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Sensation
Sensation a process by which our sensory
receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy
Perception a process of organizing and
interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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Sensation Our
sensory and perceptual processes work together to help us sort out complext processes
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Sensation
Bottom-Up Processing analysis that begins with the sense
receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
Top-Down Processing information processing guided by
higher-level mental processes as when we construct perceptions
drawing on our experience and expectations
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Sensation- Basic Principles
Psychophysics study of the relationship between
physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them
Light- brightness Sound- volume Pressure- weight Taste- sweetness
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Sensation- Thresholds
Absolute Threshold minimum stimulation needed to detect
a particular stimulus 50% of the time Difference Threshold
minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time
just noticeable difference (JND)
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Sensation- Thresholds Signal Detection Theory
predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
assumes that there is no single absolute threshold
detection depends partly on person’s experience expectations motivation level of fatigue
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Sensation- Thresholds
Subliminal When stimuli
are below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
0
25
50
75
100
Low Absolutethreshold
Medium
Intensity of stimulus
Percentageof correctdetections
Subliminal stimuli
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Sensation- Thresholds
Weber’s Law- to perceive as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage light intensity- 8% weight- 2% tone frequency- 0.3%
Sensory adaptation- diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
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Vision- Stabilized Images on the Retina
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Vision
Transduction conversion of one form of energy
to another in sensation, transforming of
stimulus energies into neural impulses
Wavelength the distance from the peak of one
wave to the peak of the next
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Vision
Hue dimension of color determined by
wavelength of light Intensity
amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude brightness loudness
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The spectrum of electromagnetic energy
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Vision- Physical Properties of Waves
Short wavelength=high frequency(bluish colors, high-pitched sounds)
Long wavelength=low frequency(reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)
Great amplitude(bright colors, loud sounds)
Small amplitude(dull colors, soft sounds)
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Vision
Pupil- adjustable opening in the center of the eye
Iris- a ring of muscle that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Lens- transparent structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina
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Vision
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Vision
Accommodation- the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina
Retina- the light-sensitive inner serface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
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Vision
Acuity- the sharpness of vision Nearsightedness- condition in which
nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects in front of retina
Farsightedness- condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind retina
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Vision
Normal Nearsighted Farsighted Vision Vision Vision
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Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors
Rods peripheral retina detect black, white and gray twilight or low light
Cones near center of retina fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit conditions
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Retina’s Reaction to Light
Optic nerve- nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Blind Spot- point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind spot” because there are no receptor cells located there
Fovea- central point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster
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Vision- Receptors
Receptors in the Human Eye
Cones Rods
Number
Location in retina
Sensitivity in dim light
Color sensitive? Yes
Low
Center
6 million
No
High
Periphery
120 million
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Pathways from the Eyes to the Visual Cortex
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Visual Information Processing
Feature Detectors nerve cells in the
brain that respond to specific features
shape angle movement
Stimulus
Cell’s responses
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How the Brain Perceives
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Illusory Contours
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Visual Information Processing
Parallel Processing simultaneous processing of several
aspects of a problem simultaneously
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Visual Information Processing
Trichromatic (three color) Theory Young and Helmholtz three different retinal color receptors
red green blue
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Color-Deficient Vision
People who suffer red-green blindness have trouble perceiving the number within the design
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Visual Information Processing
Opponent-Process Theory- opposing retinal processes enable color vision“ON” “OFF”red greengreen red blue yellow yellow blue black whitewhite black
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Opponent Process- Afterimage Effect
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Visual Information Processing
Color Constancy Perceiving familiar objects as
having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
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Audition
Audition the sense of hearing
Frequency the number of complete
wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
Pitch a tone’s highness or lowness depends on frequency
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The Intensity of Some Common Sounds
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Audition- The Ear Middle Ear
chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window
Inner Ear innermost part of the ear, containing
the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
Cochlea coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner
ear through which
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Audition
Place Theory the theory that links the pitch we hear
with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
Frequency Theory the theory that the rate of nerve
impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
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How We Locate Sounds
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Audition
Conduction Hearing Loss hearing loss caused by damage to the
mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Nerve Hearing Loss hearing loss caused by damage to the
cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve
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Audition Older people tend to hear low frequencies well
but suffer hearing loss for high frequencies
1time
10times
100times
1000times
32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048 4096 8192 16384
Frequency of tone in waves per second
Low Pitch High
Amplitude required forperception relative to 20-29 year-old group
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Touch
Skin Sensations pressure
only skin sensation with identifiable receptors
warmth cold pain
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Pain Gate-Control Theory
theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
“gate” opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers
“gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
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Taste Taste Sensations
sweet sour salty bitter
Sensory Interaction the principle that one sense may
influence another as when the smell of food influences its
taste
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Smell
Receptor cells inolfactory membrane
Nasal passage
Olfactorybulb
Olfactorynerve
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Age, Sex and Sense of Smell
Women
Men
10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99Age Group
4
3
2
0
Numberof correct
answers
Women and young adults have best sense of smell
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Body Position and Movement
Kinesthesis the system for sensing the position
and movement of individual body parts
Vestibular Sense the sense of body movement and
position including the sense of balance
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Weber’s Law
Weber’s Constant Law States That JND = KI
K is the Weber’s constant for a particular sense.
