SELECTION OF ARTICLES

CENTRE de DOCUMENTATIONde l’INSTITUT NATIONAL DE L’INFORMATION

GEOGRAPHIQUE ET FORESTIERE

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SELECTION OF ARTICLES

referenced between January 1

and February 29, 2012

IN ENGLISH

March 2012

bulletin 24

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CENTRE DE DOCUMENTATION DE L'INSTITUT GEOGRAPHIQUE NATIONAL6/8 Avenue Blaise Pascal - Cité Descartes - Champs sur Marne 77455 Marne la Vallée cedex 2Tél. : 01.64.15.32.80Télécopie : 01.64.15.32.84Mél : [email protected] Web : http://www.ensg.ign.fr

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Inside each item, references are ordered by publication date and author alphabetic order.

Contents

Bathymetry ............................................................................................................................. 3

Digital photogrammetry .................................................................................................................... 3

Geomatics ............................................................................................................................. 3

GIS ............................................................................................................................. 5

Image processing ............................................................................................................................. 5

Lasergrammetry ............................................................................................................................. 7

Orbital techniques .......................................................................................................................... 12

Photogrammetrical applications ..................................................................................................... 12

Physical geodesy ........................................................................................................................... 15

Radar image processing ................................................................................................................ 17

Spatial analysis ........................................................................................................................... 18

Spatial geodesy ........................................................................................................................... 18

Thematic mapping .......................................................................................................................... 21

_______________________________________________________________________________________Centre de Documentation de l’IGN – p. 2

BathymetryTitre Airborne bathymetric laser scannersAuteur(s) PETRIE (G.)Source GEOINFORMATICS, vol 14, n° 8, [01/12/2011], pp 18 - 24Mots clés BATHYMETRIE LASER, EAUX CONTINENTALES, EAUX COTIERES, LIDAR BATHYMETRIQUE,

LITTORAL, TELEMETRIE LASER AEROPORTEN° notice A2011-481Résumé d’auteur A new generation of airborne bathymetric laser scanners is currently being introduced

that promise (i) an improved speed and density of data acquisition and the extension of bathymetric surveys to ever deeper coastal waters on the one hand; and (ii) acquisition of dense data sets in shallow water, both in the problematic costal surf zone and also in inland waters.

Digital photogrammetryTitre Automatic photogrammetric solutionAuteur(s) YALON (D.)Source GEOINFORMATICS, vol 14, n° 8, [01/12/2011], pp 14 - 16Mots clés ACQUISITION D'IMAGES, CHAMBRE A FORMAT MOYEN, CHAMBRE A PETIT FORMAT,

ICAROS PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SUITE, LOGICIEL DE PHOTOGRAMMETRIEN° notice A2011-480Résumé d’auteur The use of small and medium format sensor for traditional photogrammetry can present a

number of prominent challenges. For these formats, the relatively small image footprint usually leads to a large number of images needing to be processed. Traditionally this fact has limited the use of small and medium format sensors to simple projects of small and unchallenging areas. This paper will describe the use of the Icaros Photogrammetric Suite (IPS2.0 and IPS3.0) through a case study of an extremely difficult project, captured with a small format sensor.

Titre Digital photogrammetric workstationsAuteur(s) LEMMENS (M.)Source GIM INTERNATIONAL, vol 25, n° 12, [27/01/2012], pp 28 - 31Mots clés DETECTION DE CONTOUR, EXTRACTION DE TRAITS CARACTERISTIQUES, STATION DE

TRAVAIL DE PHOTOGRAMMETRIE NUMERIQUE, TRAITEMENT AUTOMATIQUE DE DONNEES

N° notice A2011-466Résumé d’auteur For over a century, images taken from above-ground platforms have been major data

sources for topographic mapping, creation of base maps and many other uses. For the past decade or more, data has been extracted from the imagery using computer software on what have become known as digital photogrammetric workstations. Some of the tasks can be performed almost fully automatically while others require extensive human involvement. To tie in with the new product survey on digital photogrammetric workstations published on our website, this article discusses the latest status and features.

GeomaticsTitre Using snakes for the registration of topographic road database objects to ALS

featuresAuteur(s) GOPFERT (J.), ROTTENSTEINER (F.) et HEIPKE (C.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/11/2011], pp 858 -

871Mots clés ALGORITHME SNAKE, APPARIEMENT DE DONNEES LOCALISEES, BASE DE DONNEES

ROUTIERES, CONTOUR, DONNEES LIDAR, DONNEES LOCALISEES 3D, DONNEES TOPOGRAPHIQUES, MODELE NUMERIQUE DE PAYSAGE, OBJET GEOGRAPHIQUE, OPTIMISATION, RESEAU ROUTIER

N° notice A2011-473_______________________________________________________________________________________

Centre de Documentation de l’IGN – p. 3

Résumé d’auteur For historical reasons many national mapping agencies store their topographic data in a dual system consisting of a Digital Landscape Model (DLM) and a Digital Terrain Model (DTM). The DLM contains 2D vector data representing objects on the Earth’s surface, such as roads and rivers, whereas the DTM is a 2.5D representation of the related height information, often acquired by Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS). Today, many applications require reliable 3D topographic data. Therefore, it is advantageous to convert the dual system into a 3D DLM. However, as a result of different methods of acquisition, processing, and modelling, the registration of the two data sets often presents difficulties. Thus, a straightforward integration of the DTM and DLM might lead to inaccurate and semantically incorrect 3D objects. $In this paper we propose a new method for the fusion of the two data sets that exploits parametric active contours (also called snakes), focusing on road networks. For that purpose, the roads from a DLM initialise the snakes, defining their topology and their internal energy, whereas ALS features exert external forces to the snake via the image energy. After the optimisation process the shape and position of the snakes should coincide with the ALS features. With respect to the robustness of the method several known modifications of snakes are combined in a consistent framework for DLM road network adaptation. One important modification redefines the standard internal energy and thus the geometrical model of the snake in order to prevent changes in shape or position not caused by significant features in the image energy. For this purpose, the initial shape is utilized creating template-like snakes with the ability of local adaptation. This is one crucial point towards the applicability of the entire method considering the strongly varying significance of the ALS features. Other concepts related to snakes are integrated which enable our method to model network and ribbon-like characteristics simultaneously. Additionally, besides ALS road features information about context objects, such as bridges and buildings, is introduced as part of the image energy to support the optimisation process. Meaningful examples are presented that emphasize and evaluate the applicability of the proposed method.

Titre Development of an open-source toolbox for the analysis and visualization of remotely sensed time series

Auteur(s) BLOCK (C.), TURDUKULOV (U.) et al.Source CARTOGRAPHICA, vol 46, n° 4, [01/12/2011], pp 227 - 238Mots clés ANALYSE SPATIALE, ANALYSE VISUELLE, FONCTIONNALITE, IMAGE SATELLITE, LOGICIEL

DE VISUALISATION, LOGICIEL LIBRE, SERIE TEMPORELLEN° notice A2011-484Résumé d’auteur The GEONETCast data-dissemination system delivers free multi-source raw satellite

images and processed products to users worldwide; from these data, users can construct long time series to study dynamic phenomena. To explore these dynamics, using an animation with few controls is common practice. But animations easily produce information overload leading to change blindness, a problem that can be addressed in various ways. We present a combination of analytical and visual functionalities to better support visual exploration of animated time series. Analytical pre-processing functions include slicing and tracking of objects of interest. Results of the slicing and the tracking are input to the visualization environment, which is further enriched by tools to make various time, attribute, and area selections and by options to visually enhance selections relative to their surroundings, visualize the path of moving objects, and multiple layers. The resulting toolbox is dedicated to visual exploration and analysis of dynamic phenomena in time series. A case study demonstrates, with a use scenario, how it works. Early exposure of some visualization functions to users has already led to improvements, but more extensive testing will follow after further enrichment of the toolbox. Directions of future research are described.

Titre Land use issues in NepalAuteur(s) ACHARAYA (B.)Source GIM INTERNATIONAL, vol 25, n° 12, [27/01/2012], pp 23 - 27Mots clés AMENAGEMENT DU TERRITOIRE, CADASTRE ETRANGER, INFORMATION GEOGRAPHIQUE,

ORGANISATION GOUVERNEMENTALE, UTILISATION DU SOLN° notice A2011-465Résumé d’auteur Land use policy and planning do not function according to international standards in

Nepal for several reasons: landless and jobless people are encroaching on public and state land, such as forests, setting up squatter farms and settlements, ecosystems are deteriorating, and small-scale farmers are struggling to secure stable food supplies. The


author discusses the origin of the land-use issues scourging Nepal and proposes suggestions for solutions. It is obvious that not much can be done without technical assistance and funding from external donors.

