15/12) ://.d.v/d/2 S b 181 D Ed S, 2004 (d 6/24/13)

://.d.v//d/d04/b/d04_181.?=

D C Pj ://.d.v/d/dj/.



Section 2. Selectivity

CEW d B k -y 468 . T M Cv, Hy Cv, d Vy Cv C. T bd

d d NCES-B Ad Cv Idx D. T x v d y b k x B Ed S, 2009 ( 3). T dd , dd y dx B, B Cv C. T - by d y w B vy, L dN-Cv C, -y (y d ) dd B, d w-y d -y .

CEW dy kwd -d y v d d b v k . Pz d d v w d v. T wk d y w v vy, d y d w d d b k (Cv d

S, 2010; Cv d R, 2004).

Most Competitive T v v y v d, y q k 10-20 d d v (GPA) B+ d bv. Md SA bw 1310 d 1600 d 29+ AC. Ad y -d .

Highly Competitive T y v k d w GPA B d bv d 20-35 . Md SA bw 1240 d 1310.Md AC 27 28. Ad bw 33 d 50 .

Very Competitive T vy v d d w GPA B d bv w kbw 35 d 50 . Md bw 1150 d 1240 SA d bw 24 d 26 AC. T y - - , b b -d.

Competitive Cv bd y y d d w d SA bw 1000 d 1140 d w AC bw 21 d 23. S q GPA B b, w C GPA. M v d 50-65 , w d bw 75 d 85 . A b - .

Less Competitive Md y bw 1000 SA bw 21 AC, q d d y d. My dw bw C v d 65 . A bv 85.

Noncompetitive Nv q y vd d. E x d . S y , b w 98 d y dd.



Section 3. Changes in the number of institutions by tiers of selectivity and in the open-access sector.

1995 2009 C

w- d -y 3,688 4,409 721

-y 2,215 2,719 504

M v 43 82 39

Hy v 72 109 37

Vy v 211 277 66

T v 326 468 142

Cv (dd ) 594 671 77

L v 368 198 -170

Nv 163 93 -70

F-y dd B (d) 764 1,289 525

w-y 1,473 1,670 197

- 2,768 3,250 482

S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NCES-B AdCv Idx D (v y), IPEDS (v y), d b 279, D Ed S, 2010.



Appendix B. Enrollments, Enrollment Flows,and Disproportionality in Enrollments

T dy d y vd y y d dv b zd by b jd w w y qby vdd.

, dy dy, w b d d w d d b dqy vd K-12 y. By , d dw w vd . W dy v , y b dd, d db - y d 18 24 v d xy.W d d x j w w dy y v y by d y.

y, Id Pdy Ed D Sy (IPEDS) (- d-) d w d 1993-1995 d d d d 2007-2009. Td y d 1995 d 2009 d, , d xv yT d d -y d y A Cy Svy y (2007-2009) d U.S. C B 1990 y (1993-1995). I , w d d y y--y v, y . A d dx A, w y W d dy.

T d dx w d d y d d dy. D dx b d v , w, w dd A, Nv A, A A,H, d w, d dd- vy.

Section 1. Disproportionality

T 1995 db d by d by vy d b 2, v b d d b 1. b 3 w v dy xd 1995 d w d by b db dvd db.

b 3 d 1995 w w 5 bv d y (vd). A , A A d H w ddby 2 d 5 , vy. A w vd by 2 Nv A d bd .

By vy, d 1995 w w 9 vd vy, 12 vd dd , d j 1 - . T 64 w - 1995 x v v 5 v ( b 11). AA d H w b y dd (-8 d-9 , vy) d dd (-5 d -8 ,



vy.) H d v dy - w w 3 d . A w j y vd dA A d Nv A b d bd - .

b 4 d 2009, d b 5 d db /y v dw v vy. b 5 d j w v d w w y . T w dd 10 w AA d H w 4 . T A dby 1 ; Nv A w dy.

I dy, 2009 dy w w w vd (b 6) b v d dd by 3 1995 (b 7). A-A vd by 3 w w H (d), A (v), d Nv A (bd).

A vy x. I 1995, w w 9 vd v w A A (-8 ) d H(-7 ) w y dd. Cvy, w d - w w w ; A A w bd; dH w dd by 3 ( b 3).

By 2009, z d d w . W vw by 4 w w 13 bv y ( b 6 d 7). R A A d dy -8 w H wd by 4 w d -11 bw

y .

A d , w v vd, d 6 ww w 4 d y . A-A d vy - w d by 5 bv y d H d by 1 .

Section 2. Te missing middle.

T dd vy, Barrons Competitive Colleges, A dyd y b d y dy d z. I 1995, dd

d 21 d dd 20 by 2009 ( b 11). T w by 77 w w 28 , y w (b 14). B 468 d - d w w .I wy, dd d v dy z. O , y d d d : b 12, , d w ; 23 wA-A d 15 w H w . T dy w b vd y .



Section 3. Asians and Native Americans.

A A d H y Ud S, b d dd by d d d y A d Nv A. I , w b yz d d , , . T

IPEDS-bd y x y b A w. b 10 w 50 w A v v b 30 v - . Py d bd y b dy y A. b 7 d b dy A yvy . A 2 bv y , 6 bv , d 1 dd- d - .

Nv A y . T IPEDS d y d NvA v bd dy d dy d .

