REVIEWS IN ECONOMIC G E O L O G Y

(ISSN 0741-0123) Volumc 5

SEDIMENTARY AND DIAGENETIC MINERAL

DEPOSITS: A BASIN ANALYSIS APPROACH

TO EXPLORATION ISBN 0-9613074-4-7

Volume Editors

E . R. FORCE U.S. Geological Survey

Gould-Simpson Bldg. University of Arizona

Tucson, A Z 85721

J. J. E l D E L Illinois State Geological Survey

615 E. Peabody Drive Champaign, I L 61820

Short Course Convener

L B . MAYNARD Department of Geology University of Cincinnati

Cincinnati, O H 45221-0013

Series Editor: JAMES M . ROBERTSON

New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources Campus Station Socorro, NM 87801

SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

C O N T E N T S

Part I : Introduction

Chapter 1 - B A S I N A N A L Y S I S FOR T H E M I N E R A L INDUSTRY 1

T H E R O L E O F B A S I N A N A L Y S I S I N E X P L O R A H O N F O R S E D I M E N T - H O S T E D O R E D E P O S I T S 1

W O R L D - C L A S S O R E D E P O S I T S , B A S I N T Y P E A N D H I S T O R Y 5

V A R I A T I O N I N O R E D E P O S I T S A N D B A S I N S T H R O U G H G E O L O G I C H M E 8

O R E M I N E R A L O C C U R R E N C E S A N D D E P T H O F M I N E R A L I Z A H O N 8

D A T A S O U R C E S F O R B A S I N A N A L Y S I S 8 A D V A N C E S I N G E O L O G Y , G E O C H E M I S T R Y , A N D

G E O P H Y S I C S T H A T A P P L Y T O E X P L O R A T I O N F O R S E D I M E N T - H O S T E D O R E D E P O S I T S 10 CRUSTAL PROCESSES 10 LABORATORY TECHNIQUES 11 COMPUTER TECHNIQUES 11

R E F E R E N C E S 11 A P P E N D I X 13

Chapter 2 - S E D I M E N T A R Y PROCESSES AS ORE-F O R M I N G PROCESSES 17

S E Q U E N T I A L E V O L U T I O N O F S Y N S E D I M E N T A R Y A N D D I A G E N E T I C O R E D E P O S I T S 17

S O L U H O N I N T E R E A C E S A S L O C I O E M A S S I V E P R E C I P I T A T I O N 17

T H E S T R A H G R A P H I C C O L U M N A S S U C C E S S I V E E Q U I L I B R I A 18

S Y N S E D I M E N T A R Y D E P O S I T S A N D B A S I N A N A L Y S I S 19

P A L E O C L I M A T E 20 REFERENCES 20

h r t IL Basin Analysis and Sedimentary Processes

Clapler 3—RATIONALE FOR M O D E R N BASIN A N A L Y S I S APPLIED T O ORE DEPOSITS 21

H I S T O R Y O F B A S I N A N A L Y S I S 21 LUX A N D F L U I D F L O W 22 H E W O F T H E S T R A H G R A P H I C R E C O R D . . .22

. TLTIE O E S E D I M E N T A R Y G E O L O G Y 23

4 - B A S I N - F O R M I N G PROCESSES 25 r : 25 - / - S U B S I D E N C E 27

U -̂L S U B S I D E N C E 31 L _STE S T R E S S 34

. : C S U B S I D E N C E A N D G E O H I S T O R Y - - ^ - - ^ I S I S 36

Ciaoter 5—SEDIMENTARY BASIN H _ \ S S i n C A H O N 43

" U C H O N 43 - H C T O N I C B A S I N C L A S S I F I C A T I O N S 43

C L A S S I F I C A T I O N U S E D I N T H I S C H A P T E R 45 CRITERIA 45 BASIN TYPES 46

T E C T O N I C V E R S U S G E O C H E M I C A L B A S I N C L A S S I F I C A T I O N 47

Chapter 6 - B A S I N SEDIMENTOLOGY A N D S T R A T I G R A P H Y - T H E B A S I N FILL 51

P A L E O G E O G R A P H Y 51 M O D E R N PALEOGEOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES 51 PALEO-UPWELLING 52 PALEO-DISTRIBUTION OF CARBONATE ROCKS 52

