Self Disclosure theory

Encyclopedia ofHuman Relationships

Self-Disclosure

Contributors: Ruth SharabanyEditors: Harry T. Reis & Susan SprecherBook Title: Encyclopedia of Human RelationshipsChapter Title: "Self-Disclosure"Pub. Date: 2009Access Date: January 16, 2015Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.City: Thousand OaksPrint ISBN: 9781412958462Online ISBN: 9781412958479DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412958479.n463Print pages: 1418-1423

2009 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. SAGE knowledge

Page 3 of 12 Encyclopedia of Human Relationships: Self-Disclosure

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412958479.n463Self-disclosure is a process of revealing oneself to others. It is described as whatindividuals voluntarily say about themselves to others, including their thoughts, feelings,and experiences. Self-disclosure may involve personal information about facts orfeelings; it may be about the past, the future, or the present; it may be related orunrelated to the listener. Self-disclosure is key to the development and maintenanceof relationships whether it focuses on issues associated with the self, the listener, therelationship, or all three. It can be viewed as a personality trait related to other traitsor as an interpersonal process; either way, the extent to which people engage in self-disclosure affects and is affected by social interaction.

Theoretical and Conceptual FoundationsOne of the first researchers to examine self-disclosure was Sidney Jourard. Jourard,who was a psychotherapist, described self-disclosure and claimed that it was positivelyassociated with individuals' health and well-being. He argued that being able to sharefeelings, thoughts, and experiences with another person often serves as a relief toindividuals and may elicit support and validation from listeners.

The importance of self-disclosure to the development of interpersonal relationshipswas initially highlighted by Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor. In fact, Altman and Taylor'sSocial Penetration Theory describes self-disclosure as inextricably tied to relationaldevelopment. The theory suggests that increases in relational intimacy are a resultof individuals sharing increasingly personal information about themselves with eachother. When people first meet and do not know each other well, they tend to exchangeinformation that is impersonal and talk about a limited range of topics. [p. 1418 ]As they come to know and trust each other, they begin to disclose more personalinformation and talk about a relatively broad range of topics. According to the theory,sharing information is not only a means for individuals to become more intimate witheach other, it also is a way for them to evaluate the rewards and costs that may beassociated with their relationships. Altman and Taylor suggested that as long as therewards partners perceive as associated with their relationship are greater than thecosts they believe they will incur, relational development will continue.



Altman also argued that relational partners experience an ongoing struggle abouthow much information to disclose and how much to conceal. In-line with this idea,more recent theory and research suggest that people utilize self-disclosure to regulateand define their relationship boundaries. Thus, self-disclosure may be employedstrategically as a means to get closer to someone or it may be avoided in order topreserve relational distance.

In addition to examining the links between self-disclosure and relationship development,researchers and theorists have studied the degree to which individuals reciprocateself-disclosure. Reciprocity occurs when a person discloses to a listener, and thelistener discloses in response. Reciprocity has been studied in experiments wherea confederate, who disclosed at various levels, was introduced into small groups.Members of the groups responded to the confederate by matching the degree to whichthe confederate disclosed. Although self-disclosure often is reciprocated within a singlesituation, it also can be reciprocated at some other time in a different situation. Indeed,in long-standing relationships, reciprocity may take place over relatively long periods oftime. For example, research has demonstrated that although husbands and wives maynot reciprocate each other's disclosures immediately, they tend to match how much theydisclose to each other over time. Reciprocity may be viewed as an expression of trustbetween partners, as a tendency of individuals to model or mimic each other's behavior,or as a relational norm.

Measures and MethodsThe most common measures of self-disclosure are questionnaires that are used toelicit participants' reports of their self-disclosing behavior. Participants typically areasked either to report what they have disclosed or what they would be willing to discloseto certain people. For example, Jourard's original questionnaire consists of 60 items(a later version had 25) where each of six content areas is represented by 10 items.The six content areas are attitudes and opinions, tastes and interests, work and study,money, personality, and body. Participants' responses are framed in terms of the personto whom the information is revealed, such as the respondents' mother, friend, bestfriend, and so on.