Titre Geoprofessionals shouldlook outside their own boxAuteur(s) HAARSMA (D.)Source GIM INTERNATIONAL, vol 25, n° 12, [27/01/2012], pp 12 - 15Mots clés CHRONOLOGIE, CITYGML, ECHELLE CARTOGRAPHIQUE, INFRASTRUCTURE NATIONALE

DES DONNEES LOCALISEES, INSPIRE, SIG 3DN° notice A2011-464Résumé d’auteur Having specialized in 3D GIS, Jantien Stoter has already taken her next leap and is now

studying the concept of 5D GIS. Meanwhile, she realizes that there are still some gaps to bridge between technical sciences and practice. A highly technical person herself, she shares her views on which directions geoinformation professionals should be looking in to keep the field alive. She recently finished the first phase of a pilot on a 3D standard for The Netherlands' spatial data infrastructure involving nearly 70 stakeholders. The second phase is currently examining how to put the results of the first phase into practice. GIM International met up with her to learn more.

GISTitre PostGIS in actionAuteur(s) OBE (R.) et HSU (L.)Source GEOINFORMATICS, vol 14, n° 8, [01/12/2011], pp 30 - 34Mots clés BASE DE DONNEES RELATIONNELLE, LOGICIEL LIBRE, POSTGIS, POSTGRESQLN° notice A2011-482Résumé d’auteur With PostGIS 2.0 up, huge exposure during this year's FOSS4G event, it's safe to say

that PostGIS is here to stay. The authors of the book 'PostGIS in Action' describe in the following article everything you need to know about using PostGIS, its user base and its future release, PostGIS 2.0.

Image processingTitre An approach to the radiometric aerotriangulation of photogrammetric imagesAuteur(s) HERNANDEZ LOPEZ (D.), FELIPE GARCIA (B.), GONZALEZ PIQUERAS (J.) et VILLA

ALCAZAR (G.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/11/2011], pp 883 -

893Mots clés AEROTRIANGULATION RADIOMETRIQUE, CORRECTION RADIOMETRIQUE, DISTRIBUTION

DU COEFFICIENT DE REFLEXION BIDIRECTIONNEL, IMAGE AERIENNE, MODELE DE TRANSFERT RADIATIF, ORIENTATION EXTERNE, ORTHOIMAGE, POINT DE LIAISON (IMAGERIE), QUALITE RADIOMETRIQUE (IMAGE), ZONE HOMOGENE

N° notice A2011-474Résumé d’auteur Harnessing the radiometric information provided by photogrammetric flights could be

useful in increasing the thematic applications of aerial images. The aim of this paper is to improve relative and absolute homogenization in aerial images by applying atmospheric correction and treatment of bidirectional effects. We propose combining remote sensing methodologies based on radiative transfer models and photogrammetry models, taking into account the three-dimensional geometry of the images (external orientation and Digital Elevation Model). The photogrammetric flight was done with a Z/I Digital Mapping Camera (DMC) with a Ground Sample Distance (GSD) of 45 cm. Spectral field data were acquired by defining radiometric control points in order to apply atmospheric correction models, obtaining calibration parameters from the camera and surface reflectance images. Kernel-driven models were applied to correct the anisotropy caused by the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of surfaces viewed under large observation angles with constant illumination, using the overlapping area between images and the establishment of radiometric tie points. Two case studies were used: 8-bit images with applied Lookup Tables (LUTs) resulting from the conventional photogrammetric workflow for BRDF studies and original 12-bit images (Low Resolution


Color, LRC) for the correction of atmospheric and bidirectional effects. The proposed methodology shows promising results in the different phases of the process. The geometric kernel that shows the best performance is the Lidense kernel. The homogenization factor in 8-bit images ranged from 6% to 25% relative to the range of digital numbers (0–255), and from 18% to 35% relative to levels of reflectance (0–100) in the 12-bit images, representing a relative improvement of approximately 1–30%, depending on the band analyzed.

Titre A bundle adjustment approach with inner constraints for the scaled orthographic projection

Auteur(s) KEITH (F.), BLONQUIST (F.) et PACK (R.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/11/2011], pp 919 -

926Mots clés COMPENSATION PAR FAISCEAUX, CONTRAINTE D'INTEGRITE, LIGNE DE VISEE,

PROJECTION ORTHOGRAPHIQUEN° notice A2011-476Résumé d’auteur Bundle adjustment is a method for simultaneously calculating both the interior and

exterior orientation parameters of a set of images, and the object-space coordinates of the observed points. In the case of long focal length lenses and narrow field-of-view (FOV) imaging situations, collinearity based (perspective projection) algorithms may result in linear dependencies between parameters that cause solution instability. The use of a scaled orthographic projection model based on linear algebraic formulations was therefore adopted to reduce this risk. Using quaternions, a new mathematical model is derived that includes the partial derivatives as well as the inner constraint equations for a scaled orthographic bundle adjustment. The model was then tested using two image sets of a single, small vessel (about 6 m length) with a cube target of known dimensions at two distinct ranges; perspective solutions were also calculated for comparison. RMS residual errors of 0.74–0.78 pixels associated with the new method compare favorably to a residual error range of 0.59–0.74 pixels using a perspective bundle adjustment of the same target points. Relative precisions (as a ratio of target size) of between 1:1650 and 1:750 have been achieved at ranges of 375 m and 850 m, respectively, given comparisons with the known cube dimensions. A third image dataset consisting of a network of 16 images was solved with a 1:2200 relative precision showing the new method can successfully handle high redundancy. For the experiments that were conducted, the new method was found to produce less precise results than the perspective bundle solution for a FOV of 0.50–0.65° where the object fills 5–8% of the image. However, it was found to match the precision of the perspective model (with an uncalibrated camera) for a FOV of 0.20–0.30° where the object of interest fills only 1–2% of the full image.

Titre Object-based image analysis of high-resolution satellite images using modified cloud basis function neural network and probabilistic relaxation labeling process

Auteur(s) RIZVI (A.) et MOHAN (B.)Source IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE & REMOTE SENSING, vol 49, n° 12, [01/12/2011], pp 4815 -

4820Mots clés ANALYSE D'IMAGE NUMERIQUE, APPROCHE OBJET, CLASSIFICATION PAR RESEAU

NEURONAL, ESTIMATION DE PRECISION, ETIQUETTE, FONCTION RADIALE DE BASE, IMAGE A HAUTE RESOLUTION, PROCESSUS STOCHASTIQUE

N° notice A2011-479Résumé d’auteur Object-based image analysis is quickly gaining acceptance among remote sensing

community, and object-based image classification methods are increasingly being used for classification of land use/cover units from high-resolution satellite images with results closer to human interpretation compared to per-pixel classifiers. The problem of nonlinear separability of classes in a feature space consisting of spectral/spatial/textural features is addressed by kernel-based nonlinear mapping of the feature vectors. This facilitates use of linear discriminant functions for classification as used in artificial neural networks (ANNs). In this paper, performance of a recently introduced kernel called cloud basis function (CBF) is investigated with some modification for classification. The CBF has demonstrated superior performance to the tune of about 4% higher classification accuracy compared to conventional radial basis function used in ANN. The results are further improved by using probabilistic relaxation labeling as a postprocessing step. This paper has potential applications in urban planning and urban studies.


Titre Clustering of detected changes in high-resolution satellite imagery using a stabilized competitive agglomeration algorithm

Auteur(s) SJAHPUTERA (O.), SCOTT (G.), CLAYWELL (B.) et al.Source IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE & REMOTE SENSING, vol 49, n° 12, [01/12/2011], pp 4687 -

4703Mots clés ALGORITHME D'AGGLOMERATION, ANALYSE DE GROUPEMENT, CHEVAUCHEMENT,

CLASSIFICATION FLOUE, DALLE, DETECTION DE CHANGEMENT, IMAGE A HAUTE RESOLUTION, MOSAIQUE D'IMAGES

N° notice A2011-477Résumé d’auteur The Geospatial Change Detection and exploitation (GeoCDX) is a fully automated system

for detection and exploitation of change between multitemporal high-resolution satellite and airborne images. Overlapping multitemporal images are first organized into 256 m x 256 m tiles in a global grid reference system. The system quantifies the overall amount of change in a given tile with a tile change score as an aggregation of pixel-level changes. The tiles are initially ranked by these change scores for retrieval, review, and exploitation in a Web-based application. However, the ranking does not account for the wide variety of change types that are typically observed in the top-ranked change tiles. To automatically organize the wide variety of change patterns observed in multitemporal high-resolution imagery, we perform tile clustering using the competitive agglomeration (CA) algorithm stabilized using the fuzzy c-means (FCM) algorithm. Each resulting cluster contains tiles with a visually similar type of change. By visual inspection of these tile clusters, GeoCDX users can quickly find certain types of change without having to sift through a large number of tiles initially organized solely by their tile change score, thereby reducing the time it takes for users to discover and exploit the change pattern(s) of greatest interest to a given application (e.g., urban growth, disaster assessment, facility monitoring, etc.). The tile clusters also provide a high-level overview of the various types of change that occur between the two observations. This overview is compared with a similar yet more limited view offered by a relevance feedback tool that requires a user to select sample tiles for use as samples in the re-ranking process.