B A S I N C L A S T I C S E D I M E N T O L O G Y A N D E A C I E S . . . 54 INTRODUCTION 54 A L L U V I A L FANS 56 BRAIDED STREAMS 57 ANASTOMOSING STREAMS 58 M E A N D E R I N G STREAMS 58 E o L i A N S A N D BODIES 58 COASTAL BARRIER I S L A N D SYSTEMS 58 INTERTIDAL FLATS 58 DELTAS 59 CONTINENTAL SHELVES 59 SUBMARINE FANS 59 SUMMARY OF SANDSTONE VERTICAL SEQUENCES 61 BLACK SHALES 62

B A S I N S T R A T I G R A P H Y 64 INTRODUCTION 64 CRATONIC SEQUENCES 64 SEA LEVEL, SEQUENCE A N D SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY 66 SEA-LEVEL EVOLUTION 68 CRITIQUE OF SEA-LEVEL CURVES BY V A I L ET AL. (I977A) A N D

H A Q ET AL. (1987, 1988) 73 IMPACT OF SEA-LEVEL ANALYSIS O N STRATIGRAPHIC

CONCEPTS 78 TRANSGRESSIVE-REGRESSIVE SEQUENCES 79

G L O B A L S E D I M E N T A R Y C Y C L E S 80 T W O PHANEROZOIC SUPERCYCLES 83 M i L A N K O V I T C H C Y C L E S 87

Chapter 7 - D I A G E N E S I S A N D FLUID M O V E M E N T -BASIN M A T U R A T I O N 91

I N T R O D U C H O N 91 S A N D S T O N E D I A G E N E S I S 91 S I M P L I F I E D O V E R V I E W O F O R G A N I C C H E M I S T R Y 95 B A S I N H Y D R O G E O L O G Y 97

Chapter 8—SYNTHESIS: BRIEF EXAMPLES OF B A S I N A N A L Y S I S 103

I N T R O D U C H O N 103 B A S I N A N A L Y S I S O F T H E N O R T H S E A 103 A R K O M A B A S I N 110 P A C I F I C O C E A N B A C K A R C B A S I N S 113 I L L I N O I S B A S I N 115 O R I G I N O F C R A T O N I C B A S I N S 118

Part H : References 121

If

Part I I I : Minera l Deposits and the Sedimentary Environment

Chapter 9 - P L A C E R DEPOSITS 131 M E C H A N I S M OF PLACER FORMATION 131

TYPES OF H Y D R A U L I C EQUIVALENCE 131 Settling Equivalence 131 Entrainment Equivalence 131 Transport Equivalence 132

PLACER ENRICHMENT BY SETTLING EQUIVALENCE 132 PLACER ENRICHMENT BY THE SEQUENTIAL OPERATION OF

DIFFERENT EQUIVALENCE LAWS 132 ENVIRONMENTS OF PLACER FORMATION 133

DEPOSITION 133 PRESERVATION 134

PREDEPOSITIONAL FACTORS I N PLACER FORMATION 134

BASIN CONTEXT 135 EXAMPLES 136

W i T W A T E R S R A N D 136 QUATERNARY SHORELINE DEPOSITS OF THE EASTERN

AUSTRALIA COAST 137 EXPLORATION 138 REFERENCES 139

Chapter 1 0 - I R O N : SYNGENETIC DEPOSITION C O N T R O L L E D BY T H E E V O L V I N G O C E A N -ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM 141

VERTICAL SEQUENCE 141 A L G O M A TYPE 141 LAKE SUPERIOR TYPE 142 RAPITANTYPE 142 C L I N T O N TYPE 142

TECTONIC SETTING 143 A L G O M A TYPE 143 LAKE SUPERIOR TYPE 143 RAPITANTYPE 143 C L I N T O N TYPE 144

EXPLORATION 144 REFERENCES 145

Chapter 1 1 - M A N G A N E S E : SYNGENETIC DEPOSITS O N T H E M A R G I N S OF A N O X I C BASINS 147

TYPES OF MANGANESE DEPOSITS 147 SEDIMENTARY GEOCHEMISTRY OF MANGANESE 147 BASIN C O N T E X T - D E P O S I T I O N A L BASIN 147 BASIN C O N T E X T - S T R U C T U R A L BASIN 150 GROOTE EYLANDT D E P O S I T - A N EXAMPLE OF

MANGANESE OXIDE DEPOSITION 151 M O L A N G O D E P O S I T - A N EXAMPLE OF

MANGANESE CARBONATE DEPOSITION 153 A N A D D E N D U M FOR PRECAMBRIAN D E P O S I T S . . . 154 EXPLORATION 155 REFERENCES 156

