Selected theories of leadership

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Selected Leadership Theories Trait Theories Behavioral Approaches Contingency Approaches Neocharismatic Approaches
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It provides with depth insights about overall theories of leadership in various similar grouping.

Transcript of Selected theories of leadership

Page 1: Selected theories of leadership

Selected Leadership Theories

Trait Theories

Behavioral Approaches

Contingency Approaches

Neocharismatic Approaches

Page 2: Selected theories of leadership

Trait Theory

The theories that sought personality, social, physical,

or intellectual traits that differentiated leaders from

nonleaders

The traits are the inherent attributes of the leaders to

keep them distinct from others

For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the prime minister

of UK, was recognized for her leadership in terms of

her confidence, iron-willed, determined, and decisive.

Page 3: Selected theories of leadership

A research study was conducted in the 1930s to

study the attributes that differentiate the leaders

from nonleaders.

A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80

leadership traits, though the study was not aimed to

identify the leadership traits

Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them

were common to all cases, which included

personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits.

Trait Theory

Page 4: Selected theories of leadership

Earliest approach to study leadership

Used to identify great persons from masses

Based on the assumption of -

certain traits = success/effectiveness

The logic of leadership traits is as basic as

height, as complex as intelligence

Trait Theory

Page 5: Selected theories of leadership

How Leaders Differ from Nonleaders?

According to Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991),

leaders can be distinguished from nonleaders

on the basis of SIX attributes or traits:

Drive

Desire to lead

Honesty and integrity

Self-confidence

Intelligence

Job-relevant knowledge

Page 6: Selected theories of leadership

Important Traits of Effective Leaders

Personality

Persuasive

Persistence

Patience

Probity

Praise giving

Positive orientation

People Based

Possible

Practical

Progressive

Prepared

Power-building

13 Ps

Page 7: Selected theories of leadership

Personality Factors for Effective Leadership

Capacity Achievement Responsibility Participation Status

Intelligence Scholarship Honesty Activity Socioeconomic

position

Alertness Knowledge Dependability Sociability Popularity

Verbal facility Athletic

accomplishment

Initiative Cooperation

Originality Personality

adjustment

Persistence Adaptability

Judgment Aggressiveness Humor

Self-confidence

Desire to excel

Page 8: Selected theories of leadership

Criticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership

The belief that personality traits determine the

rate of success of a leader could easily be

challenged because practically it is very hard to

distinguish leaders from non-leaders based on

personality traits

There exists a very thin relationship between

traits and leader’s success

Some traits are achieved by birth

Personality traits without motivation are

worthless for success

It does not look like a theory

“Traits Plus Motivation Equals Leadership”

Page 9: Selected theories of leadership

Behavioral Approaches to Leadership

Pattern of actions used by different individuals

determines leadership potential

Examples

– Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire

– Michigan Studies: Employee centered versus

task centered

Page 10: Selected theories of leadership

Three Approaches to Behavioral Studies

1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles

2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions

3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid

Page 11: Selected theories of leadership

1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles

Lewin, Lippitt, and White are probably the earliest

contributors of leadership study in a scientific manner.

The authors specialized in leadership styles while

conducting a series of research studies in the 1930s at

the University of Iowa.

The suggested leadership styles include:

Autocratic

Democratic

Laissez-Faire

Page 12: Selected theories of leadership

When Quantity of work is important:

When Quality of work is important:

When Satisfaction with work is important:

Which is the Best Style?

Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire

Most Least

Democratic Autocratic Laissez Faire

Best Worst

Democratic Laissez Faire Autocratic

Most Least

Page 13: Selected theories of leadership

Tannenbaum and Schmidt

- Continuum of Leadership BehaviorAutocratic Democratic Laissez-faire

Use of Authority by the Manager

Area of Freedom for Subordinates

Boss- Centered

Leadership

Subordinate- Centered

Leadership

Page 14: Selected theories of leadership

Optimal Leadership Style Depends Upon:

