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A brief history of English stress
Senior Common Room Lunch Talk University College
January 15, 2018
B. Elan Dresher, Department of Linguistics
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Based on collaboration with Aditi Lahiri
University of Oxford
A brief history of English stress
2
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StressinPresentDayEnglishisorientedtotheendoftheword:
Second-to-last(Penult)
Al-BÉR-ta
The Present Day English stress system
3
Startingattheendofaword,onecountsbackandputsthestresseitheronthesecond-to-lastorthird-to-lastsyllable.
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
Ma-ni-TÓ-baac-ci-DÉN-tal
a-GÉN-da
2-1A-MÉ-ri-ca
ÁL-ge-bra
3-2-1
CÁ-na-daphi-lo-SÓ-phi-cal
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Thedifferenceinthetwocolumnshastodowiththenatureofthepenultimatesyllable:
Second-to-last(Penult)
Al-BÉR-ta
The Present Day English stress system
4
Whenthepenultisheavy,thatis,closedbyaconsonantorhasalongvowel(likeinMa-ni-tóo-ba),itisstressed.
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
Ma-ni-TÓ-baac-ci-DÉN-tal
a-GÉN-da
4-3-2-1A-MÉ-ri-ca
CÁ-na-daphi-lo-SÓ-phi-cal
ÁL-ge-bra
5-4-3-2-1
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Ifthepenultislight,thatis,endsinashortvowel,thenstressgoesontheantepenult.
Second-to-last(Penult)
Al-BÉR-ta
The Present Day English stress system
5
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
Ma-ni-TÓ-baac-ci-DÉN-tal
a-GÉN-da
4-3-2-1A-MÉ-ri-ca
CÁ-na-daphi-lo-SÓ-phi-cal
ÁL-ge-bra
5-4-3-2-1
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ThissystemresemblesthatofClassicalLatin:theimportantthingtoknowisthatstressiscomputedfromtheRIGHTword-edge.
Second-to-last(Penult)
Al-BÉR-ta
The Present Day English stress system
6
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
Ma-ni-TÓ-baac-ci-DÉN-tal
a-GÉN-da
4-3-2-1A-MÉ-ri-ca
CÁ-na-daphi-lo-SÓ-phi-cal
ÁL-ge-bra
5-4-3-2-1
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Athousandyearsago,Englishdidnothavethisstresspattern.
Second-to-last(Penult)
Al-BÉR-ta
A thousand years ago (in 1018)…
7
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
Ma-ni-TÓ-baac-ci-DÉN-tal
a-GÉN-da
2-1
CÁ-na-daphi-lo-SÓ-phi-cal
ÁL-ge-bra
3-2-1A-MÉ-ri-ca
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OldEnglish(c.450–1100)inheritedfromitsGermanicancestoracompletelydifferentstresssystem.
The Old English stress system
8
SuttonHoohelmet(c.625) Beowulfmanuscript(c.1000)
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InOldEnglish,stresswascomputedfromtheLEFTedgeofaword:the[irstsyllablereceivedmainstress.
Stressthe[irstsyllable
9
Somepre[ixesdidnotreceiveastress,particularlyinverbs.Insuchcases,stresswasonthesecondsyllable(stillfromtheLEFT).
Unstressedpre[ix
1 1-2
The Old English stress system
CÝ-nin-ga ‘ofthekings’Ǽ-þe-lìn-gas ‘nobles’ÁN-ġìn ‘beginning’WÍ-þer-sà-ca ‘adversary’
an-ĠÍN-nan ‘tobegin’wiþ-SÁ-can ‘torefuse’
ġe-ÉN-de-bỳr-dan ‘toarrange’ġe-BÉD ‘prayer’
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Noticethepatternwherebyanounhasinitialstress(onthepre[ix)anditsrelatedverbhasanunstressedpre[ix.