Titre An assessment of internal neural network parameters affecting image classification accuracy

Auteur(s) ZHOU (L.) et YANG (X.)Source PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING, vol 77, n° 12, [01/12/2012], pp 1233 - 1240Mots clés ANALYSE COMPARATIVE, CLASSIFICATION PAR MAXIMUM DE VRAISEMBLANCE,

CLASSIFICATION PAR RESEAU NEURONAL, IMAGE LANDSAT-ETM+, PERCEPTRON MULTICOUCHE, PRECISION DE LA CLASSIFICATION, PRECISION DES DONNEES

N° notice A2011-488Résumé d’auteur Neural networks are attractive intelligence techniques increasingly being used to classify

remote sensor imagery. However, their performance is contingent upon a wide range of algorithm and non-algorithm factors. Despite significant progresses being made over the past two decades, there is no consistent guidance that has been established to automate the use of neural networks in remote sensing. The purpose of this study was to assess several internal parameters affecting image classification accuracy by multi-layer-perceptron (mlp) neural networks. The MLP networks have been considered as the most popular neural network architecture. We carefully configured and trained a set of neural network models with different internal parameter settings. Then, we used these models to classify an Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) image into several major land cover categories, and the accuracy of each classified map was assessed. The results reveal that number of hidden layers, activation function, and training rate can substantially affect the classification accuracy and that a neural network with appropriate internal parameters can lead to a significant classification accuracy improvement for urban land covers when comparing to the outcome by the Gaussian Maximum Likelihood (GML) classifier. These findings can help design efficient neural network models for improved performance.

LasergrammetryTitre Improving the assessment of ICESat water altimetry accuracy accounting for

autocorrelationAuteur(s) ABDALLAH (H.), BAILLY (J.), BAGHDADI (N.) et LEMARQUAND (N.)


Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/11/2011], pp 833 - 844

Mots clés ALTIMETRIE SATELLITAIRE PAR LASER, AUTOCORRELATION SPATIALE, DONNEES ALTIMETRIQUES, DONNEES ICESAT-GLAS, FILTRAGE, FORME D'ONDE, GEOSTATISTIQUE, INCERTITUDE GEOMETRIQUE, PRECISION ALTIMETRIQUE, RESSOURCES EN EAU

N° notice A2011-471Résumé d’auteur Given that water resources are scarce and are strained by competing demands, it has

become crucial to develop and improve techniques to observe the temporal and spatial variations in the inland water volume. Due to the lack of data and the heterogeneity of water level stations, remote sensing, and especially altimetry from space, appear as complementary techniques for water level monitoring. In addition to spatial resolution and sampling rates in space or time, one of the most relevant criteria for satellite altimetry on inland water is the accuracy of the elevation data. Here, the accuracy of ICESat LIDAR altimetry product is assessed over the Great Lakes in North America. The accuracy assessment method used in this paper emphasizes on autocorrelation in high temporal frequency ICESat measurements. It also considers uncertainties resulting from both in situ lake level reference data. A probabilistic upscaling process was developed. This process is based on several successive ICESat shots averaged in a spatial transect accounting for autocorrelation between successive shots. The method also applies pre-processing of the ICESat data with saturation correction of ICESat waveforms, spatial filtering to avoid measurement disturbance from the land–water transition effects on waveform saturation and data selection to avoid trends in water elevations across space. Initially this paper analyzes 237 collected ICESat transects, consistent with the available hydrometric ground stations for four of the Great Lakes. By adapting a geostatistical framework, a high frequency autocorrelation between successive shot elevation values was observed and then modeled for 45% of the 237 transects. The modeled autocorrelation was therefore used to estimate water elevations at the transect scale and the resulting uncertainty for the 117 transects without trend. This uncertainty was 8 times greater than the usual computed uncertainty, when no temporal correlation is taken into account. This temporal correlation, corresponding to approximately 11 consecutive ICESat shots, could be linked to low transmitted ICESat GLAS energy and to poor weather conditions. Assuming Gaussian uncertainties for both reference data and ICESat data upscaled at the transect scale, we derived GLAS deviations statistics by averaging the results at station and lake scales. An overall bias of -4.6 cm (underestimation) and an overall standard deviation of 11.6 cm were computed for all lakes. Results demonstrated the relevance of taking autocorrelation into account in satellite data uncertainty assessment.

Titre Multi-view dense matching supported by triangular meshesAuteur(s) BUTALOV (D.), WERNERUS (P.) et HEIPKE (C.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/11/2011], pp 907 -

918Mots clés APPARIEMENT D'IMAGES, DONNEES LIDAR, DONNEES LOCALISEES 3D, MAILLAGE PAR

TRIANGLES, PRECISION INFRAPIXELLAIRE, RECONSTRUCTION 3D, SEMIS DE POINTS, SEQUENCE D'IMAGES, TESSELLATION

N° notice A2011-475Résumé d’auteur We present a new procedure to compute dense 3D point clouds from a sequential set of

images. This procedure is considered as a second step of a three-step algorithm for 3D reconstruction from image sequences, whose first step consists of image orientation and the last step is shape reconstruction. We assume that the camera matrices as well as a sparse set of 3D points are available and we strive for obtaining a dense and reliable 3D point cloud. Three novel ideas are presented: (1) for sparse tracking and triangulation, the search space for correspondences is reduced to a line segment by means of known camera matrices and disparity ranges are provided by triangular meshes from the already available points; (2) triangular meshes from extended sets of points are used for dense matching, because these meshes help to reconstruct points in weakly textured areas and present a natural way to obtain subpixel accuracy; (3) two non-local optimization methods, namely, 1D dynamic programming along horizontal lines and semi-global optimization were employed for refinement of local results obtained from an arbitrary number of images. All methods were extensively tested on a benchmark data set and an infrared video sequence. Both visual and quantitative results demonstrate the effectiveness of our algorithm.


Titre Potential of an ultraviolet, medium-footprint lidar prototype for retrieving forest structure

Auteur(s) ALLOUIS (T.), DURRIEU (S.), CHAZETTE (P.), BAILLY (J.) et al.Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 92 -

102Mots clés ATTENUATION DU SIGNAL, CONIFERE, CORRECTION DU SIGNAL, DONNEES LIDAR,

EMPREINTE, FORET TEMPEREE, GEOSTATISTIQUE, HAUTEUR DES ARBRES, INSTRUMENT AEROPORTE, RAYONNEMENT ULTRAVIOLET, SURVEILLANCE FORESTIERE

N° notice A2011-522Résumé d’auteur The aim of the paper is to carry on methodological development for retrieving forest

parameters from medium-footprint lidar signals and for assessing the performance of different sampling strategies. The 2.4 m footprint lidar prototype (a profiler instrument using an ultraviolet laser) was flown above two different maritime pine stands: a young plantation (10 years old) and a mature, semi-natural stand (55 years old), both in the Landes forest, France. The vertical distribution of lidar measurements was studied for retrieving forest height parameters (mean total height, mean crown height and top height). The processing algorithm was based on an aggregation of successive signals followed by the correction of the signal attenuation along the travel through the vegetation. The performance of different sampling strategies was assessed by comparing the results for the full dataset (several fight lines over the stands) and for only a data subset (one flight line). In addition, the horizontal distribution of height measurements was studied for identifying the planting pattern of the stands and assessing the tree spacing of the semi-natural parcel, using geostatistics. We obtained a submetric estimation error (lidar – reference) of 0.2 m on the mean total height in the young stand (-0.7 m in the mature stand), a bias of -0.3 m (-0.3 m) on the mean crown height measurement and of 0.6 m (-1.0 m) on the top height. The planting pattern was also successfully identified, and the distance between trees was assessed in agreement with ground measurements. Having demonstrated its ability to assess forest structure, even with a unique flight line, the lidar prototype seems to be a valuable sensor for performing fast forest inventory at regional scale. In addition, this sensor opens the way to the development of bi-functional lidar for both atmosphere and vegetation remote sensing.

Titre Extracting roads from dense point clouds in large scale urban environmentAuteur(s) BOYKO (A.) et FUNKHOUSER (T.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 2 - 12Mots clés CARTE ROUTIERE, CENTRE URBAIN, DONNEES LIDAR, EXTRACTION DE ROUTE,

REPRESENTATION CARTOGRAPHIQUE 3D, RESEAU ROUTIER, SEMIS DE POINTS, ZONE URBAINE

N° notice A2011-514Résumé d’auteur This paper describes a method for extracting roads from a large scale unstructured 3D

point cloud of an urban environment consisting of many superimposed scans taken at different times. Given a road map and a point cloud, our system automatically separates road surfaces from the rest of the point cloud. Starting with an approximate map of the road network given in the form of 2D intersection locations connected by polylines, we first produce a 3D representation of the map by optimizing Cardinal splines to minimize the distances to points of the cloud under continuity constraints. We then divide the road network into independent patches, making it feasible to process a large point cloud with a small in-memory working set. For each patch, we fit a 2D active contour to an attractor function with peaks at small vertical discontinuities to predict the locations of curbs. Finally, we output a set of labeled points, where points lying within the active contour are tagged as “road” and the others are not. During experiments with a LIDAR point set containing almost a billion points spread over six square kilometers of a city center, our method provides 86% correctness and 94% completeness.

