TheLIGHTING

AUTHORITY®

IESNA G-1-03

Guideline for SecurityLighting forPeople,Property, and

Public Spaces

Guideline for SecurityLighting forPeople,Property, and

Public Spaces

IESNA G-1-03

IESNA G-1-03

Guideline for

Security Lighting for

People, Property, and Public Spaces

Publication of this Committee Report has been approved by the IESNA. Suggestions forrevisions should be directed to the IESNA.

Prepared by:IESNA Security Lighting Committee

Copyright 2003 by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America

Approved by the IESNA Board of Directors, March 1 , 2003 as a Transaction of the Illuminating EngineeringSociety of North America.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in any electronic retrieval systemor otherwise, without prior written permission of the IESNA.

Published by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 120 Wall Street, New York, New York 10005.

IESNA Standards and Guidelines are developed through committee consensus and produced by the IESNAOffice in New York. Careful attention is given to style and accuracy. If any errors are noted in this document, pleaseforward them to Rita Harrold, Director Educational and Technical Development, at the above address for verifi-cation and correction. The IESNA welcomes and urges feedback and comments.

ISBN # 0-87995-190-7

Printed in the United States of America.

DISCLAIMERIESNA publications are developed through the consensus standards development process approved by theAmerican National Standards Institute. This process brings together volunteers representing varied view-points and interests to achieve consensus on lighting recommendations. While the IESNA administers theprocess and establishes policies and procedures to promote fairness in the development of consensus, itmakes no guaranty or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein.

The IESNA disclaims liability for any injury to persons or property or other damages of any nature whatso-ever, whether special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the pub-lication, use of, or reliance on this document

In issuing and making this document available, the IESNA is not undertaking to render professional or otherservices for or on behalf of any person or entity. Nor is the IESNA undertaking to perform any duty owed byany person or entity to someone else. Anyone using this document should rely on his or her own indepen-dent judgment or, as appropriate, seek the advice of a competent professional in determining the exerciseof reasonable care in any given circumstances.

The IESNA has no power, nor does it undertake, to police or enforce compliance with the contents of thisdocument. Nor does the IESNA list, certify, test or inspect products, designs, or installations for compliancewith this document. Any certification or statement of compliance with the requirements of this document shallnot be attributable to the IESNA and is solely the responsibility of the certifier or maker of the statement.

IESNA G-1-03

Prepared by the Security Lighting Committee, and Sub-Committee on RelationshipBetween Lighting and Crime, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.

Committee Members:David L. Salmon, Ph.D., CPO, Chair 1998 – 2002Brian J. Scanlon, Chair 2002 –Theodore Ake, LCCraig R. Bertolett, Sr.**Norman R Bottom, Ph.D., CPP, CPODavid Crawford, Ph.D., FIESRobert DanielsDavid DeanL. Vern ForemanJohn G. Hayes, Ph.D., CPPJames HominsGary HovaterFred D. JusticeRobert E. KaeserHyman Kaplan, L.C., P.E.Lorence E. Leetzow*Robert LovelaceDouglas W. PaulinJeffrey RocheMike RossDavid L. Salmon, IIC. Stanley Stubbe*David Stymiest P.E., SASHE, CEM *C. S. ThomasTimothy J. Walsh, CPP

* Advisory** Honorary

Sub-Committee – Relationship Between Lighting and CrimeDavid L. Salmon, II, ChairNorman Bottom, Ph.D., CPP, CPORobert E. KaeserDavid L. Salmon, Ph.D., CPO Brian J. Scanlon

Editing Task GroupTheodore Ake, LC, ChairPeter BoyceDouglas W. PaulinBrian J. Scanlon

IESNA G-1-03

Table of Contents

Foreword and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Lighting and its Relationship to Crime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.0 Scope and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3.0 Basic Principles of Security and Security Lighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.1 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.2 Community Responsive Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.3 Security Lighting Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4.0 Understanding “When Security is an Issue” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

5.0 Visibility Concerns in Security Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65.1 Illuminance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65.2 Horizontal Illuminance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135.3 Vertical Illuminance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135.4 Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135.5 Glare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135.6 Shadows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135.7 Establishing Site Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135.8 Total Site Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135.9 Pedestrian Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145.10 Pedestrian Path Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145.11 Building Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145.12 Building Perimeter Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6.0 Lighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

7.0 Security Lighting for Controlled Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207.2 Specific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

7.2.1 Unoccupied Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227.2.2 Offices and Other Buildings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237.2.3 Automated Teller Machines and Night Depositories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257.2.4 Parking Facilities (Lots and Garages) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277.2.5 Residential Parking Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277.2.6 Parking Lots and Areas for Public Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287.2.7 Supermarkets and Major Retail Outlets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287.2.8 Fast Food and Franchise Restaurants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297.2.9 Convenience Stores and Gas Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307.2.10 Single-Family Residences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317.2.11 Multi-Family Residences and Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327.2.12 Multi-Family Residences for the Elderly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337.2.13 Schools & Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347.2.14 Law Enforcement, Fire, Ambulance, and Other Emergency Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347.2.15 Hotels and Motels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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8.0 Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Annexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Annex A-Studies on Lighting and its Relationship to Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Annex B-Physical Security Survey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Annex C-Taking Security Illumination Measurements—A Practical Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Annex D-Crime Analysis and Foreseeability of Crime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Annex E-Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design [CPTED] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Annex F-Lighting for Television and Photographic Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58Annex G-Municipal Approvals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Annex H-Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

IESNA G-1 Security Lighting for People, Property,and Public Spaces

Foreword and History

During World War I, the U.S. Government recognizedthe need for industry to increase exterior lighting atkey production facilities, docks, assembly yards, highsecurity facilities, and railway yards. These improve-ments had two purposes, to aid in production, and todeter sabotage. Although exterior protective lightingwas widely increased, no standard was set.

• With the advent of World War II, at the request ofthe War Department, Military Intelligence, withassistance from the Insurance Committee for theProtection of American Industrial Plants, and theAmerican Standards Association (ASA), initiated aproject to develop a standard on outdoor protectivelighting for industrial properties. The primary pur-pose of these efforts was to prevent theft and sab-otage. Additionally, it was soon realized that “lightdiscipline” was important to the war effort. Coastalfacilities were darkened, and stray light was strictlycontrolled. North America was learning the impor-tance of good security lighting and lighting disci-pline.

• During 1942, the ASA War Standards Procedurewas applied, and a War Standards Committee pre-pared and published American Standard, A85-1942, Protective Lighting for Industrial Properties.This eventually became an ANSI Standard.

• In 1948, the ASA Safety Code CorrelatingCommittee terminated War Standards and institut-ed a revised standard for peacetime use. TheIlluminating Engineering Society was designatedAdministrative Sponsor for this effort.