1. Forces in the Leader

2. Forces in the Subordinate Group

3. Forces in the Situation

Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum

Page 15: Selected theories of leadership

2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions

Key Contributions

a. Ohio State University Studies

b. Michigan State University Studies

Page 16: Selected theories of leadership

Ohio State University Studies

Two Dimensions

Initiating structure: The extent to which a leader

is likely to define and structure his/her role and

roles of subordinates in the search for goal

attainment

Consideration: The extent to which a leader is

likely to have job relationships characterized by

mutual trust, respect for subordinates‘ ideas, and

regard of their feelings

Page 17: Selected theories of leadership

Initiating Structure

– Is task oriented

– Directs subordinate work activities toward goal

attainment

– Typically give instructions, spend time planning,

and emphasize deadlines

– Provide explicit schedules of work activities

Consideration

– Is mindful of subordinates

– Establishes mutual trust

– Provides open communication

– Develops teamwork

Page 18: Selected theories of leadership

Two Dimensions

Employee Oriented: The leadership dimension in

which the leader emphasizes interpersonal relations;

relationship oriented

Production Oriented: The leadership dimension in

which the leader emphasizes on technical or task

aspect of the job; result oriented

Michigan State University Studies

Similar to Ohio Studies

Page 19: Selected theories of leadership

Studies Based on Leadership Grid

Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the

graphical portrayal of the two dimensional view of

leadership

The authors proposed a managerial grid showing the

key managerial styles of ‗concern for people‘ and

‗concern for production‘

The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine matrix

outlining 81 different leadership styles

Page 20: Selected theories of leadership

The Managerial Grid

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Concern for People

Con

cern

for

Task

(1,9)

(9,1)

(9,9)

(5,5)

(1,1)

Page 21: Selected theories of leadership

The Managerial Grid

High

High

Low

Low

Concern for Production

Co

ncern

fo

r P

eo

ple

1,9

Country Club Management

Thoughtful attention to the needs of people

for satisfying relationships leads to a com-

fortable, friendly organization atmosphere

and work tempo.

1,1 Impoverished Management

Exertion of minimum effort to get required

work done is appropriate to sustain

organization membership.

9,9

Team Management

Work accomplishment is from

committed people;

interdependence

through a “common stake” in

organization purpose leads to

relationships of trust and respect.

5,5

Middle-of-the-Road Management

Adequate organization performance is possible

through balancing the necessity to get out work

with maintaining morale of people at a

satisfactory level.

Authority-Compliance 9, 1

Efficiency in operations results from

arranging conditions of work in such a

way that human elements interfere to a

minimum degree.

Page 22: Selected theories of leadership

Leadership Styles

Likert‘s System Four

System I—Exploitive Autocratic

System II—Benevolent Autocratic

System III—Consultative

System IV—Participative Group

Page 23: Selected theories of leadership

Contingency Theories of Leadership

Leader traits and/or leader behaviors are

important aspects but must be taken in

context.

That is, the situation matters.

Page 24: Selected theories of leadership

Selected Studies on Contingency Approaches

Fiedler‘s Contingency Theory

Hersey and Blanchard‘s Situational (Life Cycle)

Theory

House‘s Path-Goal Theory

Page 25: Selected theories of leadership

LPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKER

Low LPC Score: task-oriented leader

High LPC Score: relationship-oriented leader

According to Fiedler, a person is one or the

other - it is a fixed personality trait

Page 26: Selected theories of leadership

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY

THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

A person‘s LPC score correlates with:

Task structure

Leader/Member relations

Leader position power

in terms of group effectiveness

Page 27: Selected theories of leadership

Three Elements of Leadership Situations

Leader-member relations: refers to group

atmosphere and members‘ attitude toward and

acceptance of the leader

Task structure: refers to the extent to which tasks

performed by the group are defined, involve

specific procedures, and have clear, explicit goals

Position power: is the extent to which the leader

has formal authority over subordinates

Page 28: Selected theories of leadership

Task-Oriented (low LPC)

Leader is best when situation either favorable or

unfavorable

Employee-Oriented (high LPC)

Leader is best when situation is moderately

favorable

Page 29: Selected theories of leadership

POSSIBLE USES OF FIEDLER’S THEORY

1. Train leaders in needed style

(Fiedler says no)

2. Match the leader with the job

(Fiedler says this is a good start)

3. Engineer the job to fit the manger

(Fiedler says this is the best approach)

Page 30: Selected theories of leadership

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

A contingency approach to leadership that links

the leader‘s behavioral style with the task

readiness (maturity) of subordinates.

Also known as ‗life cycle‘ theory.