Titre Aeolian beach sand transport monitored by terrestrial laser scanningAuteur(s) LINDENBERGH (R.), SOUDARISSANANE (S.), VRIES (S. DE) et al.Source PHOTOGRAMMETRIC RECORD, vol 26, n° 136, [01/12/2011], pp 384 - 399Mots clés DONNEES LIDAR, EROSION EOLIENNE, GEOMORPHOLOGIE, LASERGRAMMETRIE,

LITTORAL, SABLE, SURVEILLANCE GEOLOGIQUE, TRANSPORT EOLIENN° notice A2011-493Résumé d’auteur Morphodynamic changes at sandy coasts, as are dominant in the Netherlands, are

typically monitored at yearly intervals by means of airborne laser scanning. Meanwhile it is recognized that beach morphodynamics is not a regular process and is strongly


correlated to meteorological conditions. A series of 25 terrestrial laser scans of a beach experiment is analyzed, obtained during a time period of 88 hours, characterized by changing weather conditions including strong wind and rain. It is shown that after a conversion to a cylindrical grid, different deformation regimes can be identified and rates of elevation changes below 1 mm per hour can be detected. Simultaneously, an analysis of distances between targets through time demonstrates the sensitivity of the used measurement set-up to the harsh weather conditions.

Titre Relevance assessment of full-waveform lidar data for urban area classificationAuteur(s) MALLET (C.), BRETAR (F.), ROUX (M.), SOERGEL (U.) et HEIPKE (C.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 71 -

84Mots clés ANALYSE COMPARATIVE, CLASSIFICATION AUTOMATIQUE, CLASSIFICATION PAR

MACHINE A VECTEURS DE SUPPORT, DONNEES LIDAR, FORME D'ONDE PLEINE, METHODE DES MOINDRES CARRES, PERTINENCE, ZONE URBAINE

N° notice A2011-520Résumé d’auteur Full-waveform lidar data are increasingly being available. Morphological features can be

retrieved from the echoes composing the waveforms, and are now extensively used for a large variety of land-cover mapping issues. However, the genuine contribution of these features with respect to those computed from standard discrete return lidar systems has been barely theoretically investigated. This paper therefore aims to study the potential of full-waveform data through the automatic classification of urban areas in building, ground, and vegetation points. Two waveform processing methods, namely a non-linear least squares method and a marked point process approach, are used to fit the echoes both with symmetric and asymmetric modeling functions. The performance of the extracted full-waveform features for the classification problem are then compared to a large variety of multiple-pulse features thanks to three feature selection methods. A support vector machines classifier is finally used to label the point cloud according to various scenarios based on the rank of the features. This allows to find the best classification strategy as well as the minimal feature subsets allowing to achieve the highest classification accuracy possible for each of the three feature selection methods. The results show that the echo amplitude as well as two features computed from the radiometric calibration of full-waveform data, namely the cross-section and the backscatter coefficient, significantly contribute to the high classification accuracies reported in this paper (around 95%). Conversely, features extracted from the non Gaussian modelling of the echoes are not relevant for the discrimination of vegetation, ground, and buildings in urban areas.

Titre Recognizing basic structures from mobile laser scanning data for road inventory studies

Auteur(s) PU (S.), RUTZINGER (M.), VOSSELMAN (G.) et OUDE ELBERINK (S.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 28 -

39Mots clés CLASSIFICATION ASCENDANTE HIERARCHIQUE, DONNEES LIDAR, DONNEES LOCALISEES

3D, RECONNAISSANCE DE FORMES, RESEAU ROUTIER, ZONE URBAINE DENSEN° notice A2011-516Résumé d’auteur Road safety inspection is currently carried out by time-consuming visual inspection. The

latest mobile mapping systems provide an efficient technique for acquiring very dense point clouds along road corridors, so that automated procedures for recognizing and extracting structures can be developed. This paper presents a framework for structure recognition from mobile laser scanned point clouds. It starts with an initial rough classification into three larger categories: ground surface, objects on ground, and objects off ground. Based on a collection of characteristics of point cloud segments like size, shape, orientation and topological relationships, the objects on ground are assigned to more detailed classes such as traffic signs, trees, building walls and barriers. Two mobile laser scanning data sets acquired by different systems are tested with the recognition methods. Performance analyses of the test results are provided to demonstrate the applicability and limits of the methods. While poles are recognized for up to 86%, classification into further categories requires further work and integration with imagery.

Titre 3D-sutra-interactive analysis tool for a Web atlas of scanned sutra inscriptions in China

Auteur(s) SCHMIDT (N.), SCHUTZE (R.) et BOOCHS (F.)Source PHOTOGRAMMETRIC RECORD, vol 26, n° 136, [01/12/2011], pp 488 - 505


Mots clés ATLAS NUMERIQUE, DONNEES LIDAR, DONNEES LOCALISEES 3D, PATRIMOINE ARCHEOLOGIQUE, PROGRAMME INTERACTIF, RECONSTRUCTION 3D, SITE WEB, TELEMETRIE LASER TERRESTRE

N° notice A2011-498Résumé d’auteur Buddhist stone inscriptions of the 8th to 12th centuries ad are important cultural assets of

China that need to be documented, analysed and interpreted archaeologically, art-historically and linguistically. On the one hand, such Buddhist stone inscriptions have to be conserved for future generations, but on the other hand, further possibilities for analysing the data could be achieved if the inscriptions were made accessible to a wider community, for instance, for understanding of the historical growth of Buddhism in China. In this paper, innovative techniques for the documentation of stone inscriptions located in the province of Sichuan, in the south-west of China, are demonstrated. The tasks to be performed include capturing the stone inscriptions by using high precision measuring techniques to generate copies of the original inscriptions, together with processing of the data enabling improvement in the legibility of characters and thus aiding the interpretation of the inscriptions. The concept and features of image processing as applied to the captured inscriptions are outlined. In order to present the outcome to as many people as possible and to allow individual interpretations of the results of the stone inscription reconstruction, their current interpretation and additional 2D/3D maps are published within an interactive web platform.

Titre Testing a near-infrared Lidar mounted with a large incidence angle to monitor the water level of turbid reservoirs

Auteur(s) TAMARI (S.), MORY (J.) et GUERRERO-MEZA (V.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 85 -

91Mots clés ANGLE D'INCIDENCE, COEFFICIENT DE RETRODIFFUSION, DONNEES LIDAR, NIVEAU DE

L'EAU, RAYONNEMENT PROCHE INFRAROUGE, RETRODIFFUSIONN° notice A2011-521Résumé d’auteur It is sometimes difficult to monitor the water level of reservoirs with a sloping bank – such

as many lakes and earth-dam embankment – using terrestrial techniques or airborne instruments. A proposed alternative is a new technique using a terrestrial near-infrared Lidar mounted with a large incidence angle (at least between 40° and 70°). This technique assumes that the Lidar can detect the (sub-)surface of a water body provided that it contains enough suspended particles to backscatter the light emitted by the instrument to its detector. Tests performed with a commercial Lidar show that the technique can be used to estimate the water level of a reservoir with moderate accuracy (within ∆0.05 m [p = 0.95]) when the water is very turbid (Secchi depth < 0.5 m). The versatility and accuracy of the technique is expected to improve in the future with the use of current Lidar that are more sophisticated than the tested one.

Titre Fast and automatic image-based registration of TLS dataAuteur(s) WEIMANN (M.), WEIMANN (M.), HINZ (S.) et JUTZI (B.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 62 -

70Mots clés ALGORITHME RANSAC, DONNEES LASER, DONNEES LOCALISEES 2D, DONNEES

LOCALISEES 3D, PRECISION CENTIMETRIQUE, SEMIS DE POINTS, SIFT (ALGORITHME), SUPERPOSITION D'IMAGES, TRAITEMENT D'IMAGE

N° notice A2011-519Résumé d’auteur The fast and automatic registration of laser scanner data is of great interest in

photogrammetric research. Recent developments show that for registration purposes characteristic 3D points can be extracted from the measured laser data, where the data are also represented as image. In this paper, radiometric and geometric information derived from TLS data are utilized for estimating the transformation parameters between two unregistered point clouds. After the extraction of characteristic 2D points based on SIFT features, these points are projected into 3D space by using interpolated range information. From these 3D conjugate points and their corresponding 2D projections onto a virtual plane 3D-to-2D correspondences are established. The fast, accurate and robust RANSAC-based registration scheme including the EPnP algorithm provides a framework to estimate the coarse transformation parameters from these 3D-to-2D correspondences. The coarse estimates are further refined by a single step outlier removal to gain a higher accuracy by introducing additional geometric constraints. These new constraints are based on 3D-to-3D correspondences which are much stronger than the 3D-to-2D


correspondences alone. It will be shown that the presented approach is successfully applied to a benchmarked data set with millions of points resulting in a fast and accurate estimation of the transformation parameters with a processing speed of several seconds on a standard PC and an accuracy in the low centimeter range.