• The IES Protective Lighting Committee developedthe first draft of this revision, which the SectionalCommittee used as a basis for an AmericanNational Standard Practice.

• In 1977, The Protective Lighting Committee, IES,sponsored, wrote, and published AmericanNational Standard Practice for Protective Lighting-RP-10. This standard was intended as a guide foroutdoor protective lighting to those responsible forplant protection.1

• In 1994, a Security Lighting Committee was formedby the IESNA. Its first project was to write a mod-ern guideline for security lighting for North America.

• During 1997-1998, the Security Lighting Committee

developed material that was the basis for Chapter29 of the IESNA Lighting Handbook, Ninth Edition.2

• During 1999, members of the Security LightingCommittee outlined the contents and approach fora guideline for peer review and comment beforeseveral professional groups. These groups includ-ed the American Society of Safety Engineers, andthe American Society for Industrial Security.

• During 2000, additional presentations were madebefore professional security groups concerned withthe safety and security of the public, including theInternational Conference on Shopping Centers andthe American Society of Industrial Security.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The Security Lighting Committee, previously knownas The Protective Lighting Committee of theIlluminating Engineering Society of North America(IESNA), was established to generate and developcriteria for lighting to enhance the security of peopleand property, to recommend the integration and inter-action of lighting as part of a total security system, andto write a publication.

1.1 Lighting and its Relationship to Crime

The possibility that lighting might have an impact onthe incidence of crime was a topic of interest in theUnited States in the sixties. Municipalities acrossAmerica improved their street lighting to combat crimeand some encouraging results were reported, but onreview there was no significant statistical evidence thatimproved street lighting influenced the level of streetcrime. There was, however, an indication that theimproved street lighting decreased the fear of crime.

Twenty years later, in 1988, a before and after relight-ing study of a street in the outer city area of London,England, by K. Painter demonstrated a marked reduc-tion in the incidence of crime and the fear of crime onthe relighted street. (See Annex A.)

This lead to an outburst of similar studies in the UK byPainter (1989, 1991, 1994), Barr and Lawes (1991),Burden and Murphey (1991), Davidson and Goodey(1991), Herbert and More (1991), Glasgow CrimeTeam (1992, Nair (1993), Ditton and Nair (1994) andCridland (1995). The results were mixed.

The most sophisticated study undertaken on the effectof lighting on the incidence of crime was in 1999 inStoke-on-Trent in England by Painter and Farrington.

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Three areas of housing were selected; one was theexperimental area where the lighting was improved;one was designated the adjacent area; the third wasthe control area, which served as the baseline againstwhich any changes in crime could be monitored. Thelighting in the adjacent and control areas remainedunchanged. One aspect of the study was to see ifimproved lighting in one area might lead to similar ben-efits of crime reduction in the adjacent area. There wasa marked reduction in the prevalence of crimes suchas theft and vandalism, vehicle crime, and personalcrime in the experimental area after relighting. Therewas no significant change in the adjacent or controlareas. A similar study in the town of Dudley, England,showed that the level of delinquency decreased morein the relighted area than in the control area.

The results of all these studies indicate that lighting hasa place to play in crime prevention. A list of sources forfurther reading may be found in Annex A. While thereare no guarantees that improved lighting will cause adecrease in crime, there are circumstances in whichlighting can be an effective crime countermeasure,either alone or in combination with other measures.

Lighting can affect crime by two indirect mecha-nisms. The first is the obvious one of facilitatingsurveillance by the authorities and the communityafter dark. If such increased surveillance is per-ceived by criminals as increasing the effort andrisk and decreasing the reward for a criminal activ-ity, then the level of crime is likely to be reduced.Where increased surveillance is perceived by thecriminally inclined not to matter, then better light-ing will not be effective.The second mechanism bywhich an investment in better lighting might affectthe level of crime is by enhancing community con-fidence and hence increasing the degree of infor-mal social control. This mechanism can be effec-tive both day and night but is subject to manyinfluences other than lighting.

2.0 SCOPE AND PURPOSE

The primary purpose of this publication is to establishguidelines for the design and implementation of securi-ty lighting.* It addresses security illumination but doesnot give advice on construction practices. The objectiveis to provide guidance for designing security lightingsystems for new facilities and for evaluating existingfacilities and systems. This publication is intended for

the use of property owners and managers, crime pre-vention specialists, law enforcement and security pro-fessionals, risk managers, lighting specifiers, contrac-tors, the legal profession, and homeowners who areconcerned about security and the prevention of crime.Crime, its prevention, and the application of lighting tohelp minimize criminal activity, are considered in a lesstechnical and user-friendly manner for the benefit ofproperty owners, but illuminating engineers, architectsand other professionals should find the concepts usefulto review with their clients.

The primary measurement references throughout thisdocument are metric, with the English equivalent inparenthesis. For example, 1.5 meters will be dis-played as 1.5 m (5 ft), and 100 lux will be displayed as100 lux (10 fc). These conversions are approximate,but considered sufficiently accurate in this context.

In this publication will be found a discussion of basicsecurity principles, illuminance requirements for vari-ous types of properties, a protocol for evaluating cur-rent lighting levels for different security applications,and security survey and crime search methodology.The guidelines are based on consensus among mem-bers of the IESNA Security Lighting committee andother security experts.

Suggestions are given for exterior and interior securi-ty lighting practices for the reasonable protection ofpersons and property. This document also promotesa concept of best practice, which takes into accountthe following lighting design issues:

• Economics (including cost, maintenance and oper-ational costs)

• Environmental issues (including light pollution, lighttrespass and the adverse effects of light on animalsand plants)

• Municipal lighting ordinances, by-laws or codes• Energy conservation, and maintenance requirements

Minimum guidelines for the safe movement of per-sons and equipment and for performing specific taskscan be found in other IESNA publications. This docu-ment is intended to provide specific guidelines whereit has been determined that security is an issue, andwhere security is an important determining factor inthe design or retrofit of a given property.

Note that throughout this guideline the phrasewhen security is an issue is used to differentiatethe lighting design suggestions presented hereinfrom those contained in other IESNA publications.While these other publications may make refer-ence to security, in G-1 it is the only issue. Note toothat when security is an issue, not only lighting,

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* Note the distinction made in this document between security lighting and lighting forsafety. Security lighting is intended to protect people and property from criminal activities.Lighting for safety is intended to provide safe working conditions, safe passage and iden-tification of hazards or obstructions.

but all measures and system components areincreased and/or strengthened; for example, per-sonnel, surveillance, gates, locks, and fences.