I is the amount, or intensity, of the stimulus.
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Figure 5.5: Length Illusions
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From MIND SIGHTS by Shepard © 1990 by Roger N. Shepard. Used with permission by W. H. Freeman and Company. Return
Reversible Images
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Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Grouping
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Why Do These Grouping Principles Guide Perceptual Organization?
Likelihood Principle Unlikely stimuli and misperceptions
Simplicity Principle
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Impossible Objects
Return
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Perceptual Processing
Top-Down ProcessingBottom-Up Processing
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Figure 5.15: Feature Analysis
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Figure 5.17: Recognizing Objects from Geons
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Figure 5.18: Recognition of Objects With and Without Their Geons Destroyed
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Top-Down Processing
Use knowledge in making inferences to recognize objects, words, or melodies.
Expectancy and context play an important role.
Involved in a phenomenon called pareidolia.
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Top-Down Processing (cont’d.)
Our experiences create schemas.Schemas can bias our perceptions by
creating a perceptual set.Predisposition can also be shaped by
the immediate context of the stimulus.Motivation can affect perception.Can even influence elements of the
brain’s bottom-up processing.
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Network Processing
Object superiority effect and word superiority effect.
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models as explanation for recognition Example
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Figure 5.21: The Object Superiority Effect
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Linkages: Perception and Human Development
Habituation and dishabituation used to study how infants perceive the world.
Newborns can perceive differences among different black-and-white contrasts. By three months can discriminate among
blue, green, yellow, and red.Newborns can perceive differences in the
angles of lines.
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Linkages: Perception and Human Development (cont’d.)
At one month of age, infants concentrate their gaze on one part of an object.
By two months, infants systematically scan the perimeter of an object.
Infants may be innately tuned to perceive the human face.
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Reprinted from Cognition, vol. 4. M.A. Johnson, S. Dziurawiec, H. Ellis, and J. Morton, "Newborns' Preferential Tracking of Face-Like Stimuli and Its Subsequent Decline," pp. 1-19, © 1991 with the kind permission of Elsevier Science - NL, Sara Burgerharstraat 25, 1055 KV
Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Linkages: Figure 5.24: Infants’ Perceptions of Human Faces
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Attention
We use attention to: Direct our sensory and perceptual
systems toward certain stimuli. Select specific information for further
processing. Allocate the mental energy required to do
that processing. Regulate the flow of resources necessary
for performing a task or coordinating several tasks at once.
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Characteristics of Attention
Improves Mental Processing Takes Effort Is Limited
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Directing Attention
Voluntary, or goal-directed attention control reflects top-down processing.
Involuntary attention control reflects bottom-up processing.
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Divided Attention
Sometimes difficult to stop dividing attention.
Attention is a limited resource.Easier to do two things at once if one
task is automatic.
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Name the color of the INK in which each word is printed as rapidly as you can
Source: Stroop, J.R. (1935). "Studies of Interference in Serial Verbal Reactions." Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662.
Return
The Stroop Task
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Stroop Test
Although the functions of the anterior cingulate are very complex, broadly speaking it acts as a conduit between lower, somewhat more impulse-driven brain regions and higher, somewhat more thought-driven behaviors. The Stroop effect's sensitivity to changes in brain function may be related to its association with the anterior cingulate.The Stroop Test provides insight into cognitive effects that are experienced as a result of attentional fatigue. http://www.snre.umich.edu/eplab/demos/st0/stroopdesc.html#The%20Neurophysiology
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Attention and Automatic Processing
Efforts to ignore certain stimuli may create negative priming.
Parallel-processing describes ability to search for targets rapidly and automatically.
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Applications of Research on Perception
Aviation PsychologyHuman-Computer InteractionTraffic SafetyArchitecture and Interior Design