Titre Building feature extraction from airborne lidar data based on tensor voting algorithm

Auteur(s) YOU (R.) et LIN (B.)Source PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING, vol 77, n° 12, [01/12/2012], pp 1221 - 1231Mots clés ALGORITHME D'EXTRACTION, CALCUL TENSORIEL, DONNEES LIDAR, EXTRACTION DE

TRAITS CARACTERISTIQUES, VALEUR PROPREN° notice A2011-487Résumé d’auteur This study presents a novel approach based on the tensor voting framework for extracting

building features from airborne lidar data. Geometric features of lidar points are represented by a tensor field in this paper. For the extraction of roof patches, a region-growing method with principal features is developed from the properties of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the tensor field. Additionally, three new indicators for the strength of features are presented to reduce the effect of the number of points on feature identification, and a supervised method is proposed to determine the threshold of planar feature strength for the region-growing. The extraction of ridge and edge lines from the segmented roof patches is also discussed. Experiments based on airborne lidar data are described to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, with those the results compared with the PCA method.

Orbital techniquesTitre GPS-derived orbits for the GOCE satelliteAuteur(s) BOCK (H.), JAGGI (A.), MEYER (U.), VISSER (P.) et al.Source JOURNAL OF GEODESY, vol 85, n° 11, [01/11/2011], pp 807 - 818Mots clés ANTENNE GPS, GOCE, ORBITE BASSE, ORBITOGRAPHIE, ORBITOGRAPHIE PAR GPS,

POSITIONNEMENT CINEMATIQUE, SERIE TEMPORELLE, TELEMETRIE LASER SUR SATELLITE

N° notice A2011-469Résumé d’auteur The first ESA (European Space Agency) Earth explorer core mission GOCE (Gravity field

and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer) was launched on 17 March 2009 into a sun-synchronous dusk–dawn orbit with an exceptionally low initial altitude of about 280 km. The onboard 12-channel dual-frequency GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver delivers 1 Hz data, which provides the basis for precise orbit determination (POD) for such a very low orbiting satellite. As part of the European GOCE Gravity Consortium the Astronomical Institute of the University of Bern and the Department of Earth Observation and Space Systems are responsible for the orbit determination of the GOCE satellite within the GOCE High-level Processing Facility. Both quick-look (rapid) and very precise orbit solutions are produced with typical latencies of 1 day and 2 weeks, respectively. This article summarizes the special characteristics of the GOCE GPS data, presents POD results for about 2 months of data, and shows that both latency and accuracy requirements are met. Satellite Laser Ranging validation shows that an accuracy of 4 and 7 cm is achieved for the reduced-dynamic and kinematic Rapid Science Orbit solutions, respectively. The validation of the reduced-dynamic and kinematic Precise Science Orbit solutions is at a level of about 2 cm.

Photogrammetrical applicationsTitre Data fusion of extremely high resolution aerial imagery and LiDAR data for

automated railroad centre line reconstructionAuteur(s) BEGER (R.), GEDRANGE (C.), HECHT (R.) et NEUBERT (M.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 40 -

51


Mots clés AXE MEDIAN, DONNEES LIDAR, DONNEES LOCALISEES 3D, EXTRACTION DE TRAITS CARACTERISTIQUES, FUSION DE DONNEES, IMAGE AERIENNE, LASERGRAMMETRIE, ORTHOIMAGE, PRECISION DES DONNEES, SEMIS DE POINTS, VOIE FERREE

N° notice A2011-517Résumé d’auteur The quality of remotely sensed data in regards of accuracy and resolution has

considerably improved in recent years. Very small objects are detectable by means of imaging and laser scanning, yet there are only few studies to use such data for large scale mapping of railroad infrastructure. In this paper, an approach is presented that integrates extremely high resolution ortho-imagery and dense airborne laser scanning point clouds. These data sets are used to reconstruct railroad track centre lines. A feature level data fusion is carried out in order to combine the advantages of both data sets and to achieve a maximum of accuracy and completeness. The workflow consists of three successive processing steps. First, object-based image analysis is used to derive a railroad track mask from ortho-imagery. This spatial location information is then combined with the height information to classify the laser points. Lastly, the location of railroad track centre lines from these classified points were approximated using a feature extraction method based on an adapted random sample consensus algorithm. This workflow is tested on two railroad sections and was found to deliver very accurate results in a quickly and highly automated manner.

Titre Investigation of UAV systems and flight modes for photogrammetric applicationsAuteur(s) EISENBEISS (H.) et SAUERBIER (M.)Source PHOTOGRAMMETRIC RECORD, vol 26, n° 136, [01/12/2011], pp 400 - 421Mots clés ACQUISITION D'IMAGES, CARTE THEMATIQUE, DRONE, FOUILLE ARCHEOLOGIQUE,

MODELISATION 3D, ORIENTATION DU CAPTEUR, PHOTOGRAMMETRIE NUMERIQUE, TRAJECTOIRE

N° notice A2011-494Résumé d’auteur Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry has been used in a growing number of

diverse applications across different scientific disciplines. Early applications of UAVs included cultural heritage and archaeology, mainly for the documentation and modelling of monuments, buildings and landscapes. In this paper, the focus is on the application of UAVs for documenting archaeological excavations. As excavating is a dynamic process and the objects to be acquired can change significantly within a few hours, UAVs can provide a suitable alternative to traditional measurement methods such as measuring tapes and tachymeters. Nevertheless, the image processing steps have to be automated, as a large number of resulting materials, usually sketches, maps, ortho-images and 3D models, need to be available quickly. In order to accelerate the processing workflow, an interface between the UAV ground control software and various photogrammetric software packages was developed at ETH Zurich, which allows for an efficient management and transfer of orientation, trajectory and sensor data for rapid project set up.

Titre Surveying and modelling the Main Spire of Milan Cathedral using multiple data sources

Auteur(s) FASSI (F.), ACHILLE (C.) et FREGONESE (L.)Source PHOTOGRAMMETRIC RECORD, vol 26, n° 136, [01/12/2011], pp 462 - 487Mots clés CATHEDRALE, LEVER TOPOMETRIQUE, MODELISATION 3D, PATRIMOINE IMMOBILIER,

SURVEILLANCE D'OUVRAGE, TOITN° notice A2011-497Résumé d’auteur This paper presents a possible way of surveying and modelling very complex

architecture, integrating different instrumentation and modelling methods. In particular, it aims to draw attention to a possible measurement and data processing procedure allowing the rapid collection and post-processing of data in order to extract classical architectural products such as sections and profiles, and to build complete, accurate 3D models. The need is to structure a multiple data source procedure within a five-year project (still in progress) to survey and model the main spire of Milan Cathedral three-dimensionally. The spire is a very complex object and, for this reason, provides a really useful, challenging field test for new 3D survey technologies and, in particular, for integrating a variety of modelling methodologies. The paper describes survey workflow and processing steps, focusing on problems and justifying key choices.

Titre Automatic roof model reconstruction from ALS data and 2D ground plans based on side projection and the TMR [TIN-Merging and Reshaping] algorithm


Auteur(s) RAU (J.) et LIN (B.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 13 -

27Mots clés DETECTION DU BATI, DONNEES LIDAR, FUSION DE DONNEES, LASERGRAMMETRIE,

MODELISATION 3D, RECONSTRUCTION 3D DU BATI, TELEMETRIE LASER AEROPORTE, TOIT, TRIANGULATED IRREGULAR NETWORK

N° notice A2011-515Résumé d’auteur This paper presents an automatic roof model reconstruction method based on the side

projection of airborne laser scanning (ALS) data. The proposed approach first detects the building’s primary orientation and decomposes multi-layer roofs into a single one. Then, 3D structural lines are detected and restored from the projected point clouds. Finally, a line-based roof model reconstruction algorithm, namely TIN-Merging and Reshaping (TMR), is proposed. The originality for 3D roof modeling is to perform geometric analysis and topology reconstruction from two 2D projections and then reshapes the roof using elevation information from the 3D structural lines or ALS data. Experimental results indicate a nearly 100% success rate for topology reconstruction can be achieved provided that the 3D structural lines can be enclosed as polygons. However, the success rate of the Reshaping stage is dependent on the complexity of the rooftop structure. With the exception of domed and multiple orientations roofs, which are not considered in the developed method, we achieve success rates around 92–95%. As for absolute accuracy, less that 50 cm of root-mean-square error is observed in all X–Y–Z directions. The results demonstrate that the proposed scheme is robust and accurate even when a group of connected buildings with multiple layers and mixed roof types is processed.

Titre Review of geometric and radiometric analyses of paintingsAuteur(s) REMONDINO (F.), BARAZZETTI (L.), SCAIONI (M.) et al.Source PHOTOGRAMMETRIC RECORD, vol 26, n° 136, [01/12/2011], pp 439 - 461Mots clés CAPTEUR ACTIF, DEFORMATION D'IMAGE, IMAGE MULTIBANDE, PATRIMOINE MOBILIER,

PEINTURE, PHOTOGRAMMETRIE TERRESTRE, QUALITE RADIOMETRIQUE (IMAGE), RESTITUTION, SURVEILLANCE, TELEMETRIE LASER TERRESTRE, VALEUR RADIOMETRIQUE

N° notice A2011-496Résumé d’auteur This paper presents an overview of a number of diagnostic campaigns carried out to

assess the conservation state of paintings. The specific characteristics required in cultural heritage applications have been investigated and are reported, where two main fields are considered: radiometric analyses using multispectral images and 3D surveying for geometric deformation analysis by means of photogrammetry and laser scanning. The activities described were accomplished in interdisciplinary teams, composed of photogrammetrists, art-historians, restorers and experts of non-destructive diagnostic techniques.