Stressthe[irstsyllable
10
ThispatternwillcontinueintolaterEnglish,asinrécord(noun)~recórd(verb)andpérmit(noun)~permít(verb)
Unstressedpre[ix
1 1-2
The Old English stress system
ǼF-þàn-ca ‘offence’ÁN-ġìn ‘beginning’WÍ-þer-sà-ca ‘adversary’
an-ĠÍN-nan ‘tobegin’wiþ-SÁ-can ‘torefuse’
of-ÞÝN-ċan ‘displease’BĪ-gèn-ġa ‘inhabitant’́ be-GĀN ‘tooccupy’́
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ButwhatcausedtheEnglishstresssystemtochangesodrasticallyfromtheLEFTsideofthewordtotheRIGHT?
Why did the English stress system change?
11
DidanewgroupofpeopleinvadeAnglo-SaxonEnglandandbringwiththemtheirnativeLatinateprosody?
Actually,thisdidhappen!
PartoftheBayeuxTapestry:WilliamofNormandysailstoEngland
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In1066,EnglandwasconqueredbytheNormans(‘Norsemen’),aGermanicgroupwhohadmovedfromScandinaviatoNorthernFranceandwhospokedialectsofOldFrench.
The Norman conquest
12
Anglo-NormanFrenchthusbecamethelanguageoftheEnglishcourtandupperclassesforover300years,until1399.
PartoftheBayeuxTapestry:WilliamofNormandysailstoEngland
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Inthisperiod,OldEnglishbecameMiddleEnglish,andmanyRomancewordswereimportedintoEnglishfromNormanFrench,OldFrench,andLatin(Romance=derivedfromLatin).
Influence of Anglo-Norman French
13
ThoughthestresssystemofFrenchdifferedfromClassicalLatin,alltheRomancelanguagesinheritedfromLatinastresssystemorientedtotheRIGHTedgeoftheword.
Therefore,itisplausibletosupposethatrightwardorientedstressgainedafootholdinEnglishinthisperiod,ashasbeenproposedbyHalle&Keyser(1971)andLass(1992).
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TheypointtoevidencefromtheverseofGeoffreyChaucer(c.1343–1400).
Influence of Anglo-Norman French
Dependingontherequirementsofthemeter,ChaucercouldstressRomancewordsintwoways:
14
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StresscouldgoontheLEFT(initialsyllable),inkeepingwiththenativeGermanicsystem;
Stress doublets in Chaucer
15
LEFT
cítee
cómfort
dívers
fórtune
citée
RIGHT
comfórt
divérse
fortúne
LEFT
géant
lícour
présent
sérvant
geáunt
RIGHT
licóur
presént
serváunt
orontheRIGHT([inalorpenult),intheOldFrenchway.
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Anexampleofthisvariationinasinglelineis:
Stress doublets in Chaucer
16
LEFT
cítee
cómfort
dívers
fórtune
citée
RIGHT
comfórt
divérse
fortúne
LEFT
géant
lícour
présent
sérvant
geáunt
RIGHT
licóur
presént
serváunt
|ws|ws|ws|ws|ws|w(iambicpentameter:|ws|x5)‘Indíversartandindivérse[igúres’(Friar’sTaleIII1486)
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Consider,however,thePresentDayEnglishdescendantsofthesewords:thevastmajorityhavestressontheLEFT.
Descendants of the stress doublets in Chaucer
17
LEFT
cíty
cómfort
fórtune
RIGHT
divérse
LEFT
gíant
líquor
présent(noun)
sérvant
RIGHT
presént(verb)
Theexceptions[ittheOldEnglishpatternofunstressedpre[ixes;noteparticularlythenoun~verbstressalternation.
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Moregenerally,thePDEre[lexesofalmostALLtheRomancewordswithFrenchRIGHT-edgestressinChaucerhaveinitialstressconsistentwithGermanicstressingontheLEFT:
Descendants of Romance words in Chaucer
18
vírtue fórtune bárren
Égypt cómfort góvern
sólemn hónour mércy
Jésus ábbot Júdith
témpest gíant présent
Pláto cíty díscord
sérvant tórment(noun) týrant
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Thatis,theseRomancewordshaveallassimilatedtothenativeEnglishpatternofstressontheLEFT;theiroptionalstressontheRIGHTinChaucerhasnotsurvived.
Influence of Anglo-Norman French?
19
Thisresultisconsistentwithawidergeneralization:RomancewordsthatenteredEnglishintheMiddleEnglishperioddidnotleaveanylastingeffectsonEnglishprosody.