Page 31: Selected theories of leadership

Situational Leadership

No single best way to lead

Focus on maturity or readiness of followers

– Ability and willingness

Adjust emphasis on task and relationship behaviors according to the readiness of followers to perform their tasks

Page 32: Selected theories of leadership

Hersey’s Situational Leadership Model

Based on

– Style of leadership

Giving direction (task behaviour)

Giving motivational support (relationship

behaviour)

– ―Readiness‖ of followers to perform a task

Ability

Willingness

Page 33: Selected theories of leadership

Situational Leadership

Telling: low readiness, untrained and

inexperienced employees

Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but

inexperienced employees

Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but

unwilling, employees skeptical

Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and

willing to take responsibility

Page 34: Selected theories of leadership

Hersey and

Blanchard’s

Situational

Leadership

Model Defines

Relationship

Between

Maturity and

Four

Leadership

Styles

High

relationship

Low task

High task

High

relationship

Low

relationship

Low task

High task

Low

relationship

M1

M2M3

M4

High

Low HighTask Behavior

Rel

atio

nsh

ip B

ehav

ior

Style of

Leader

ImmatureMaturity

Ability

Willingness

M1M2M3M4

High Moderate Low

This person is able

(has the necessary

knowledge and skill)

This person is willing

(has the necessary

confidence and

commitment)

Maturity of Followers

Psychological maturity

Job maturity

A great deal

4

Quite a bit

3

Some

2

Little

1

Usually

4

Often

3

On occasion

2

Seldom

1

Page 35: Selected theories of leadership

HOUSE’S

PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

Based on Expectancy Theory of Motivation

A leader should emphasize either path clarification or adjust rewards depending on the factors affecting a person‘s motivation

Theory assumes people can change their leadership styles to fit the situation

Page 36: Selected theories of leadership

Situational ContingenciesThree Important Situational Contingencies

in Path-Goal Theory

The personal characteristics of group

members

The work environment

The situation

Page 37: Selected theories of leadership

Path-goal Theory

Rooted in Expectancy Theory

Leader behaviors

– Directive

– Supportive

– Achievement-oriented

– Participative

Page 38: Selected theories of leadership

Path-Goal Model of Leadership

Follower Characteristics

1. Locus of control

2. Authoritarianism

3. Ability

Outcomes

1. Job satisfaction

2. Performance

3. Acceptance of the leader

Followers

1. Perceptions

2. Motivation

Environmental Factors

1. Tasks

2. Formal authority system

3. Work group

Leader Behavior Styles

1. Directive

2. Supportive

3. Participative

4. Achievement-oriented

Page 39: Selected theories of leadership

Supportive Leadership

Supportive

Leadership

• Reduce boredom

• Make job more

tolerable

• Increase self-

confidence

• Lower Anxiety

• Increase the

intrinsic valence

of work

• Increase effort-

performance

expectancy

Increase

effort

Page 40: Selected theories of leadership

Directive Leadership

Directive

Leadership

Reduce role

ambiguity

Strengthen reward

contingencies

Increase effort-

performance

expectancy

Increase

performance-

reward expectancies

Increase

subordinate

effort

Increase size

of incentives

Increase outcome

valences for task

success

Page 41: Selected theories of leadership

Path-goal Theory

Causal Variables

Leader Behavior

Intervening Variables

Subordinate expectations

Outcome Variables

Subordinate effort

and satisfaction

Situational Moderator Variables

Characteristics of task and environment

Characteristics of subordinates

Page 42: Selected theories of leadership

Change Leadership

Transactional Leader: Provides direction for subordinates to achieve set objectives (typical ―good manager‖ using position power & some personal power)

Transformational Leader: Special ability to create innovation & change

(charismatic leader within an organization –high on position & personal power)

Page 43: Selected theories of leadership

Effects of Change Leadership

Transactional

Leadership

Current

state of

expected

subordinate

effort

Normal

expected

subordinate

performance

Transformational

Leadership

Heightened

motivation

to attain

designed

outcome

(extra effort)

Subordinate

performance

beyond

normal

expectations

Page 44: Selected theories of leadership

Transformational Leadership

Transformational

Leadership

• Idealized Influence

• Inspiration

• Intellectual stimulation

• Individualized

consideration

Transactional

Leadership

• Contingent reward

• Management by

exception (active or

passive)