Titre Photogrammetric techniques for voxel-based flow velocity field measurementAuteur(s) WESTFELD (P.) et MAAS (H.)Source PHOTOGRAMMETRIC RECORD, vol 26, n° 136, [01/12/2011], pp 422 - 438Mots clés CHAMP DE VITESSE, CUBE, DIMENSION TEMPORELLE, DYNAMIQUE DES FLUIDES, IMAGE

MULTICAPTEUR, METHODE DES MOINDRES CARRES, RECONSTRUCTION 3D, TOMOGRAPHIE, TRANSFORMATION AFFINE, VOXEL

N° notice A2011-495Résumé d’auteur The paper presents improved photogrammetric techniques for the determination of 3D

flow velocity fields with the goal of optimising the performance, efficiency and flexibility of the method. This includes a multi-camera system configuration and calibration, as well as approaches for volumetric reconstruction. The result of the volumetric reconstruction process is a time-resolved, voxel-space representation of tracer particles marking a flow. Using a high-speed camera, a typical data-set consists of 1000 volumetric data-sets per second, each with 1000 x 1000 x 300 voxels. 3D tracking in the time-resolved voxel data is performed by 3D least squares tracking, determining 12 parameters of a 3D affine transformation between cuboids in successive voxel data-sets. Besides the cuboid translation, these parameters also include information on the shear tensor of each cuboid. The tomographic reconstruction methods and the cuboid tracking have been implemented and validated with both simulated and real data in an experimental set-up of a vortex ring in a water tank.


Titre Fusion of camera images and laser scans for wide baseline 3D scene alignment in urban environments

Auteur(s) YING YANG (M.), CAO (Y.) et MCDONALD (J.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/12/2011], pp 52 -

61Mots clés DONNEES LIDAR, DONNEES LOCALISEES 2D, DONNEES LOCALISEES 3D, EXTRACTION DE

TRAITS CARACTERISTIQUES, FUSION DE DONNEES, LASERGRAMMETRIE, LIGNE DE BASE, PRISE DE VUE TERRESTRE, SEMIS DE POINTS, SUPERPOSITION DE DONNEES, ZONE URBAINE

N° notice A2011-518Résumé d’auteur In this paper we address the problem of automatic laser scan registration in urban

environments. This represents a challenging problem for two major reasons. First, two individual laser scans might be captured at significantly changed viewpoints (wide baseline) and have very little overlap. Second, man-made buildings usually contain many structures of similar appearances. This will result in considerable aliasing in the matching process. By sensor fusion of laser data with camera images, we propose a novel improvement to the existing 2D feature techniques to enable automatic 3D alignment between two widely separated scans. The key idea consists of extracting dominant planar structures from 3D point clouds and then utilizing the recovered 3D geometry to improve the performance of 2D image feature for wide baseline matching. The resulting feature descriptors become more robust to camera viewpoint changes after the procedure of viewpoint normalization. Moreover, the viewpoint normalized 2D features provide robust local feature information including patch scale and dominant orientation for effective repetitive structure matching in man-made environments. Comprehensive experimental evaluations with real data demonstrate the potential of the proposed method for automatic wide baseline 3D scan alignment in urban environments.

Physical geodesyTitre Singular spectrum analysis of global mean sea level variationsAuteur(s) KHELIFA (S.), BELBACHIR (M.) et HADAD (M.)Source BULLETIN DES SCIENCES GÉOGRAPHIQUES INCT, n° 26, [01/10/2011], pp 17 - 22Mots clés ALTIMETRIE SATELLITAIRE PAR RADAR, ELEVATION, HAUTEURS DE MER, NIVEAU MOYEN

DES MERS, SERIE TEMPORELLE, VARIATION TEMPORELLEN° notice A2011-499Résumé d’auteur Le thème développé à travers cet article porte sur l'analyse des séries temporelles

d'anomalies moyennes de hauteur de la mer (MSLA) d'altimétrie spatiale par le spectre singulier (SSA). Le but de cette étude est de caractériser et de quantifier la variabilité à long terme du niveau de la mer. Les données utilisées lors du traitement sont constituées d'une série hebdomadaire d'anomalies moyennes de hauteur de la mer issues des satellites d'altimétrie spatiale, conduite entre 1993 et 2009. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que la SAA est bien adaptée pour l'extraction simultanée de la tendance non linéaire et des signaux saisonniers contenus dans les séries temporelles MSLA. La tendance, le signal annuel et semi annuel représentent respectivement 93.36%, 6.01 % et 0.34% du signal total. La tendance estimée de 2.88 mm/an de niveau global de la mer est similaire aux récents résultats publiés par AVISO Altimétrie sur la tendance de niveau global de la mer qui est d'environs 2.92 mm/an.

Titre GOCE gravitational gradients along the orbitAuteur(s) BOUMAN (J.), FIOROT (S.), FUCHS (M.) et GRUBER (T.)Source JOURNAL OF GEODESY, vol 85, n° 11, [01/11/2011], pp 791 - 805Mots clés CHAMP DE PESANTEUR TERRESTRE, GOCE, GRADIENT DE GRAVITATIONN° notice A2011-468Résumé d’auteur GOCE is ESA’s gravity field mission and the first satellite ever that measures gravitational

gradients in space, that is, the second spatial derivatives of the Earth’s gravitational potential. The goal is to determine the Earth’s mean gravitational field with unprecedented accuracy at spatial resolutions down to 100 km. GOCE carries a gravity gradiometer that allows deriving the gravitational gradients with very high precision to achieve this goal. There are two types of GOCE Level 2 gravitational gradients (GGs) along the orbit: the gravitational gradients in the gradiometer reference frame (GRF) and the gravitational gradients in the local north oriented frame (LNOF) derived from the GGs


in the GRF by point-wise rotation. Because the V XX , V YY , V ZZ and V XZ are much more accurate than V XY and V YZ , and because the error of the accurate GGs increases for low frequencies, the rotation requires that part of the measured GG signal is replaced by model signal. However, the actual quality of the gradients in GRF and LNOF needs to be assessed. We analysed the outliers in the GGs, validated the GGs in the GRF using independent gravity field information and compared their assessed error with the requirements. In addition, we compared the GGs in the LNOF with state-of-the-art global gravity field models and determined the model contribution to the rotated GGs. We found that the percentage of detected outliers is below 0.1% for all GGs, and external gravity data confirm that the GG scale factors do not differ from one down to the 10-3 level. Furthermore, we found that the error of V XX and V YY is approximately at the level of the requirement on the gravitational gradient trace, whereas the V ZZ error is a factor of 2–3 above the requirement for higher frequencies. We show that the model contribution in the rotated GGs is 2–35% dependent on the gravitational gradient. Finally, we found that GOCE gravitational gradients and gradients derived from EIGEN-5C and EGM2008 are consistent over the oceans, but that over the continents the consistency may be less, especially in areas with poor terrestrial gravity data. All in all, our analyses show that the quality of the GOCE gravitational gradients is good and that with this type of data valuable new gravity field information is obtained.

Titre Mission design, operation and exploitation of the gravity field and steady-state ocean circulation explorer mission

Auteur(s) FLOBERGHAGEN (R.), FEHRINGER (M.), LAMARRE (D.), MUZI (D.) et al.Source JOURNAL OF GEODESY, vol 85, n° 11, [01/11/2011], pp 749 - 758Mots clés CHAMP DE PESANTEUR TERRESTRE, CIRCULATION OCEANIQUE, DONNEES GOCE,

GEOIDE TERRESTRE, GOCE, GRADIENT DE GRAVITATION, GRADIOMETRE, GRAVIMETRIE SPATIALE

N° notice A2011-467Résumé d’auteur The European Space Agency’s Gravity field and steady-state ocean circulation explorer

mission (GOCE) was launched on 17 March 2009. As the first of the Earth Explorer family of satellites within the Agency’s Living Planet Programme, it is aiming at a better understanding of the Earth system. The mission objective of GOCE is the determination of the Earth’s gravity field and geoid with high accuracy and maximum spatial resolution. The geoid, combined with the de facto mean ocean surface derived from twenty-odd years of satellite radar altimetry, yields the global dynamic ocean topography. It serves ocean circulation and ocean transport studies and sea level research. GOCE geoid heights allow the conversion of global positioning system (GPS) heights to high precision heights above sea level. Gravity anomalies and also gravity gradients from GOCE are used for gravity-to-density inversion and in particular for studies of the Earth’s lithosphere and upper mantle. GOCE is the first-ever satellite to carry a gravitational gradiometer, and in order to achieve its challenging mission objectives the satellite embarks a number of world-first technologies. In essence the spacecraft together with its sensors can be regarded as a spaceborne gravimeter. In this work, we describe the mission and the way it is operated and exploited in order to make available the best-possible measurements of the Earth gravity field. The main lessons learned from the first 19 months in orbit are also provided, in as far as they affect the quality of the science data products and therefore are of specific interest for GOCE data users.