Thus,disyllabicwordsborrowedfromRomancebeforethe15thcenturyalmostallhavestressontheLEFTinPDE:
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Initialstress(stemvowelisshortinPresentDayEnglish)
Romance words borrowed before the 15th c.
20
English Date English Date
talent 893 coral 1305
baron 1200 profit 1325
senate 1205 metal 1340
jealous 1250 satin 1366
palace 1290 moral 1380
channel 1300 volume 1380
gallon 1300 second 1391
panel 1300 Latin 1391
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Initialstress(stemvowelislonginPresentDayEnglish)
Romance words borrowed before the 15th c.
21
English Date English Date
basin 1220 paper 1374
moment 1240 raisin 1382
vacant 1290 patent 1387
odour 1300 famous 1400
process 1330
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Finalstress
No effect of Romance on Middle English stress
22
English Date English Date
diverse 1297 divine 1374
reward 1340 degree 1380
Thesmallgroupofwordsthatsurvivewith[inalstressareconsistentwiththeOldEnglishpatternofunstressedpre[ixes.
Weconclude,then,contrarytowhathassometimesbeenclaimed,thattheNormanconquestandthein[luxofmanyRomancewordsdidnothavealastingimpactonMiddleEnglishprosody.
Thatis,thereisnoevidenceofthechangefromLEFTtoRIGHTinEnglishstressbefore1400.Sowhendiditoccur?
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BorrowingfromLatinbeganonalargescaleinLateMiddleEnglish(c1400)andincreasedinEarlyModernEnglish(early1500s).
Latin borrowings in Early Modern English
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Latin loans in English by decade, 1300–1700
ThisisachartofthenumberofLatinwordsthat[irstappearedineachdecadebetween1300and1700,accordingtotheOxfordEnglishDictionary(OED).
23
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Latin borrowings in Early Modern English
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
350013
00–1
310
1310
–132
013
20–1
330
1330
–134
013
40–1
350
1350
–136
013
60–1
370
1370
–138
013
80–1
390
1390
–140
014
00–1
410
1410
–142
014
20–1
430
1430
–144
014
40–1
450
1450
–146
014
60–1
470
1470
–148
014
80–1
490
1490
–150
015
00–1
510
1510
–152
015
20–1
530
1530
–154
015
40–1
550
1550
–156
015
60–1
570
1570
–158
015
80–1
590
1590
–160
016
00–1
610
1610
–162
016
20–1
630
1630
–164
016
40–1
650
1650
–166
016
60–1
670
1670
–168
016
80–1
690
1690
–170
0
Latin loans in English by decade, 1300–1700
24
LateMiddleEnglish
EarlyModernEnglish
(Middle)MiddleEnglish
Chaucer
Shake-speare
Milton
CaxtonTyndale
Sidney
Anglo-NormanFrenchascourtlanguage
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Theviewofmanyscholars,whichweadopt,isthatEnglishstresschangedduetothein[luenceofthemanyLatinwordsborrowedintoEnglishinthe16thand17thcenturies.
Latin borrowings
25
LatingrammarbyWilliamLily(c.1468–1522),widelyusedinElizabethanEnglandandthefollowingcenturies.
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ButwhydidthiswaveofborrowedwordssucceedinchangingtheEnglishstresssystem,whereastheearlierwaveofRomancewordsintheMiddleEnglishperioddidnot?
Latin borrowings
26
Ourviewisthatitisnotjustthequantityofborrowedwords,buttheirnature,thatiscrucial.
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FollowingcommentatorssuchasDanielsson(1948)andPoldauf(1981),wethinkthattheaccumulationofwordswithLatinsuf[ixeswasparticularlyimportant.