Chapter 1 2 - E V A P O R I T E BASIN ANALYSIS 159 I N T R O D U C T I O N 159

CLIMATIC CONSTRAINTS 159 INTRACONTINENTAL BASINS 159 M A R I N E BASINS 159

The Interface Between Inf low and Out f low 159 Heat Effects 160

I N I T I A L MARINE PRECIPITAHON 160 ARAGONITE PRECIPITATION 160 BIOTA I N A N EVAPORITE BASIN 160 GYPSUM PRECIPITATION 160 CLASTICS 162

The Clay Fraction 162 M A R I N E CHLORIDE DEPOSITS 162

The Precipitation Sequence 162 Site of Potash Deposits 163 Red and White Carnallites 163 Tachyhydrite 163 Evolution of Evaporites 164

BASIN CONFIGURATION A N D FACIES DISTRIBUTION 164 Significance of Precipitation Rates 164 Synsedimentary Subsidence 164 Area of Water Surface 164 Depth Estimates 165

CYCLICITY OF DEPOSITION 165 EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS 165

Porosity and Permeability 165 Anhydri t izat ion 165 Sulfatization 166

SALT DOMES 166 EFFLUENTS 167

Seepage 167 Removal of Silica 167 Disposal of the Magnesium Surplus 167 Fluid Inclusions 167 Fate of Organic Matter 167 Repositories of Organic Matter 168 Release of Base Metals 168

SUMMARY •. 168 REFERENCES 168

Chapter 1 3 - M E T A L L I F E R O U S BLACK SHALES: A C C U M U L A T I O N OF C A R B O N A N D METALS I N C R A T O N I C BASINS 171

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BLACK SHALES 171 FOUR CASE STUDIES 172

A L U M SHALE 172 N E W A L B A N Y SHALE 173 CHINESE BLACK SHALES 173 PENNSYLVANIAN BLACK SHALES OF M I D C O N T I N E N T

N O R T H AMERICA 174 SUMMARY 175 REFERENCES 175

Chapter 1 4 - S H A L E - H O S T E D DEPOSITS OF PB, Z N , A N D BA: SYNGENETIC DEPOSITION F R O M E X H A L E D BRINES I N DEEP M A R I N E B A S I N S . . . 177

VERTICAL SEQUENCE 177 ARKANSAS 177 N E V A D A 177 MEGGEN 178 SELWYN BASIN 178

TECTONIC SETTING 178 ARKANSAS 179 N E V A D A 179 M E G G E N 179 SELWYN BASIN 180

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GEOCHEMISTRY 1 8 0 Wi lOLE-RocK CHEMISTRY 1 8 0 Si i L i u R ISOTOPES 1 8 1

l -XI 'LORATION 1 8 3 CONCLUSIONS 183 KliFERENCES 183

Chapter 1 5 - U R A N I U M : S Y N G E N E T I C T O D I A G E N E T I C D E P O S I T S I N F O R E L A N D B A S I N S 1 8 7

PAI.HOPLACERS A N D THE NATURE OF THE EARLY ATMOSPHERE 1 8 7 I ) i n RiTAL NATURE OF M I N E R A L I Z A T I O N 1 8 7 M O D E R N VERSUS A N C I E N T OCCURRENCES 1 8 7 EXPLORATION 1 8 9

I 'ROTEROZOIC DEPOSITS; O K L O TYPE 1 9 0 VEK n c A L SEQUENCE 1 9 0 DIAGENETIC HISTORY 1 9 0 EXPLORATION 1 9 1

P H A N E R O Z O I C D E P O S I T S : C O L O R A D O P L A T E A U T Y P E 191 T H E BASIN A N D THE B A S I N F I L L 192 DIAGENETIC SEQUENCE 192 EXPLORATION 192

P H A N E R O Z O I C D E P O S I T S : R O L L - F R O N T T Y P E . . . 193 T H E BASIN A N D THE BASIN F I L L 194 DIAGENESIS A N D M I N E R A L I Z A T I O N 194 EXPLORATION 195

S U R F I C I A L D E P O S I T S : C A L C R E T E 195 R E F E R E N C E S 195

Chapter 16-COPPER: PRODUCT OF DIAGENESIS I N RIFTED BASINS 199

T H E K U P F E R S C H I E F E R 199 W H I T E P I N E 201 A F R I C A N C O P P E R B E L T 203 C O M P A R I S O N 204 E X P L O R A T I O N 204 R E F E R E N C E S 205

I N D E X 208

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