Titre Validation of GOCE gravity field models by means of orbit residuals and geoid comparisons

Auteur(s) GRUBER (T.), VISSER (P.), ACKERMANN (C.) et HOSSE (M.)Source JOURNAL OF GEODESY, vol 85, n° 11, [01/11/2011], pp 845 - 860Mots clés ANALYSE COMPARATIVE, ANALYSE DE VARIANCE, CHAMP DE PESANTEUR TERRESTRE,

DONNEES GOCE, DONNEES GRACE, GEOIDE GRAVIMETRIQUE, GEOIDE TERRESTRE, HARMONIQUE SPHERIQUE, LIMITE DE RESOLUTION GEOMETRIQUE, ORBITOGRAPHIE, RESIDU

N° notice A2011-470Résumé d’auteur Three GOCE-based gravity field solutions have been computed by ESA’s high-level

processing facility and were released to the user community. All models are accompanied by variance-covariance information resulting either from the least squares procedure or a Monte-Carlo approach. In order to obtain independent external quality parameters and to assess the current performance of these models, a set of independent tests based on satellite orbit determination and geoid comparisons is applied. Both test methods can be


regarded as complementary because they either investigate the performance in the long wavelength spectral domain (orbit determination) or in the spatial domain (geoid comparisons). The test procedure was applied to the three GOCE gravity field solutions and to a number of selected pre-launch models for comparison. Orbit determination results suggest, that a pure GOCE gravity field model does not outperform the multi-year GRACE gravity field solutions. This was expected as GOCE is designed to improve the determination of the medium to high frequencies of the Earth gravity field (in the range of degree and order 50 to 200). Nevertheless, in case of an optimal combination of GOCE and GRACE data, orbit determination results should not deteriorate. So this validation procedure can also be used for testing the optimality of the approach adopted for producing combined GOCE and GRACE models. Results from geoid comparisons indicate that with the 2 months of GOCE data a significant improvement in the determination of the spherical harmonic spectrum of the global gravity field between degree 50 and 200 can be reached. Even though the ultimate mission goal has not yet been reached, especially due to the limited time span of used GOCE data (only 2 months), it was found that existing satellite-only gravity field models, which are based on 7 years of GRACE data, can already be enhanced in terms of spatial resolution. It is expected that with the accumulation of more GOCE data the gravity field model resolution and quality can be further enhanced, and the GOCE mission goal of 1–2 cm geoid accuracy with 100 km spatial resolution can be achieved.

Radar image processingTitre A multifrequency polarimetric SAR processing chain to observe oil fields in the

Gulf of Mexico Auteur(s) MIGLIACCIO (M.), NUNZIATA (F.), MONTUORI (A.) et al.Source IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON GEOSCIENCE & REMOTE SENSING, vol 49, n° 12, [01/12/2011], pp 4729 -

4737Mots clés CIBLE MOBILE, IMAGE SAR, MAREE NOIRE, PETROLE, POLARIMETRIE RADAR,

SURVEILLANCE ECOLOGIQUEN° notice A2011-478Résumé d’auteur Within the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, multiplatform synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery is being used to aid post hurricane and postaccident response efforts in the Gulf of Mexico, such as in the case of the recent Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The main areas of interest related to such disasters are the following: (1) to identify oil pipeline leaks and other oil spills at sea and (2) to detect man-made metallic targets over the sea. Within the context of disaster monitoring and response, an innovative processing chain is proposed to observe oil fields (i.e., oil spills and man-made metallic targets) using both Land C-band full-resolution and fully polarimetric SAR data. The processing chain consists of two steps. The first one, based on the standard deviation of the phase difference between the copolarized channels, allows oil monitoring. The second one, based on the different symmetry properties that characterize man-made metallic targets and natural distributed ones, allows man-made metallic target observation. Experiments, accomplished over single-look complex L-band Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) and C-band RADARSAT-2 fully polarimetric SAR data gathered in the Gulf of Mexico and related to the Deepwater Horizon accident, show the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Furthermore, the proposed approach, being able to process both Land C-band fully polarimetric and full resolution SAR measurements, can take full benefit of both the ALOS PALSAR and RADARSAT-2 missions, and therefore, it allows enhancing the revisit time and coverage which are very critical issues in oil field observation.

Titre Improving the Wishart synthetic aperture radar image classifications through deterministic simulated annealing

Auteur(s) SANCHEZ-LLADO (F.), PAJARES (G.) et LOPEZ-MARTINEZ (C.)Source ISPRS JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING, vol 66, n° 6, [01/11/2011], pp 845 -

857Mots clés ALGORITHME DE WISHART, ALGORITHME DU RECUIT SIMULE, CLASSIFICATION DIRIGEE,

DONNEES POLARIMETRIQUES, IMAGE SARN° notice A2011-472


Résumé d’auteur This paper proposes the use of Deterministic Simulated Annealing (DSA) for Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) image classification for cluster refinement. We use the initial classification provided by the maximum-likelihood classifier based on the complex Wishart distribution that is then supplied to the DSA optimization approach. The goal is to improve the classification results obtained by the Wishart approach. The improvement is verified by computing a cluster separability coefficient. During the DSA optimization process, for each iteration and for each pixel, two consistency coefficients are computed taking into account two kinds of relations between the pixel under consideration and its neighbors. Based on these coefficients and on the information coming from the pixel itself, it is re-classified. Several experiments are carried out to verify that the proposed approach outperforms the Wishart strategy. We try to improve the classification results by considering the spatial influences received by a pixel through its neighbors. Finally, a link about the contribution of DSA to thematic mapping is also established.

Spatial analysisTitre Visual comparison of moving-window kriging modelsAuteur(s) DEMSAR (U.) et HARRIS (P.)Source CARTOGRAPHICA, vol 46, n° 4, [01/12/2011], pp 211 - 226Mots clés ANALYSE COMPARATIVE, KRIGEAGE, VISUALISATION CARTOGRAPHIQUEN° notice A2011-483Résumé d’auteur Kriging is a spatial prediction method that is core to the geo-statistical paradigm.

Commonly applied in the environmental sciences, it enables a prediction at an unsampled location coupled with a measure of confidence in its accuracy. Many variations of kriging exist, some of them complex, especially those that allow many parameters to vary spatially. Calibrating such a kriging model and interpreting its results can therefore be quite daunting. We suggest that visualization and visual exploration can help with this task. In particular, we focus on the moving-window kriging model, evaluating three newly developed robust variants of this model against a basic counterpart. We use star icon maps and plots to visually explore model results to evaluate model parameterization, specification, and performance.

Spatial geodesyTitre Absolute calibration of Jason radar altimeters from GPS kinematic campaigns over

Lake IssykulAuteur(s) CRETAUX (J.F.), CALMANT (S.), ROMANOVSKI (V.), PEROSANZ (F.) et al.Source MARINE GEODESY, vol 34, n° 3, [01/07/2011], pp 291 - 318Mots clés ALTIMETRE RADAR, CAMPAGNE GPS, ETALONNAGE D'INSTRUMENT, GPS EN MODE

PSEUDO-CINEMATIQUE, JASONN° notice A2011-462Résumé d’auteur This study presents results of calibration/validation (C/V) of Jason-1 and Jason-2 satellite

altimeters over Lake Issykkul located in Kyrgyzstan, which was chosen as a dedicated radar altimetry C/V site in 2004. The objectives here are to estimate absolute altimeter biases and to quantify the altimetry instrument error budgets for lakes studies, including errors associated with the atmosphere media delay corrections of the radar signal, and with the different retracking mode used over “nonocean” surface. The C/V is conducted using various equipments, for example, GPS local network, moving GPS along the satellites tracks over the Lake Issykkul, in situ level gauges and weather stations. The absolute bias obtained for Jason-1 and Jason-2 from field campaigns conducted in 2008, 2009 and 2010 are 96 + 40 mm and 162 + 42 mm, respectively. The bias calculated for Jason-1 is in close agreement with estimates done at other dedicated C/V sites in the ocean, but the Jason-2 bias still differs by 1–2 cm with ocean C/V estimates. The relative bias (Jason-2 minus Jason-1) deduced from measurements during the tandem mission is estimated at 81 + 10 mm. The accuracy of Jason-1 and Jason-2 for the determination of the lake level variations as compared to the historical in situ gauges of the Lake Issykkul is 33 and 31 mm RMS, respectively. The bias between the two modes of retracking available on Jason-2 Geophysical Data Records (GDRs) has been estimated over the two first years of Jason-2 data over the Lake Issykkul. We found an average value of 234


+ 40 mm, which is in good agreement with results obtained in a previous study on the Envisat satellite (Crétaux et al. 2009). Lake level studies using Jason-2 or Envisat must therefore take this relative bias into account if both retracked altimetry heights are used.