Security lighting, as part of a well-balanced securityplan, should have the following objectives:

1. Provide a clear view of an area from a distanceand enable anyone moving in or immediatelyaround it to be easily seen

2. Deny potential hiding spaces adjacent to fre-quently traveled foot routes

3. Permit facial identification at distance of at least9 m (30 ft), and create the perception of beingidentifiable

4. Facilitate the proper use of other securitydevices available on the property

5. Deter crime against persons or property6. Enhance the public’s feeling of comfort in

accessing spaces and increase night-timepedestrian traffic

3.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SECURITY ANDSECURITY LIGHTING

3.1 PrinciplesSecurity lighting is installed to help protect people andproperty from criminal activities, and to create a per-ception of security. To better understand the principlesof security lighting, it is first appropriate to look at sev-eral key security tenets.

Responsibility - In North America, the burden of secu-rity and safety is generally placed on the individualswho have primary control over a given property. Withthe rights of control comes the responsibility of con-trol. For example, a property owner can enforce rulesof trespass, install security systems, restrict access,and make other decisions that may have far reachingconsequences for those who access the property. Toa lesser degree, a tenant of the property may share inthis control and responsibility for the sublet space.Owners and operators have or should have, a superi-or knowledge of the site’s history, including crime.Casual visitors, invitees, or customers generally haveno responsibility for security at a given site since theyare not able to exercise reasonable control over theevents at the location, or influence the environment. Itis generally the responsibility of a resident, businessoperator, or property owner to provide for the safetyand protection of human life and the property.

Anticipating the threat - A helpful approach in deter-mining the security needs of a property or operation isto study the opportunity, means, and motivation of

potential perpetrators. Security works to deny oppor-tunity, and increase the level of means or resourcesnecessary for the criminal to successfully attack thetarget, and escape. When opportunity is limited, and alarge amount of time and resources are required tosuccessfully complete a criminal act and escape,criminal motivation declines.

Time - Time is the criminal’s enemy. The longer acriminal act takes in planning, execution, and escape,the more likely the crime will be deterred. Most com-mon criminals will choose a property that requires theleast amount of stealth, equipment, and planning.

Target hardening - A target is harder to attack whencoordinated security elements are provided. In theprocess of target hardening, deterrent objectives areset, options reviewed, and steps taken to improvesecurity. The target is the people or property to be pro-tected, and the various security features are the hard-ening elements. Each separate security element addsto the others, making the target harder to attack.Security elements available to the professional will varyby situation, but often include management controls,perimeter protection, a means of surveillance,response capabilities, and security lighting. A goodsecurity plan will contain layers of security features, andwill not rely on one single security feature for success.

Fight or flight - The basic decision made by personswhen threatened is fight or flight. In other words…isdefense or evasion the appropriate measure?Sometimes, the act of fleeing danger is simply not anoption due to circumstances. Fight may be the physi-cal act of defense or a call for help. For police or secu-rity officers, it usually means some form of physicaldefense for serious threats. Flight, on the other hand,may mean moving to a safe place, or getting out of theway of a presumed threat. Lighting, if properlyinstalled and maintained, can play an important role inhelping people make this basic decision.

Security elements - Security elements can be active orpassive deterrents. Active elements have the capacity tointeract with persons or generate a response to a crimi-nal’s actions. Passive elements include those securityfeatures and applications that are static in nature and donot interact with a would-be intruder or criminal.

Passive elements for a home or business may includedeterrent features such as perimeter fencing or walls,open or barrier landscaping, exterior and interior illumi-nation systems, safes, open areas, and warning signs.

The most active deterrent is a patrol officer. The effec-tiveness and response of uniformed individuals mak-ing patrol rounds is often hard to predict, causing a

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would-be criminal to pause. Other active applications,in wide use, include: interactive alarm systems, cardor coded entry devices, metal detectors, security andpolice officers, and trained animals such as dogs andgeese. Some elements may be classified as bothactive and passive deterrents. For example, moni-tored closed-circuit television (CCTV), where there isa response or interactive capability is active, whereasCCTV that is not monitored is passive.

Illumination as a key element in security design -Security lighting is usually passive in application.Exceptions to this general rule include luminaires thatare automatically turned on and off by electronicmotion sensors. By applying both passive and activeelements to some security lighting applications, thedesigner can create uncertainty in the mind of thewould-be criminal about being detected and observed.

The principles of security lighting applicable to newfacilities, or existing facilities, those being upgraded,or converted, include:

• Integration of illumination into the total security sys-tem, thereby facilitating the effectiveness of othersecurity devices or procedures;

• Illumination of objects, people, and places to allowobservation and identification, thereby reducingcriminal concealment;

• Illumination to deter criminal acts by increasing fearof detection, identification, and apprehension;

• Lessening the fear of crime by enhancing a per-ception of security;

• Illumination that allows persons to more easilyavoid threats, and to take defensive action whenthreats are perceived.

3.2 Community Responsive Design

Community responsive design applies to all exteriorlighting, regardless of its purpose (security, safety,aesthetics). Security lighting should be evaluated forits appropriateness in the context of the overall envi-ronment and surrounding community. Lighting forcommercial, residential and transition areas in anurban setting may have very different requirements(lighting levels and luminance ratios) than lighting in arural or remote location where glare and light trespassissues may have increased importance.

Light trespass usually fits into one of two categories:

• Adjacent property receives unwanted light (highilluminance levels)

• Excessive brightness occurs in the normal field ofvision (nuisance glare)

Efforts have been made in numerous jurisdictions to

write ordinances or bylaws controlling light trespass.One method is based on using specific EnvironmentalZone descriptions that underlie any restrictions onoutdoor lighting. Areas may be classified into a seriesof Environmental Zones (E1 through E4) based uponthe extent to which control of light trespass is consid-ered necessary or desirable. These have been devel-oped by the International Commission on Illumination(CIE) and have been accepted by IESNA as suitablefor application in North America. The Zones aredefined by CIE as follows:

E1 Areas with intrinsically dark landscapes. Examplesare national parks, areas of outstanding naturalbeauty, or residential areas where inhabitantshave expressed a strong desire for strict limitationof light trespass.

E2 Areas of low ambient brightness. These may besuburban and rural residential areas. Roadwaysmay be lighted to typical residential standards.

E3 Areas of medium ambient brightness. These willgenerally be urban residential areas. Roadwaylighting will normally be to traffic route standards.

E4 Areas of high ambient brightness. Normally thiscategory will include dense urban areas withmixed residential and commercial use with a highlevel of nighttime activity.

Within any category a curfew of “after hours” time maybe established, allowing higher lighting levels duringthose hours when the curfew is not in effect.

There is no single set of values/limits that will work inevery situation. The following recommendations3 ** aresuggested illuminance limits to control light trespass.The values for the various zones are measured at avery specific location-at the property line on adjacentproperty and at the eye in a plane perpendicular to theline of sight. Illuminance values for security lightingneeds in Section 7.0 are measured in different planesand viewing angles and are not incompatible with thelight trespass limits when issues such as glare andcontrol of light distribution are addressed.