Examplesofthesesuf[ixesaregivenbelow:
Latin words with suffixes
SufDix
-ify
-ion
-itude
-ity
histórify
Example
prohibítion
in[ínitude
arídity
accidéntal
Example
Sicílian
animátion
harmónic
SufDix
-al(adj)
-an(adj)
-ation
-ic27
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Wordswiththesesuf[ixesareimportantbecausewhenwecomparethemtorelatedunsuf[ixedwords,wecanseethatstressisbeingin[luencedfromtheRIGHT:
Latin words with suffixes
SufDix
-ify
-ion
-itude
-ity
histórify
Example
prohibítion
in[ínitude
arídity
accidéntal
Example
Sicílian
animátion
harmónic
SufDix
-al(adj)
-an(adj)
-ation
-ic28
hístory
Related
prohíbit
ín[inite
árid
áccident
Related
Sícily
ánimate
hármony
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Alternatively,comparingwordswiththesamesuf[ixwouldshowthesamething:
Second-to-last(Penult)
ac-ci-DÉN-tal
Alternations with suffix -al
29
Wordswithstressonapenultimatesyllablecontrastwithwordsthathavestressontheantepenultimatesyllable.
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
in-stru-MÉN-talsa-cra-MÉN-talu-ni-VÉR-sal
2-1me-DÍ-ci-nalo-RÍ-gi-nal
phi-lo-SÓ-phi-calsa-TÍ-ri-cal
3-2-1
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Second-to-last(Penult)
ac-ci-DÉN-tal
Alternations with suffix -al
30
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
in-stru-MÉN-talsa-cra-MÉN-talu-ni-VÉR-sal
me-DÍ-ci-nalo-RÍ-gi-nal
phi-lo-SÓ-phi-calsa-TÍ-ri-cal
3-2-1
Recallthatthedifferencehastodowiththeformofthepenult:itreceivesstresswhenitisheavy(closedbyaconsonant,inthewordsbelow).
2-1
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Recallthatthedifferencehastodowiththeformofthepenult:itreceivesstresswhenitisheavy(closedbyaconsonant,inthewordsbelow).
Second-to-last(Penult)
ac-ci-DÉN-tal
Alternations with suffix -al
31
Wordswithstressontheantepenulthavealightpenult(endinginashortvowel).
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
in-stru-MÉN-talsa-cra-MÉN-talu-ni-VÉR-sal
me-DÍ-ci-nalo-RÍ-gi-nal
phi-lo-SÓ-phi-calsa-TÍ-ri-cal
3-2-12-1
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Theimportantthingisthatwhenspeakersareabletorecognizethatallthesewordscontainthesamesuf[ix,theycanseethatstressisbeingcomputedfromtheRIGHT.
Second-to-last(Penult)
ac-ci-DÉN-tal
Alternations with suffix -al
32
Third-to-last(Antepenult)
in-stru-MÉN-talsa-cra-MÉN-talu-ni-VÉR-sal
me-DÍ-ci-nalo-RÍ-gi-nal
phi-lo-SÓ-phi-calsa-TÍ-ri-cal
3-2-12-1
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Toputthein[luenceofRomanceloanwordsonaquantitativebasis,wewillcomparethesituationin1400(MiddleEnglish),theyearofChaucer’sdeath,and1570(EarlyModernEnglish).
Quantitative considerations
33
1570istheyearofthepublicationofPeterLevins’ManipulusVocabulorum,arhymingdictionarythatindicatesthelocationofstressinmanywords.
WebelievethatthisLevins’datashowsthatthedirectionofstressisintransition,withsomewordshavingstresscomputedfromtheLEFT(theoldway),andothersfromtheRIGHT(thenewway).
Ican’tgointothatevidencehere,however.
MANIPULUS VOCxVBULOEUM.
A DICTIONARY
ENGLISH AND LATIN WORDS,ARRANGED IN THE
ALPHABETICAL ORDER OF THE LAST SYLLABLES,
BY PETER LEVINS.
FIKST FEINTED A.D. 1570;
NOW RE-EDITED, WITH A PREFACE AND ALPHABETICAL INDEX,
HENRY B. WHEATLEY.
or T^f ^r \NIVEESJTY
]
PRINTED FOR THE CAMDEN SOCIETY.
M.DCCC.LXVn.
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AccordingtotheOED,by1400Englishhadborrowedaround6,580wordsofRomance(mostlyFrenchandLatin)origin,whichcomprisedabout21.5%ofthe30,568totalnumberofwordsinEnglishtothattime.