Titre The Harvest experiment LIDAR system: Water level measurement device comparison for Jason-1 and Jason-2/OSTM calibration

Auteur(s) WASHBURN (S.), HAINES (B.), BORN (G.) et FOWLER (C.)Source MARINE GEODESY, vol 34, n° 3, [01/07/2011], pp 277 - 290Mots clés ALTIMETRIE SATELLITAIRE PAR LASER, ANALYSE COMPARATIVE, DONNEES JASON,

DONNEES LIDAR, ETALONNAGE D'INSTRUMENT, HAUTEURS DE MER, JASON, OCEAN SURFACE TOPOGRAPHIQUE MISSION, OCEANOGRAPHIE SPATIALE, SURFACE DE LA MER

N° notice A2011-463Résumé d’auteur In July 2007, a new Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR)-based water-level

measurement system was installed at the Harvest platform with the goals of assessing potential drifts in the primary National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) water level (bubbler) system and of providing insight on other environmental conditions which may affect the bubbler accuracy. In addition, the LIDAR provides an independent measure of significant wave height (SWH), which has traditionally been derived from nearby buoys (operated by Scripps and NOAA). The open ocean environment of the Harvest Platform has presented significant challenges. Despite these difficult operating conditions, the LIDAR system has shown promise in being able to assess drift in the bubbler as well as the dependencies on SWH and wind speed. However, a longer time series of data and better environmental condition measurements are needed in order to make an assessment of these parameters with the desired accuracy (e.g., drift to better than 1 mm/yr).

Titre The international reference ionosphere today and in the futureAuteur(s) BILITZA (D.), MCKINNEL (L.), REINISCH (B.) et FULLER-ROWELL (T.)Source JOURNAL OF GEODESY, vol 85, n° 12, [01/12/2012], pp 909 - 920Mots clés CONTENU TOTAL EN ELECTRONS, INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE IONOSPHERE,

IONOSPHERE, MODELE EMPIRIQUE, MODELE IONOSPHERIQUEN° notice A2011-502Résumé d’auteur The international reference ionosphere (IRI) is the internationally recognized and

recommended standard for the specification of plasma parameters in Earth’s ionosphere. It describes monthly averages of electron density, electron temperature, ion temperature, ion composition, and several additional parameters in the altitude range from 60 to 1,500 km. A joint working group of the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and the International Union of Radio Science (URSI) is in charge of developing and improving the IRI model. As requested by COSPAR and URSI, IRI is an empirical model being based on most of the available and reliable data sources for the ionospheric plasma. The paper describes the latest version of the model and reviews efforts towards future improvements, including the development of new global models for the F2 peak density and height, and a new approach to describe the electron density in the topside and plasmasphere. Our emphasis will be on the electron density because it is the IRI parameter most relevant to geodetic techniques and studies. Annual IRI meetings are the main venue for the discussion of IRI activities, future improvements, and additions to the model. A new special IRI task force activity is focusing on the development of a real-time IRI (RT-IRI) by combining data assimilation techniques with the IRI model. A first RT-IRI task force meeting was held in 2009 in Colorado Springs. We will review the outcome of this meeting and the plans for the future. The IRI homepage is at http://www.IRI.gsfc.nasa.gov.

Titre Combination of different space-geodetic observations for regional ionosphere modeling

Auteur(s) DETTMERING (D.), SCHMIDT (M.), HEINKELMANN (R.) et SEITZ (M.)Source JOURNAL OF GEODESY, vol 85, n° 12, [01/12/2012], pp 989 - 998Mots clés ANALYSE COMBINATOIRE, B-SPLINE, CONTENU TOTAL EN ELECTRONS, CORRECTION

IONOSPHERIQUE, IONOSPHERE, MODELE IONOSPHERIQUEN° notice A2011-504Résumé d’auteur Most of the space-geodetic observation techniques can be used for modeling the

distribution of free electrons in the Earth’s ionosphere. By combining different techniques one can take advantage of their different spatial and temporal distributions as well as their different observation characteristics and sensitivities concerning ionospheric


parameter estimation. The present publication introduces a procedure for multi-dimensional ionospheric modeling. The model consists of a given reference part and an unknown correction part expanded in terms of B-spline functions. This approach is used to compute regional models of Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) based on the International Reference Ionosphere (IRI 2007) and GPS observations from terrestrial Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) reference stations, radio occultation data from Low Earth Orbiters (LEOs), dual-frequency radar altimetry measurements, and data obtained by Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI). The approach overcomes deficiencies in the climatological IRI model and reaches the same level of accuracy than GNSS-based VTEC maps from IGS. In areas without GNSS observations (e.g., over the oceans) radio occultations and altimetry provide valuable measurements and further improve the VTEC maps. Moreover, the approach supplies information on the offsets between different observation techniques as well as on their different sensitivity for ionosphere modeling. Altogether, the present procedure helps to derive improved ionospheric corrections (e.g., for one-frequency radar altimeters) and at the same time it improves our knowledge on the Earth’s ionosphere.

Titre The ionosphere: effects, GPS modeling and the benefits for space geodetic techniques

Auteur(s) HERNANDEZ-PAJARES (M.), JUAN (M.), SANZ (J.) et al.Source JOURNAL OF GEODESY, vol 85, n° 12, [01/12/2012], pp 887 - 907Mots clés CONTENU TOTAL EN ELECTRONS, DONNEES GNSS, DONNEES GPS, IONOSPHERE,

MODELE IONOSPHERIQUE, PERTURBATION IONOSPHERIQUE, PROPAGATION DU SIGNAL, QUALITE DU SIGNAL, SIGNAL GNSS, SIGNAL GPS, SURVEILLANCE

N° notice A2011-501Résumé d’auteur The main goal of this paper is to provide a summary of our current knowledge of the

ionosphere as it relates to space geodetic techniques, especially the most informative technology, global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), specifically the fully deployed and operational global positioning system (GPS). As such, the main relevant modeling points are discussed, and the corresponding results of ionospheric monitoring are related, which were mostly computed using GPS data and based on the direct experience of the authors. We address various phenomena such as horizontal and vertical ionospheric morphology in quiet conditions, traveling ionospheric disturbances, solar flares, ionospheric storms and scintillation. Finally, we also tackle the question of how improved knowledge of ionospheric conditions, especially in terms of an accurate understanding of the distribution of free electrons, can improve space geodetic techniques at different levels, such as higher-order ionospheric effects, precise GNSS navigation, single-antenna GNSS orientation and real-time GNSS meteorology.

Titre Validation of international reference ionosphere models using in situ measurements from GRACE K-band ranging system and CHAMP planar Langmuir probe

Auteur(s) LEE (C.), HAN (S.), BILITZA (D.) et CHUNG (J.)Source JOURNAL OF GEODESY, vol 85, n° 12, [01/12/2012], pp 921 - 929Mots clés ANALYSE COMPARATIVE, ANALYSE DIACHRONIQUE, ATMOSPHERE SOLAIRE, BANDE K,

CONTENU TOTAL EN ELECTRONS, DONNEES CHAMP, DONNEES GRACE, INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE IONOSPHERE, MODELE IONOSPHERIQUE, ZONE EQUATORIALE, ZONE POLAIRE

N° notice A2011-503Résumé d’auteur The in situ measurements of electron contents from GRACE K-band (dual-frequency)

ranging system and CHAMP planar Langmuir probe were used to validate the international reference ionosphere (IRI) models. The comparison using measurements from year 2003 to 2007 shows a general agreement between data and the model outputs. The improvement in the newer IRI model (IRI-2007) is evident with the measurements from the GRACE satellites orbiting at the higher altitude. We present the comparison between the models and data comprehensively for various cases in solar activity, local time, season, and latitude. The IRI models do not well predict the electron density in the years 2006 and later, when the solar activity is extremely low. The IRI models generally overestimate the electron density during local winter while they underestimate during local summer. In the equatorial region, the large difference at local sunrise lasts for all years and all seasons. The IRI models do not perform well in predicting the anomaly in the polar region such as the Weddell Sea Anomaly. These discrepancies are likely due to smoothed (12-month averaged) solar activity indices used


in the IRI models and due to insufficient spherical harmonic representation not able to capture small spatial scales. In near future, further improvement on the IRI models is expected by assimilating those in situ satellite data by implementing higher resolution (spatial and temporal) parameterizations.

Thematic mappingTitre Topographical fiction: A world map of international crime fiction Auteur(s) ERDMANN (E.)Source CARTOGRAPHIC JOURNAL, vol 48, n° 4, [01/11/2011], pp 274 - 284Mots clés ATLAS MONDIAL, CARTE TOPOGRAPHIQUE, GEOGRAPHIE HUMAINE,

INTERNATIONALISATION, LITTERATUREN° notice A2011-492Résumé d’auteur This contribution describes the evolution of the crime fiction novel into a genre which over

the past decades has become characterized by its internationality. This characterisation applies both in terms of its dissemination and in terms of its narrative subject matter. How crime fiction novels convey local, touristic and geographical knowledge throughout the world, modify it, and create topographical fiction, is described. The maps of cities, countries and neighbourhoods that provide a pictorial element to crime fiction novels are symptomatic of the transformation of the genre from a literature of crime into a literature of geographical and cultural orientation. The evolution of the genre makes possible the drafting of a crime fiction world map in order to examine the international range, examples of gaps and significant clusters. A crime fiction atlas can, in addition to this, form a collection of fictitious and narrative descriptions of localities.


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