Zone and Recommended MaximumDescription Illuminance

Zone E1 1 lux (0.1 fc)Intrinsically dark

Zone E2 3 lux (0.3 fc)Low ambient brightness

Zone E3 8 lux (0.8 fc)Medium ambient brightness

Zone E4 15 lux (1.5 fc)High ambient brightness

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** These recommendations are based on those in the “Guide on the Limitation of theEffects of Obtrusive Light from Outdoor Lighting Installations.” Report of CIE committeeTC5.12 - Obtrusive Light. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage, CIE, Vienna, Austria

The challenge for the designer of security lighting sys-tems is to determine the appropriate solution not onlyfor the site to be lighted but also for the surroundingcommunity, especially when different jurisdictionsadopt different Environmental Zones.

3.3 Security Lighting PlanningTo achieve the objectives of security lighting, attentionmust be given to both vertical and horizontal illumi-nances, the uniformity of the illuminance distribution,the effect of obstructions, the reflectance of surfaces,background contrast, degree of glare, the spectralpower distribution of the light source, the interactionwith electronic surveillance systems, and the effect onthe surrounding area.

Lighting can be a deterrent to criminal acts. Properlyinstalled security lighting is cost effective, easy tooperate, and dependable. The extent and type oflighting to be used as part of a balanced security sys-tem will be determined by several different factors:

Criminal History - In the case of an existing site, it iscritical that security and lighting professionals consultdata that details prior criminal history on or near thepremises before changing the lighting or other securi-ty elements at the site. Generally, such an analysisshould be performed annually, and the security profileof the property and adjacent properties adjustedaccordingly. If the site is being developed in a previ-ously unoccupied area, or if there is a fundamentalchange in use, an analysis of crime in the surroundingarea is acceptable. If the site is in a high-crime area,many physical defenses, including lighting, will proba-bly be required to maintain overall security on thepremises. As success in controlling or reducing crimeis realized, it may be possible to reallocate valuableresources. Security is an issue for a property when ahistory of relevant crime exists. For more informationon the analysis of crime, see Annex C.

Nature of the Site - The type of facility or business, thehours of operation or access, and surrounding condi-tions affect the approach to security.

Degree of Obstruction - Landscape design, fencesand other obstructions, and building configurationsshould not retard detection and identification of unau-thorized persons on premises. Lighting should bedesigned to avoid deep shadows, be uniform, andpermit observation of the activities of those allowed onthe site.

Ambient Luminance of the Surrounding Area -Security elements at one site affect the security ele-ments on adjoining sites. It is acceptable practice torely on off-premises sources of ambient lighting when

planning security, provided that the ambient source isconsistent in quantity, quality, and performance.

Impact on Surrounding Area - Stray light from a secu-rity installation may be considered as light trespass byneighbors. Stray light or over-lighting may also haveeffects on safety on nearby roads and railroads.Where signal lights are used to control traffic onroads, railroads, rivers, or at sea, care should betaken to avoid confusion caused by disability glarefrom the security lighting system. Lighting can alsohave an environmental impact on nocturnal animals,migratory birds and nesting sea turtles. Local lightingordinances should be consulted prior to design workfor any limitations on mounting height, source type,wattage, shielding, and other local requirements thatmust be followed. Permission for variances should beobtained from the authority having jurisdiction.

4.0 UNDERSTANDING “WHEN SECURITY IS ANISSUE”

Designers, prevention professionals, managers, andowners should consider security an issue when oneor more of the following conditions exist:

1. The persons and/or property in the area to besecured present a desirable target to would-becriminals.

2. The property has a history of relevant crime orincreases in crime. (See Annex D.)

3. Crime in the surrounding area is high comparedto other political subdivisions, parts of the city, orcounty. (See Annex D.)

4. The results of a physical security survey or threatanalysis indicate a problem. (See Annex B.)

5. There are changing conditions, which exposepersons to new security hazards or increasedrisk.

6. Obvious physical signs of antisocial behaviornear or on the property such as graffiti, vagrants,broken windows, trash buildup, trespass, orpoorly maintained properties.

7. There are recurring, reasonable resident or cus-tomer complaints or concerns about security, orfear of crime.

8. High profile or troublesome areas exist such asbars, nightclubs, gambling halls, gang or teengathering spots.

9. There are industrial or commercial applicationswhere persons or property are prone to attack,such as ATM and night depositories, conve-nience stores, and railway yards.

10. Restricted access industrial or governmentinstallations are in the area.

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11. A time of national emergency such as war, actsof terrorism, and declared emergencies.

When it is determined that security is an issue, rea-sonable and necessary measures need to be taken toimprove security and safety conditions at the site inresponse to the potential threat. Each site will have itsown set of relative conditions, pressures, usage, andthreats. However, the following suggestions are aplace to start:

1. Are there mission and objective statementsregarding the security and safety of others, andare these up to date?

2. Are there adequate post orders (job descrip-tions) for those responsible for carrying outsecurity duties?

3. Are policies and procedures up-to-date, and dothese documents reflect the true needs of thesite?

4. Have tenants, and those that occupy or use thespace, been advised of the potential threat levelor the hazard?

5. Have public and private law enforcement agen-cies been notified of the condition, and did thisnotification include a request for assistance oradditional patrols?

6. Has a security survey or audit been performedor updated since the security is an issue deter-mination was made?

7. Do changes in procedures, staffing levels, andsecurity hardware need to be made?

8. Do illumination systems, levels, uniformityratios, glare control, and maintenance sched-ules meet recommended practices, standards,and code requirements?

If there is a history of violence or violent-prone attacksagainst persons, then it is likely that crimes of a simi-lar nature will occur in the future, given the same cir-cumstances. If a property has a history of incidentssuch as car thefts, gang graffiti, abandoned cars, van-dalism, or broken fences, lighting fixtures (luminaires)or windows, a reasonable person could conclude thatthe site is not secure, and the owners need to takeaction. Similarly, ongoing complaints from users of theproperty, changing conditions, or when a high-riskbusiness moves into the area, may indicate a threat toboth property and persons. The professional securityand/or lighting designer should take note of this, andplan accordingly.

When operations are conducted at night or duringinstances of poor visibility, the quantity and quality ofthe lighting may need to be increased to aid in the pro-tection of persons and property. Conversely, if condi-tions improve, it is reasonable to reduce the level of

security, to a point equal to the perceived threat. Insuch cases, a test phase should be conducted andevaluated with defined achievement goals. A test peri-od of six months should be considered, with monthlyevaluation increments for comparison.

Good lighting alone cannot guarantee security. Goodsecurity lighting, when integrated into a balancedsecurity plan, will, however, play a critical role inreducing or displacing crime and make the othersecurity elements more effective.