Quantitative considerations
1400 1570 %δ(change)
By1570,theRomancewordsincreasedby93%.However,thetotalwordsin1570increasedby127%.
a. 30,568 69,364 127%Allwordsb. 6,580 12,727 93%AllRomancewordsc. 21.5% 18.3% –3.2%%Romance/Allwords
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ThesenumberssuggestthattheoverallpercentageofRomancewordsinthelanguageisnotadecisivefactorintriggeringachangeinthestresssystem,becausetherewasnoincreaseintheoverallproportionofRomancewordsintheperiodofinterest.
Quantitative considerations
1400 1570 %δ(change)
Ifourhypothesisiscorrect,weshouldhoweverseeasigni[icantincreaseinthenumberofwordswithstress-affectingLatinatesuf[ixes.
a. 30,568 69,364 127%Allwordsb. 6,580 12,727 93%AllRomancewordsc. 21.5% 18.3% –3.2%%Romance/Allwords
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Asdisplayedbelow,thechangesinthispartoftheloanwordvocabularyarequitedramatic.
Quantitative considerations
163
64
242
1400
745
313
957
1570
357%
389%
295%
%δ
87
507
144
1400
279
1,717
563
1570
221%
239%
291%
%δ
-al(adj)
-an(adj)
-ation
Suf[ix
-ic
-ion
-ity
Suf[ix
Thequestionarises,though:howmanywordsareneededtocauseachangeinthegrammar?
Whyare163wordswithsuf[ix-alnotenoughtohaveaneffect,but745are?
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Thisquestionissimilartoasking:Ifwehavearuleandsomenumberofexceptions,howmanyexceptionalformscanbetoleratedbeforelearnersgiveupontherule?
The Tolerance Principle (Yang)
CharlesYang(2005;2016)hasproposedananswertothisquestion,intheformofatheoremhecallstheTolerancePrinciple:
TheTolerancePrincipleLetRbearulethatisapplicabletoNitems,ofwhich
eareexceptions.Risproductiveifandonlyiff
e≤θNwhereθN=N lnN
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Hederivesthistheoremfromconsiderationshavingtodowithef[icientsearch:
The Tolerance Principle (Yang)
Whenisitmoreef[icient,overall,tosearchthroughalistofitems,asopposedtomaintainingaruleandalistofexceptions?
TheTolerancePrincipleLetRbearulethatisapplicabletoNitems,ofwhich
eareexceptions.Risproductiveifandonlyiff
e≤θNwhereθN=N lnN
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Ican’tgointohowhecameupwiththisformula,butithastodowithZipf’sLaw,whichstatesthatthefrequencyofanywordisinverselyproportionaltoitsrankinthefrequencytable.
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Extrapolatingabit,wecaninterprettheTolerancePrincipleasmarkingthethreshold,whichwecalltheYangThreshold,Y(=θNbelow)beyondwhichtheright-sidedirectionalityoftheLatinatesuf[ixescannolongerbedismissedasexceptionstotheEnglishstressrule.
The Tolerance Principle (Yang)
TheTolerancePrincipleLetRbearulethatisapplicabletoNitems,ofwhich
eareexceptions.Risproductiveifandonlyiff
e≤θNwhereθN=N lnN
39
Atthatpoint,theyhavethepotentialtochangethestressruleitself.
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Inapplyingthisformula,then,wewilltakeetobethenumberofwordswithLatinsuf[ixes.
The Tolerance Principle (Yang)
TheTolerancePrincipleLetRbearulethatisapplicabletoNitems,ofwhich
eareexceptions.Risproductiveifandonlyiff
e≤θNwhereθN=N lnN
40
WhatisN?LetussimplyassumethatNisequaltothetotalnumberofwordsinthelanguage.
Thisisnodoubtanoversimpli[ication;however,itprovidesaninitialbaselinethatwecanhopetore[inelater.
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Plugginginthenumbers:AllwordsinEnglishrecordedintheOEDupto1400amountto30,568;in1570thereare69,364.
The Yang Threshold, Y
a.1400
30,5681570
69,364Allwords(N)b. 10.33 11.15lnNc. 2,960 6,223N/lnN=Y
41
Thenaturallogarithmsofthesenumbersare10.33and11.15.
N/lnN=2,960in1400and6,223in1570.
ThesearethenumbersofwordswithLatinsuf[ixesthatarerequiredtoreachtheYangThreshold,Y.