Another method of measuring self-disclosure is by asking participants to keep diaries inwhich they report interactions with others, how much they disclosed, and how revealingor intimate their self-disclosures were. Diaries also may be used to obtain writtendescriptions of disclosures which then are rated by experts.

When researchers want to observe self-disclosure, they often do so by manipulating thedegree of disclosure in experiments. For example, an experimenter or a confederatecan disclose to a participant at different rates, and the degree of the participant's self-disclosure can be coded.

Self-disclosure can be measured from several perspectives. For example, researchershave assessed how much disclosure occurs because of the discloser's, or the listener's,characteristics. A relatively novel approach is measuring the degree of disclosure in adyad's interaction that occurs as a product of the relationship itself and the interactingpartners together, above and beyond the degree of self-disclosure of each individual.The introduction of psycho-physiological indices such as blood pressure, muscletension, and skin conductance has likewise expanded the possibilities for interpretingthe process and impact of self-disclosure. These indices enable researchers to measureself-reported degree of self-disclosure or anxiety and compare that assessment withsome physiological response. Discrepancies between self-reports and physiologicalmeasures may indicate ongoing distress that is not self-reported.

Outcomes Associated with Self-DisclosureAlthough disclosing information about oneself to others can be risky, self-disclosurehas been linked [p. 1419 ] to a number of positive psychological and physiologicaloutcomes. Some of the psychological benefits of self-disclosure include enhanced self-worth and self-validation. Self-disclosure can protect people from intrusive thoughts,free up cognitive resources, and facilitate insights. People who tend to discloseinformation about themselves to others typically are less anxious, less depressed,and less lonely and have less problematic interpersonal relationships than do others.Self-disclosure is related to commitment, love, and satisfaction in close relationships.Disclosure shows trust and confidence in others and often creates a positive cycle inrelationships.



The physiological benefits of self-disclosure also are striking. Research on self-expression and disclosure of emotional experiences has demonstrated that both can beassociated with better physical health. Various health indicators, such as markers of theimmune system, blood chemistry related to liver functioning, cardiovascular functioning,physical symptoms, morbidity, and even mortality rates, are related to a range ofmeasures and levels of self-disclosure. In the laboratory, talking about traumas hascaused immediate and striking reductions in disclosers' blood pressure level, muscletension, and skin conductance. The mechanism that researchers believe may be atwork here is that repressing negative experiences such as traumas, disappointments,rejection, and losses requires a physiological effort that impairs normal biologicalfunctions. Some researchers have argued that there is a curvilinear relationshipbetween degree of self-disclosure and degree of healththat those who disclose inmoderation are mostly better adjustedbut this argument has remained intuitive so far.It is important to acknowledge that because disclosing information about oneselfinvolves vulnerability and risk, it is not always associated with positive outcomes. Infact, a number of motivations work against disclosing. People may perceive the costsof disclosure as too high, or they may fear that their partner will not respond positivelyto the disclosure. Protecting the partner from being hurt or upset by the information isanother restraining motivation. Partners also may fear that the self-disclosure will causeloss of assumed similarity and thus create social distance. They may fear losing theirrelationship altogether because of the content of what they reveal.

People also may have negative experiences when they disclose. They may feelshame for deviating from expected norms or conversely, may experience regret for notrevealing the relevant information sooner. Those who disclose can create undesirableimpressions of themselves in their listeners. Self-disclosure that is not well received cancarry several costs. These include loss of privacy, being judged, losing face and status,instigating conflict, being deemed to have poor judgment, and so on. Likewise, theremay be costs to the listener, such as feeling hurt, being misunderstood, and so on.



Development of Self-Disclosure amongChildren and AdolescentsLittle is known about self-disclosure with regard to human development. People tendto assume that children express themselves genuinely, in earnest, and therefore thatthey self-disclose at higher rates than adults. It is reasonable to think that childrenare relatively nave and that their judgment of appropriateness is still developing.However, the distinct features of children's self-disclosure have not been investigatedsystematically. Research suggests that children's willingness to disclose to their parentstends to be higher when their relationship with their parents is warm. Disclosure tomothers and siblings tends to be higher than to fathers. Where relationships withparents are marked by distrust, the children's tendency is to avoid disclosing to parentsaltogether.