5.0 VISIBILITY CONCERNS IN SECURITYAPPLICATIONS

It is mostly at night that the highest fear of crimeoccurs. Sometimes common sense or intuitionenables good decision making; other times the physi-cal senses alert one to danger. Although all of thesenses provide information about the environment, it isthrough vision that the majority of information isacquired and processed by the brain. Vision, therefore,has a tremendous impact on the decision makingprocess.

Lighting facilitates visual perception of a space andarea around the observer, and the observers’ ability tosee. For security purposes, the important lighting cri-teria are illuminance, uniformity, glare and shadows.Refer to Table 1 for the relative importance of theseand other quality factors for specific applications.

5.1 Illuminance

Illuminance is the density of light that impinges (fallson) a surface. Illuminance, or quantity of light valuesare provided for a variety of applications in Section7.2. Measurements are made using an illuminancemeter (often referred to as a light or footcandle meter).The primary unit of measurement for illuminance is lux(metric) or footcandle (US-English).

The two primary planes for measuring illuminance arehorizontal and vertical. As a general rule, values notspecifically labeled as vertical, are assumed to behorizontal lux (footcandles). (A summary of illumi-nance values for specific applications in Section 7.2can be found in Table 1.) Note that for security light-ing, vertical illuminance is often more important thanhorizontal because of the need to identify people.

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5.2 Horizontal Illuminance

The density of luminous flux on a horizontal surface isreferred to as horizontal illuminance. Most illuminancemeasurements or discussions about security lightingrefer to horizontal values. These readings are record-ed with the light meter held in a horizontal plane orplaced on a horizontal surface, such as the pavementin parking lots, grounds, on roofs of buildings, or table-tops. Unless otherwise stated, horizontal illuminanceis measured at grade. Note that many manmade sur-faces such as roads, parking lots, or landscapedareas are not exactly level and may contain deliberategrades for drainage. As a practical matter, these areconsidered horizontal, unless the grade is steep. Formore information on vertical and horizontal illumi-nance, and taking measurements, refer to Annex B.

5.3 Vertical Illuminance

Vertical illuminance is important for identification ofpeople. There should be sufficient light to positivelyidentify a face and read body language as either famil-iar, unfamiliar, or threatening at a distance of at least9 m (30 ft) from the viewer. Unless otherwise noted,vertical illuminance is measured at 1.5 m (5 ft) abovegrade. (See Annex B.)

Lighting that allows identification of faces is a relativelynew concept in security lighting, but important in certainapplications, such as parking facilities, peep-hole view-ing, or at security checkpoints. If the luminance of thebackground (behind the face) is more than four timesthe luminance on the face, the image will be in silhou-ette. As a practical matter, in an empty parking lot thebackground may be the pavement at a considerabledistance away with luminances less than those neces-sary to cause the face to go into silhouette. However,areas with vertical surfaces immediately adjacent to theperson being viewed, such as a light colored wallbehind the customer at a drive-up window, could easilyproduce luminances exceeding the recommendedluminance ratio of 4:1 (background-to-face).

5.4 Uniformity

Uniformity refers to the evenness of the distribution oflight on the surface(s). In determining uniformity, min-imum, average, and maximum illuminances are com-pared using ratios; either average-to-minimum ormaximum-to-minimum. Uniformity in security lightingaids security perception, while reducing the necessityfor eye adjustment when scanning or using the area.Uniformity ratios (average illuminance divided by min-imum illuminance) vary depending upon the applica-tion. (See Section 7.2.)

5.5 Glare

Glare is the sensation produced by luminances (with-in the visual field) that are sufficiently greater than theluminance to which the eyes are adapted. Glare caus-es annoyance, discomfort, or loss in visual perfor-mance or visibility, and usually reduces the benefits ofsecurity lighting. There are two types of glare, disabil-ity glare and discomfort glare. Disability glare is theeffect of stray light in the eye whereby visibility andvisual performance are reduced. It can often be attrib-uted to poorly shielded or non-cutoff luminaires.Discomfort glare produces discomfort but may notinterfere with visual performance or visibility.Overhead glare is manifested by reflections off eye-glasses, eyelashes, cheekbones and other reflectiveareas around the eye. Direct glare results from highluminances or insufficiently shielded light sources inthe field of view. Reflected glare is caused by a highluminance image on a specular or glossy surface,causing detail to be partially or totally obscured.Perimeter glare, however, when oriented to the out-side of the site, may be desirable and useful in somesecure sites to make the inside area less definable towould-be trespassers.

5.6 Shadows

Shadows reduce the effectiveness and impair securitylighting. When shadows are sharply defined at or nearan area, they may be annoying and discourage a feel-ing of safety. In addition, shadows make it difficult forusers of property and equipment to maintain qualitysurveillance. Shadows reduce uniformity of lighting.

5.7 Establishing Site Divisions

When planning or evaluating security lighting, design-ers will find it helpful to divide a facility into sectionssuch as total site, pedestrian, pedestrian path, build-ing, and perimeter zones. Each may require consid-eration of a differing set of perception factors.

5.8 Total Site Zone

Large sites, with a need to provide protection for per-sons and property, are lighted most economicallywith high-wattage, high-mounted luminaires, spacedto provide uniform illuminance. (See Figure 1.)Mounting height limitations and other restrictionsimposed by local ordinances may dictate morenumerous luminaire locations to achieve adequateuniformity. Two other important issues that must beaddressed are light trespass and light pollution(obtrusive light). Luminaires with cutoff or semi-cutoffdistributions can provide adequate vertical illumi-nance and “be good neighbors” for most applications.

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(See Section 6.0, item 9 and Figure 11.) The typicalmounting heights for luminaires in the total site zoneare 9 to 18 m (30 to 60 ft). Each pole may have oneor more luminaires usually housing 250 W to 1000 Whigh intensity discharge (HID) lamps. A selection oflight distribution patterns are available that lendthemselves to a variety of parking lot, walkway andsite geometries, with the outward appearance of theluminaire housing remaining consistent. Well-designed glare-control louvers or visors can be usedto reduce pedestrian glare, while allowing the flood-light to perform as intended.

5.9 Pedestrian Zone

Pedestrian areas require increased visibility and dif-ferent quality considerations than the site zone.Luminaires for mounting heights lower than thoseused for site lighting produce wider beam characteris-tics than equipment designed for high mountingheights. The use of full cutoff luminaires, however, atlow mounting heights in this zone will not provide highvertical illuminance levels. The typical mountingheight for the pedestrian zone is in the 3 to 6 m (10 to20 ft) range. Note that if floodlights are installed andaimed at high angles from vertical in areas adjacent topedestrian zones, such as for building façade lighting,they may produce direct glare and light trespass if thelight shines through the pedestrian zone.