• Laissez faire

Performance

beyond

expectations

Agreed upon

performance

Broadening and

elevating follower

goals

Leader/follower

exchange

Page 45: Selected theories of leadership

Characteristics of

Transactional Leadership

Establishes goals and objectives

Designs work flow and delegates task assignments

Negotiates exchange of rewards for effort

Rewards performance and recognizes accomplishments

Searches for deviations from standards and takes corrective actions

Page 46: Selected theories of leadership

Characteristics of

Transformational Leadership

Charismatic: Provides vision and a sense of mission, gains respect and trust, instills pride

Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention, and treats each person individually, coaches

Intellectually stimulating: Promotes learning, encourages rationality, uses careful problem solving

Inspirational: Communicates high performance expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, distills essential purposes

Page 47: Selected theories of leadership

Integrative Framework of

Change Leadership

1. Leader Traits: 13 Ps

2. Success Criteria: Leader power and

leader behavior

3. Situational Variables: Environmental

forces (PEST)

4. Interveining Variables: Subordinate

commitment, dedication, enthusiasm, etc.

Page 48: Selected theories of leadership

Participative Management Democratic approach of management

Employees have autonomy in making and

implementing decisions

Leader invites wider participation of the subordinates

in making and selling decisions

Exists high degree of delegation of authority

Managers listen and value the subordinate

suggestions

High degree of customer focus exists

A move into TQM process climate

Page 49: Selected theories of leadership

Management by Objectives (MBO) A management system in which specific performance

goals are jointly determined by employees and their

managers, progress toward accomplishing those goals

is periodically reviewed, rewards are allocated on the

basis of the progress in accomplishing the goals

Goal achievement is the key of MBO

Management approach is driven by the nature of

performance objectives and goals

MBO consists of four elements; goal specificity,

participative

Page 50: Selected theories of leadership

Management by Objectives (MBO)FOUR Characteristics of MBO

Goal specificity,

Participative decision making,

An explicit time period, and

Performance feedback.

MBO increases organizationalperformance and productivity

Page 51: Selected theories of leadership

Management by Walking Around (MBWA)

A term used to describe when a manager is out in the

work area, interacting directly with employees, and

exchanging information about what‘s going on.

MBWA is a management control process which

follows THREE steps:

Measuring actual performance,

Comparing actual performance with the standard

performance, and

Taking managerial actions for further improvement

Page 52: Selected theories of leadership

Management by Exception An alternative approach of management when the

other conventional laws management do not work

Difficult to distinguish from charismatic,

transformational, and transactional leadership

approaches

Examples:

Use negative reinforcement if positive reinforcement does

not work

Reward for faulty deeds if punishment does not work

Do it yourself to let others know how to follow it

Induce unexpected surprising ways to doing things

Page 53: Selected theories of leadership

Learning Organization An organization with exceptional work culture

The most open type of organization

An organizational system in which fear of ignorance

and inability is eliminated through relevant training

and development

People learn through open interactions

Managers value subordinate problems and their

suggestions

Creativity creeps from eternal insights of all members

A move towards TQM process climate

Page 54: Selected theories of leadership

Key Findings from Leadership Theories

Transformational leaders inspire higher performance than do transactional leaders

Effective leaders must be concerned about accomplishing the task and relationships

Effective leaders know when to tell, sell, participate, or delegate

Effective leaders understand mission and strategy, know how to implement change, motivate employees to high performance, and teach effectively

Effective leaders lead by example and are honest and fair. They inspire confidence.

Page 55: Selected theories of leadership

Reasons for Derailment of Top ManagementRank the following in order of importance. Choose 1 for the reason you feel is most

important, 2 for next most important, etc.

a) Betrayal of Trust—failure to meet commitments

b) Cold, aloof, arrogant

c) Overdependence on one‘s boss or mentor

d) Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating

e) Overmanaging: unable to delegate or build a team

f) Unable to think broadly or strategically - too much attention to

detail and minor technical problems

g) Unable to adapt to a boss with a different style

h) Unable to select and develop an effective staff

i) Overly ambitious—plays politics, pushes too hard to get ahead

j) Failure to handle specific performance problems - failure to handle

problems then not admit the problem, try to cover up or shift blame

Source: ―What Makes a Top Executive‖ by McCall and Lombardo, Psychology Today, February 1983