Table 1. Enrollment and population, 99

Population aged8-

EnrollmentTop three tierso selectivity

Middle tierOpen-access,

two- and our-year schools

All ,9,7 ,, ,8 , ,,9

White ,9,7 ,, 9,7 9, 9,

Arican American ,, , ,77 , 9,

Hispanic ,,8 8,9 , ,8 7,

Asian 9,9 , , 8, ,77

Native American , , ,9 ,9 ,78

Table 2. Distribution o population and reshman enrollment by selectivity and race/ethnicity; 99

Population aged8- (%)

Enrollment (%)Top three tiers

o selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)

Open-access,two- and our-

year schools (%)

All White 8 7 77 8 9

Arican American 9

Hispanic 9

Asian

Native American

*In the ollowing Tables, numbers may not add to percent due to rounding.



Table 3. Enrollment disproportionality, 99

Total (%)Top three tiers o

selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)

Open-access, two-and our-year schools

(%)

White 9

Arican American - -8 -

Hispanic - -7 -8 -

Asian

Native American

Percentages calculated rom enrollment shares minus population shares in table .

Table 4. Enrollment and population, 9

Population aged8-

EnrollmentTop three tierso selectivity

Middle tierOpen-access,

two- and our-year schools

All 8,8,7 ,79,89 78, 7,9 ,,9

White 7,7,8 ,7, ,8 89, 9,7

Arican American ,7,79 , 8,99 8,9 ,

Hispanic ,, 7,8 ,7 ,8 7,98

Asian ,,7 9, 9,7 8, 8,8Native American ,7 ,9 ,9 ,9 ,7

Table 5. Distribution o population and reshman enrollment by selectivity, and race/ethnicity, 9

Population aged8- (%)

Enrollment (%)Top three tiers

o selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)

Open-access,two- and our-

year schools (%)

All White 7 7 7

Arican American 7

Hispanic 8 8 9 7

Asian

Native American



Table 6. Distribution o postsecondary enrollment by race across institutional selectivity tiers, 99-9

Top three tiers oselectivity (%)

Middle tier (%)Open-access, two-

and our-year school(%)

All Title IVpostecondary

institutions (%)

99 9 99 9 99 9 99 9

All 9

White

Arican American 8 9 9 7 7

Hispanic 7 7

Asian 8 7 8

Native American 9 7 7

Table 7. Enrollment disproportionality, 9




(%)

White 8 -

Arican American -8

Hispanic - - -9 -

Asian

Native American Percentages calculated rom enrollment shares minus population shares in table .

Table 8. Percentage point changes in disproportionality by selectivity, race, and ethnicity, 99-9




(%)

White - - -Arican American

Hispanic - -

Asian

Native American

Change calculated by subtracting table 7 rom table .



Table 9. Net new gains in enrollments by selectivity, race and ethnicity, 99-9

TotalTop three tiers o

selectivityMiddle tier


All , ,77 ,9 88,7

White , 8,8 9,9 8

Arican American 8,97 7, ,877 ,9

Hispanic 9, , 9, 8,98

Asian ,8 7,9 9,9 7,79

Native American 8,9 ,98 ,8 ,

Table 10. Distribution o net new enrollment gains within total and selectivity tiers by race and ethnicity




(%)

All

White 7

Arican American 8 7

Hispanic 9 8

Asian 8 8

Native American

Table 11. Distribution o net new enrollment gains across selectivity tiers by race and ethnicity

Total (%) Top tier(%) Middle tier (%)Open-access, two-

and our-year schools(%)

All 8 9 White 8 8

Arican American 9 8

Hispanic 7

Asian 8

Native American 8



Table 12. Enrollment shares and change in shares across tiers o selectivity, 99-9

Top three tiers oselectivity (%)

Middle tier (%) Bottom tier (%)

99

9 9

Share shif 99-9 - -

Table 13. Shares o net gains across tiers o selectivity

Top three tiers o

selectivity (%)

Middle tier (%) Bottom tier (%)

All 8 9

White 8 8

Arican American 9 8

Hispanic 7

Asian 8

Native American 8

Table 14. Shares o enrollment gains in selective tiers by race/ethnicity


selectivity (%)Middle tier (%) Bottom tier (%)

White 7

Arican American 8 7

Hispanic 9 8

Asian 8 8

Native American

Table 15. Enrollment growth by selectivity tier

Total %

Top three tiers o selectivity 78%

Middle tier 8%

Open-access %



Appendix C. Low-Hanging Fruit High AchievingMinority Students Who Either Dont Complete or Dont

Attend CollegeCy b, vy -dy d d d . T C Ed d Wk (CEW) vd - y d w-d d k dd y d x, v NEd Ld Sdy (NELS) vy, dv d SA/AC qv . T d d vb d N C EdS (NCES). T d b d w d k x, dy d w d y w d d .

Ay d d 580,000 d y, w w , d d d d. A d , d , , d w dy d

d d d w . W yzd by d y, 111,000A-A d H d y d , wd b xd, d d. T 55 , w vby 37 y dd w d. A d, d d dd v, A-A d H d wd b dd d 73 .T w d d b xd d bvd.

Ay d - d by w 240,000 (43%) d b (SES) db; 340,000 . AA-A d H - d, 56 b

db.

M y, CEW -d -d w- (-dy d wd d ) w vdd. Hxby d (2013) dd y (35,000) vy -, w- d dd d v wd , d w bw . O dw w d d d vy d d. Hxby d wk d dv d d, w d w k x. CEW wk b d bdy - d d d .



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