5.10 Pedestrian Path Zone

Paths require luminaires on a pedestrian scale, delin-eating the walking area and connecting the site withthe structure. The path zone defines the traffic pat-terns and establishes a sense of welcome and secu-rity, particularly important for facilities with 24-houroperations. Bollards or landscape-style luminaires areoften used to delineate paths and to provide highlight-ing without visual obstruction. The typical mountingheight for bollards housing lamps from 50 to 100 wattsis 60 to 105 cm (24 to 42 inches). Spacing and mount-ing height depends on the lamp type and photometricdistribution, according to manufacturers’ recommen-dations. Note that this type of low-level luminaire oftenproduces little or no facial illumination, and should beused only to supplement pole-mounted luminaires ona pedestrian scale at 2.4 to 3 m (8 to 10 ft).

5.11 Building Zone

Building floodlighting can be employed as a securitylighting technique, creating large areas of vertical illu-minance and adding to the ambiance of the area bymeans of light reflected off the building surface.Luminaire setback position from the building facadeshould be three-fourths the height of the building foruniform lighting; the spacing should not exceed twicethe setback. The ground-mounted aiming point shouldbe at least two-thirds up the building height. If the set-back is reduced, the aiming point must go higher. (SeeFigures 2 (a) and 2 (b).) Local ordinances should be

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Figure 1. High-mounted luminaires provideuniform illuminance for approach driveway,sidewalks and parking areas in this com-plex. (Photo courtesy of Holophane.)

consulted to determine if this lighting technique is per-missible. Care must be taken to avoid producing glareto the users of the area, light impinging on pedestrianzones, and over-lighting. Careful control of the lightoutput is essential to avoid wasted light and energy, aswell as creating adverse effects of sky glow.

5.12 Building Perimeter Zone

Wall mounted luminaires are often used to provide illu-mination for walkways, entrances, and underpasses.Luminaire manufacturers’ data provide recommendedspacing to mounting height ratios.

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Figure 2 (a). Ideal geometry for “uniform” floodlight-ing where the total angular coverage to the flood-light locations is greater than 90 degrees and thebuilding height is greater than two setback dis-tances (but does not exceed six setback distances).

Figure 2 (b). An explanation of NEMA field angle classifications and their effective projection distances arewidely used by the lighting industry to classify the overall candela distribution patterns of floodlights.

6.0 LIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Selecting and applying the proper lighting equipmentcan make the difference between a security lightinginstallation that deters crime and one that actually aidscriminals. Careful selection and appropriate placementof equipment will insure that required light levels areachieved with limited glare and reliable operation. Awell-designed lighting system will make the spaceattractive during the day and attractive at night. (SeeFigure 3.) It is important, however, not to judge deco-rative luminaires solely on their daytime appearance.Of greater significance are nighttime performanceissues such as light distribution, and control of glareand light trespass.

Considerations affecting an installation include:

1. Light Source Color - For the purposes of securitylighting, color rendition is an important considerationin the choice of light sources used. There are severalimportant measurements of color, including ColorRendering Index, Color Temperature, and SpectralPower Distribution.

a. Color Rendering Index - How do things appearunder a light source? Do colors look the same at nightas they do during the day? Is it important to be able todescribe the color of a potential suspect’s clothes? Orthe color of an automobile involved in a hit-skip acci-dent? Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a method usedfor measuring and specifying color rendering proper-ties of light sources. It measures the degree of colorshift objects undergo when illuminated by a particularlight source as compared with the same objects whenlighted by a reference source of comparable colortemperature. CRI is 100 or less. The higher the CRI,the better the color rendering ability of the source.Research has shown that almost any nominally whitelight source (CRI of 50 or higher) allows accurate andconfident color identification at the illuminances usedin public spaces at night. High-pressure sodium lampsallow accurate but less confident color naming at highilluminances used for public spaces, but both accura-cy and confidence declines at lower illuminances.Low-pressure sodium lamps do not allow accuratecolor identification under any illuminance level.

b. Color Temperature - Light sources are oftendescribed as “warm” or “cool” in appearance. The des-ignation of a lamp’s color temperature (or correlatedcolor temperature (CCT)) can be thought of as heatinga piece of metal, which causes the color of the metal tochange, until the color of the metal and the lamp arealmost the same. The temperature of the metal is

recorded (in Kelvin) and that number is used todescribe the lamp’s color. Warm sources like incandes-cent, high-pressure sodium, and “warm” white fluores-cent lamps have color temperatures between 1800Kand 3200K. Cool sources like mercury vapor, metalhalide, and “cool” white fluorescent lamps have colortemperatures between 4000K and 7500K. (See Figure4, color insert.)

c. Spectral Power Distribution - The composition oflight can be described by its spectral power distribu-tion (SPD), which shows the relative amounts ofpower at wavelengths of different colors. The visiblewavelength range extends from about 380 to 780nanometers. (See Figure 5, color insert..) When alight source contains energy throughout the visiblespectrum, it is seen as emitting “white” light. Also,when the primary colors (monochromatic red, greenand blue wavelengths) are combined, the resultappears as “white” light. Many electric light sources,however, produce light that is generally unequal invarious parts of the visual response range, whichaffects the way objects appear. If a light source isweak in red wavelength output, materials normallyinterpreted as red during the daytime may be mutedor appear dull under the source at night. The SPDs ofvarious lamps can be obtained from lamp manufac-

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Figure 3. Pole-mounted “lantern-style” luminaires helpcreate a turn-of-the-century theme for this street,which is home to numerous upscale businesses andstores. They are equally attractive during the day ornight. Care should always be exercised in choosingdecorative luminaires, which may produce glare andlight trespass. (Photo courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA.)

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Figure 6. Color temperature, Color Rendering Index and Spectral Power Distribution Effects of Various Sources.

turers. The SPD looks like a graph with bars (or a con-tinuous line) from the blue to the red end of the spec-trum. Peaks in the SPD represent strong energy out-put from the lamp in that area, while valleys in theSPD indicate the lamp’s weakness to illuminate cer-tain colors.

Figure 6 shows several different light sources com-monly used for safety and security lighting.Depending on the needs of the application, the chartcan be used as a guide for lamp type selection, but isnot intended to be a comprehensive list of all lightsources. Light source manufacturers’ data should beconsulted for more specific and comprehensive infor-mation.

2. Poles: In general, the taller the poles, the fewerpoles will be required for a given area, resulting inimproved uniformity and less likelihood of vandalismto the luminaires. In many localities, however, poleheight is restricted. When lower mounting heights areused, more poles and lower luminaire wattages willlikely be required to maintain adequate uniformity andto avoid over-lighting. (See Figure 7.)