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ThenumberofLatinsuf[ixesin1400is1,788;in1570,6,682.
The Yang Threshold, Y
a.b.c.d.
140030,568
10.332,9601,788
157069,364
11.156,2236,682
Allwords(N)lnNN/lnN=YLatinsuf[ixes(L)
e. 60% 107%L/Y
In1400thisnumberisonly60%ofY,notenoughtoaffectthestressrule;thesewordscanbeviewedasexceptions.
In1570,thenumberisgreaterthanY;thesehavecrossedtheYangThreshold.
Theynowhavethepotentialtocauseachangetothestressrule,changingitsorientationfromtheLEFTedgetotheRIGHTone.
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Thequestionarises,though:Wherewerethenativewordswhenallthiswashappening?
What about the native words?
Wouldn’tthenativewordshavesuppliedcounterevidencetotheRIGHT-sideorientationoftheLatinborrowings,liketheydidtotheearlierwaveofRomanceborrowingsinMiddleEnglish?
Theansweristhatmostnativewordsbythistimewererelativelyshort,andwerethereforeequallyconsistentwithastressrulethatcountsfromtheLEFTandonethatcountsfromtheRIGHT.
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Forexample,manynativewordsweremonosyllables.
StressfromtheLEFTorRIGHT
44
Obviously,amonosyllableisconsistentwithanystressrule,asthereisonlyoneplacethatstresscouldgo.
StressfromtheLEFTorRIGHT
1 1
What about the native words?
STÓNEHÉADFÁREWÍLD
SÍTNÉAR
DRÍVEHÉLP
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Disyllablesarealsoambiguous;theycanreceivestressbytheoldrule:Stressthe1stsyllablefromtheLEFT;
1stsyllablefromtheLEFT
45
orbythenewone:StressthesecondsyllablefromtheRIGHT).
2ndsyllablefromtheRIGHT
12 21
What about the native words?
DÉ-vilWÁ-terHÍN-derYÉL-low
HÍN-derYÉL-low
DÉ-vilWÁ-ter
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ThenativewordswereabletoprevailovertheAnglo-Normanloanwords,butnotoverthelaterLatinloanwords,whichwerelongerandmorecomplex,andpresentedatypeofevidencethatthenativewordscouldnotcounter.
What about the native words?
SufDix
-ify
-ion
-itude
-ity
histórify
Example
prohibítion
in[ínitude
arídity
accidéntal
Example
Sicílian
animátion
harmónic
SufDix
-al(adj)
-an(adj)
-ation
-ic46
hístory
Related
prohíbit
ín[inite
árid
áccident
Related
Sícily
ánimate
hármony
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ThelessonsIdrawfromthisstoryare:
Conclusions
47
! First,thatitispossibletobeinvadedbypeoplewhotakeoveryourcountryandimposetheirforeignlanguagefor300years,withouttheseeventshavinganylastingeffectontheprosodyofthenativelanguage.
! Second,thatitisalsopossiblefornativespeakerstovoluntarilyborrowenoughwordsfromaforeignlanguagethat—iftheyaretherightkindsofwords—cancauseachangetotheprosodyofthenativelanguage.
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Conclusions
48
! Third,thatYang’sformulagivesus,forthe[irsttime,ahypothesisthatallowsustomeasurequantitativelytheeffectofborrowedvocabularyitemsonthestressruleofalanguage.
! Finally,thisexampleshowshowwecanconnectlanguagechangetolearnability,therebybringinghistoricallinguisticstobearonanaspectofcognition.
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Thankyou!
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Danielsson,Bror.1948.StudiesonaccentuationofpolysyllabicLatin,Greek,andRomanceloan-wordsinEnglish.Stockholm:Almqvist&Wiksells.
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Dresher,B.ElanandAditiLahiri.2016.Latinatesuf[ixesandthedirectionalityofEnglishstress.24thManchesterPhonologyMeeting,UniversityofManchester,May2016. 50
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Halle,MorrisandSamuelJayKeyser.1971.Englishstress:Itsform,itsgrowth,anditsroleinverse.NewYork:Harper&Row.
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Senior Common Room Lunch Talk University College
January 15, 2018
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