During adolescence, self-disclosure to friends and then to romantic partners tends toincrease, as young people seek validation and support more from peers than fromparents. This tendency seems to continue through the college years: College seniorswere found to disclose to best friends more than did freshmen.

Sex DifferencesIn North America, women disclose more to other women than men disclose to othermen. Women more than men disclose particularly to intimate persons such as theirmother, romantic partner, close female friends, and siblings. In contrast, a few studiesshow that men disclose more than [p. 1420 ] women to distant targets like coworkers,neighbors, and strangers. Women tend more than men to disclose about intimatetopics such as emotions, personal development, and personal relationships. Normativepatterns of relating to intimate others may discourage men from self-disclosing.Interestingly, men who avoid disclosing particularly in the context of close relationshipsregard self-disclosure as a sign of neediness, dependency, and weakness. In contrast,women may see self-disclosing as a desirable process by which they acquire sympathyand support, so it is a source of strength.



RelationshipsResearch generally suggests that self-disclosure is an important part of closerelationships. For instance, there is a positive association between self-disclosureand variables such as liking and relational satisfaction. Experiments where levels ofself-disclosure were manipulated have demonstrated that when people disclose tosomeone, they have a greater tendency to like that person. The reverse also is true:When individuals like someone, they are more likely to disclose to that person. Studiesfurther indicate that in ongoing relationships there is a positive association betweendisclosure and the tendency of partners to be emotionally involved with each other.Partners who disclose more to each other tend to report greater relational satisfactionand relational stability.

Although self-disclosure appears to be positively linked to happy, close relationships,it is important to note that the association between disclosure and intimacy is notnecessarily linear. Some theorists argue that relational partners experience dialecticaltensions between being open and closed about what they discuss with each other.Others similarly suggest that partners work together to establish a balance betweenwhat they disclose to each other and what they keep private. Scholars also notethat, after partners come to know each other well, their need to disclose personalinformation declines. Further, although self-disclosure among married couples isrelated to greater marital satisfaction, couples' self-disclosure can depend on the typeof relationship they maintain. For instance, researchers have noted that couples canbe characterized as evincing one of three relationship types: traditional, where thepartners use regular and traditional daily schedules and stress stability rather thansatisfaction; independent, where couples maintain a high level of companionshipand are assertive in their relationship; and separate, where partners are disengagedand control psychological and physical accessibility to each other. Studies of couplesinteracting in a laboratory setting showed that independents disclosed more thantraditionals who, in turn, disclosed more than separates. Further, separates andtraditionals disclosed a significantly higher proportion of factual information to oneanother, twice as much as independents.



Context: Cultural Differences, Social Class,SettingSelf-disclosure is influenced by norms and social rules that pertain to what isappropriate, depending on each situation and relationship. Cultures regulate differentlythe degree to which people self-disclose, the content of their disclosure (defining certaintopics as taboo), and the individuals to whom they discloseparents, siblings, spouse,acquaintances, and strangers. For instance in one comparative study, young AfricanAmericans of both genders were found to disclose less than young European men andwomen. Men of lower income, regardless of origin, tended to report less self-disclosureto intimate personsfamily, close friends, partnersand more to distant targets.Women, regardless of social class and origin, tended to disclose more to intimates.

Like culture, physical settings can affect self-disclosure. It is particularly complicated toregulate self-disclosure and privacy in a context where there is reduced physical spaceand crowding, where privacy is limited, and where much about each person is exposed.A context of this kind is the Israeli kibbutzim. In these very small, modern collectivecommunities self-disclosure is inhibited, although relationships among the membersare generally positive and cooperative. One of the explanations for the relative inhibitedself-disclosure in the kibbutz is that communal life is based on intense contact mostof the day. Until about 15 years ago, children also slept in separate children's houses,[p. 1421 ] thus experiencing almost around the clock contact. As a result of thisintense contact, people may feel the need to guard their psychological privacy and theirindividuality.