3. Controls: Many existing lighting ordinances requirethat lighting in certain areas or for certain lightingapplications be extinguished at a particular hour.Establishment of curfews is a logical method to pro-vide partial control of light trespass. However, whenconsidering application of a curfew, the needs of safe-ty and security must first be evaluated to determinehow, when or if curfews should be relaxed or modifiedin the Environmental Zone (Section 3.0) or Site Zone(Section 5.0).

For non-residential applications, security lighting unitsshould always be controlled automatically with photo-cells, timers, or other sensors; and not assigned to anindividual user, except perhaps in a guardhouse appli-

cation where light is needed only occasionally forundercarriage or periodic inspections. Types of con-trols include time switches, photocells, dimmers andmotion detectors. These may be used individually orin combination to control a single luminaire or a groupof luminaires.

a. Time Switch - Generally used when a definedon/off cycle is required without regard for whether ornot the light is actually necessary when energized.Unless used in conjunction with a photocell, theadverse impacts on energy consumption should beconsidered. Time switches or clocks that can be pro-grammed to adjust on/off times with the seasons andto energize dimmers during low traffic periods shouldbe selected. Time switches are not effective whereheavy weather causes darkness/reduced visibilityduring daylight hours. AC power time switches oper-ated on commercial power should have an AC or DCbackup to respond to primary power disruption.

b. Photocells - Used to control an individual luminaireor a series of luminaires when operated in combina-tion with a contactor. Photocells can also automatical-ly energize luminaires during dark periods, regardlessof time of day. When photocells are combined with atime switch, they can be used to energize lights atdusk and then de-energize them at a specified timewhen the lighting is no longer required; e.g., after busi-ness hours. The photocells should be placed wherethey will sense the darkest scene and where they arenot influenced by the light output of the luminaire(s)they are controlling. When security is an issue, photo-cells should be located where a flashlight, or otherextraneous light cannot defeat them.

c. Dimmers - Used to reduce illumination (and power)during low traffic periods in such areas as industrialemployee parking lots during working hours, or latenight mall parking, when no one should be in the area.By dimming all units, the entire area remains uniform-ly illuminated, compared to the uneven lightedappearance that occurs when half of the units are de-energized to save electricity. Dimmable fluorescentand HID units require special ballasts.

d. Motion Detectors - Used to energize specific or allunits when motion is detected. Motion detectors shouldonly be used with incandescent and fluorescentsources because of the slow start up of HID sources,unless the luminaires are dual-level HID types. Motiondetectors can be effective in introducing an element ofsurprise. These devices can activate a strong lightbeam toward a potential intruder, who senses detec-tion, while at the same time alerting off-site personnel.Motion detectors are especially effective in residentialapplications and when used in pairs in “traps.” A motion

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Figure 7. A typical family of luminaires exemplifyingvarious pole heights and luminaire configurations.(Illustration courtesy of Clanton and Associates, Inc.)

detector trap is used in confined areas, such as spacesbetween buildings, or fences and buildings. The firstmotion detector is left exposed to the eye, and the sec-ond detector is disguised and aimed to respond to the“blind spots” of the first detector.

4. Maintenance: No security lighting system canremain effective without regularly scheduled mainte-nance. A planned maintenance program should includeimmediate replacement of failed lamps, electrical com-ponents, photocells, and vandalized or damaged lumi-naires, and involve regular cleaning of luminaires andshrubbery pruning. Inspections of all lamps should beperformed at least monthly during hours of darkness tolook for dirty or broken lenses, failed lamps or those notperforming to specified standards, tree limbs blockinglight paths, and for evidence of vandalism. In the caseof large properties where there are on-site securitypatrols or maintenance personnel, lamps should bechecked nightly, and observed outages reported inpatrol logs or maintenance request records.

5. Lamp replacement: A well-designed systemshould have overlapping light patterns so that no areais dependent on a single luminaire. Failed lamps,however, should be replaced immediately, in case asecond lamp in the same area also fails. When instal-lations require special lift equipment to service theluminaires, consideration should be given to replacingall of the lamps in the luminaire(s) on the pole at thesame time to avoid extra labor costs. To prevent prob-lems, lamps should be replaced at or before the man-ufacturer’s published rated life data for that lamp.

6. Cleaning: Regardless of the quality of the equip-ment, insects and dirt will collect in enclosed luminaires;therefore, all units should be cleaned at least at the timeof lamp replacement. When security is an issue, clean-ing may be required more frequently to maintain equip-ment within the most effective operating tolerances.

7. Pruning: Trees and shrubbery that would other-wise block light output from security luminaires mustbe pruned at least annually to prevent interferencewith the light distribution pattern and eliminate shad-owy areas where wrongdoers can hide. Where prac-tical, low branches and bushes should be trimmed toreduce hiding places and improve sight lines. (SeeFigure 8.)

8. Design Considerations: In many situations, lumi-naires used for security lighting will be part of the gen-eral lighting system, as in parking facilities or for build-ing enhancement. Frequently, the daytime appear-ance of the luminaire and pole is a deciding factor inthe choice of equipment, with quality and functionalitybeing of lesser importance. For example, a shopping

mall may choose more expensive equipment in pub-lic parking areas and lower cost units in employeeareas. It is important to consider that employees willusually arrive earlier and depart later, when few cus-tomers are present and may, therefore, be subject toa greater security risk.

Any outdoor luminaire can be utilized for security light-ing. Figure 9 shows a small sampling of various typesof outdoor lighting equipment. All devices must beproperly installed and maintained; and, if exposed toweather, must be approved for and labeled for wetlocations by an independent or certified laboratory.

The distribution and degree of cutoff provided by theluminaire is a critical consideration in new and upgrad-ed projects. (See Section 8 Glossary of Terms.)Considerations include:

a. Distribution ranging from Type I (narrow),through II, III, IV (increasing width), to Type V(symmetrical round or square). Some haveadditional performance descriptions such asforward throw, where limited light is projectedbehind the pole. The selection of the distribu-

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Figure 8. Luminaire must be selected to assure thatlight distribution will not be obstructed by thefoliage as the tree matures. Example shows pruningguide for street lighting.

tion type should be determined by a lightingprofessional based on the size, shape, andlocation to be illuminated. Several types mayfrequently be used on the same project; forexample, Type V used in the center and for-ward throws around the perimeter. (See Figure10.)

b. Degree of cutoff limits the percentage oftotal light output emitted above 90˚ (horizontal)and allowable high angle brightness. (SeeFigure 11.) It is outside the scope of this docu-ment to recommend the degree of cutoff. Whilethe requirements of the limits are very specific,the actual differences may be very subtle.Photometric tests should be utilized to deter-mine whether actual differences are significant.