The most common participants in self-disclosure research have been students andmarried couples. Research on special groups and their special contexts, such asindividuals with HIV, gay men and lesbian women, sexual abuse survivors, and so on,will enable scholars to test the extent to which previous research findings valid underthese special circumstances.



Self-Disclosure and PsychotherapySelf-disclosure is important in psychotherapy to clarify the sense of self, to exploreinner thoughts and feelings, and to enable people to make choices in their relationshipsoutside the therapy. People who undergo psychotherapy tend to feel more open and toself-disclose more in other contexts (e.g., in their personal relationships) than peoplewho have not had therapy.

Individual psychotherapy usually involves two persons, the therapist and the client-patient. Self-disclosure by the latter is a cornerstone of psychotherapy. By disclosingthoughts and feelings that they see as unacceptable and having those thoughts andfeelings accepted by the therapist, client-patients are likely to experience greaterinternal peace. Greater disclosure by client-patients during therapy is associated withbetter therapeutic outcomes.

There are two extreme positions concerning self-disclosure by the therapist to the client-patient, as well as a recent position that is more moderate. Jourard who was amongthe first to coin the term self-disclosure within psychology, regarded it as essential forthe therapist to disclose to the client about himself or herself. In contrast, Freud, wholaid the foundation for most current psychothera-pies, advocated the total absence ofany disclosure by the therapist (although in practice he engaged in disclosure). Fordecades, self-disclosure by therapists was discouraged. Jourard's original sweepingsuggestion about its value was ignored. It was considered likely to interfere with thenature of responses from the client and to change the direction of the therapy. Thetherapist's refraining from verbal self-disclosure was part of an effort not to contaminatethe directions that patients chose to go. It meant belittling the effect of all the nonverbaland indirect information available to the patient about the therapist. In recent years aspart of a novel relational-psychodynamic therapy, a degree of self-disclosure by thetherapist is considered essential to the psychotherapeutic relationships. The placeof disclosure from therapists to clients has been conceived as positive, provided thatthe disclosure is intentional and planned by the therapist to suit the patient's specificneeds. Research indicates that self-disclosure by therapists, when appropriate, andespecially in response to similar client self-disclosure, may increase positive, rewarding,and reciprocal self-disclosure by the client.



RuthSharabany

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412958479.n463See also

Marital Typologies Openness and Honesty Secrets Taboo Topics

Further Readings

Chelune, G. J. (Ed.). (1979). Self-disclosure: Origins, patterns, and implications ofopenness in interpersonal relationships . London: Jossey-Bass.

Consedine, N. S., Sabag-Cohen, S., and Krivoshekova, Y. S. Ethnic, gender andsocioeconomic differences in young adults' self-disclosure: Who discloses what towhom? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 13 (3) (2007). 254263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.3.254

Derlega, V. J., & Berg, J. H. (1987). Self-disclosure: Theory, research and therapy .New York: Plenum Press.

Greene, K., Derlega, V. J., & Mathews, A. (2006). Self-disclosure in personalrelationships . In A. L. Vangelisti, ed. , & D. Perlman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbookof personal relationship (pp. 409427). New York: Cambridge University Press.Josselson, R., Leiblich, A., Sharabany, R., & Wiseman, H. (1997). Conversation asa method: Analyzing the relational world of people who were raised communally .Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Jourard, S. M. (1964). The transparent self . New York: Van Nostrand.Jourard, S. M., and Lasakow, P. Some factors in self-disclosure . Journal of Abnormaland Social Psychology 56 (1958). 9198.



Pennebaker, J. W. (Ed.). (1995). Emotion, disclosure, and health . Washington, DC:American Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10182-000

Petronio, S. (2002). Boundaries of privacy: Dialectics of disclosure . Albany: StateUniversity of New York Press.

Reis, H. T. (1998). Gender differences in intimacy and related behaviors: Context andprocess . In D. J. Canary, ed. , & K. Dindia (Eds.), Sex differences and similaritiesin communication: Critical essays and empirical investigations of sex and gender ininteraction (pp. 203231). Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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