7.0 SECURITY LIGHTING FOR CONTROLLEDSPACES

7.1 GeneralThe first question regarding controlled spaces iswhether to light the space at all. Lighting a securearea advertises the presence of something worthattacking and, hence, may attract criminals. In someapplications, keeping the area dark may be a bettersecurity approach. Examples of applications not tolight might include pumping stations in isolated farmcountry, or isolated telephone relay enclosures.However, if criminals are likely to know that the areacontains valuable materials, the absence of lightingmay make the target more difficult to defend. Thus,the decision to install a security lighting systemdepends on an understanding of the risk of criminal

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Figure 9. Typical luminaires and motion detector devices for residential and commercial applications. (Photoscourtesy of Hubbell Lighting and Ruud Lighting.)

General Purpose Floodlights

Applications: Parkingareas, recreation, facadelightingSources: Incandescent,Fluore-scent, HPS, MetalHalideDistributions: NEMA types1-7. Note: Rectangular unitshave Horizontal X Verticaldesignations. 3X6 etc.Mounting: Poles, structures,groundControls: Time clocks, photo-cells, motion detectors(incandescent only)

Landscape Luminaires

Applications: Residential, small commercial Sources: Incandescent, fluorescent, metal-halide, mercury, HPSDistribution: Floodlight and Type VMounting: Ground, trees, structures Controls: Time clocks, photo-cells, motiondetectors (incandescent only)

Figure 9d

Architectural Luminaires

Applications: Roadways,Parking lots, Walkways, etc.where daytime appearanceand/or light pollution andtrespass are important.Sources: HPS, MetalHalide- 70-400 wattsDistribution: Roadwaytypes I to V, forward throw.Mounting: Structures andpoles 15’ or higher withdecorative armsControls: Time clocks,photo-cells

Roadway Luminaires

Applications: Streets, drive-ways, parking areasSources: Metal-halide. HPS Distributions: Roadway typesI thru V. Cut-off units reduceglare and light pollutionMounting: Poles 20' andhigher with armsControls: Time clocks,photo-cells

Figure 9b

Refractor

Cutoff

Figure 9a

Figure 9c

activity. If the risk of criminal activity is low, and the tar-get relatively unknown to persons not familiar with thesite, then providing security lighting may be counter-productive, especially in rural, isolated, or otherwisedark areas. The risk of criminal attack is not the onlyconcern for the designer. Lighting for safety and theprotection of persons are always of vital importance.

Security lighting for a controlled area should provideuniform illumination so that anyone moving in oraround can be easily seen. The security lightingdesign should also provide sufficient illumination sothat intrusion or attempted intrusion into the area canbe detected, and any electronic surveillance devicessuch as security cameras can operate within recom-mended tolerances.

These objectives can be achieved in different waysdepending on the site and the nature of the securitysystem. Section 7.2 provides examples of securitylighting for some common controlled sites.

7.2 Specific ApplicationsThe recommended illuminances for each of the appli-cations described in this section are horizontal. Notethat vertical illuminance should be provided in allcases where there is a need to identify people (faceand body language) at a distance of at least 9 m (30ft) from the viewer. (See Section 5.3.) Typical recom-mended vertical illuminance values are 5 to 8 lux (0.5to 0.8 fc) or values that produce a uniformity ratio ofno more than 4:1, average to minimum between theluminances of the background and the face. (Thehigher the background luminance, the higher the ver-tical luminance to maintain the 4:1 ratio to prevent sil-houetting.) Variations from these recommended val-ues for a particular application are specifically noted.A lighting system that provides illumination from morethan one direction is recommended to achieve thegoal of facilitating facial identification and minimizingshadows or a silhouette effect as the person movesthrough a space. For guidance on measuring verticalilluminance see Annex B.

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Motion Detectors

Applications: Residential,commercialSources: Incandescent andfluorescentMounting: Structures withclear view of area to be lighted

Figure 9h

Surface Mounted Luminaires

Applications: Perimeterareas near structures, entry-ways, walkways, parkingareas.Sources: Incandescent, fluo-rescent, HPS, Metal HalideDistributions: Ceiling Mtd.-TypeV, Wall Mtd. Wide-later-alControls: Time clocks,photo-cells, motion detectors(incandescent only)

Post-top LuminaireA wide varioety of styles in clear and coloredenclosuresApplications: Walkways, residential parkingareas where lower lighting levels are satisfactorySources: Incandescent, fluorescent, metal-halide, HPSDistribution: Symmetrical, most with uplight Mounting: Wall bracket, poles up to 15'Controls: Time clocks, photo-cells

General Purpose Luminaires

Applications: Small parking and rural areas. Cutoffunits reduce glare, light pollution and trespass.Sources: Mercury, HPS, Metal Halide-70-150 wattsDistribution: Roadway type VMounting: Structures and polesControls: Time clocks and photo-cells

Prismatic Cutoff

Figure 9g

Figure 9f

Figure 9e

7.2.1 Unoccupied Spaces

Storage Yards, Industrial and Equipment Areas, andContainer Terminals: Area lighting is typically accom-plished with floodlighting or luminaires mounted onpoles 9 m (30 ft) or more in height. The recommendedaverage illuminance on the surface of large openareas is 5 to 20 lux (0.5 to 2 fc) with an average-to-min-imum illuminance uniformity ratio not greater than 8:1.The greater the brightness of the surrounding area, thehigher the illuminance required to balance the bright-nesses in the space, while exercising caution to avoidlight trespass and glare. Luminaire spacing will dependon the output, mounting height, and distribution of theluminaires. In storage areas where unacceptablematerial losses have been sustained, or security is anissue, the average maintained illuminance levelsshould be at least 10 lux (1fc), with an average-to-min-imum uniformity ratio not greater than 6:1.

If the area contains a large number of obstructions tovisibility (as in container terminals or rail yards), a

design utilizing additional multiple source locationsand higher mounting heights will reduce shadows.(See Figure 12, color insert.) It will be helpful if theluminaires are positioned within the site, betweenobstructions, and with overlapping light patterns. Thereflectance of site materials can also be used toadvantage. Light, reflective colors on buildings and inconcrete paving will enhance the efficiency and uni-formity of the lighting system. (See Figure 13.)

While IESNA does not recommend designing lightingsystems with disability glare, the technique is some-times used in special security lighting applications toprotect a secure area. The glare renders would-beintruders outside the protected area highly visible toguards inside the perimeter, while masking the guardsand other features from the casual outside observer. Insuch a system, luminaires are mounted at or near eye

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Figure 11. Cutoff classifications

Figure 10. Light distribution patterns for seven different luminaire configurations used to providecoverage for roadways (Type III), parking lots (TypeIII and V) and pedestrian areas (Type II, III, and V)

level and aimed outward from the secure area. Typicalapplications of this principle include sensitive weaponsstorage facilities, prisons, and jails. This technique hasa high probability of producing light-trespass and lightpollution problems, and should be considered only inextreme cases, or those instances where facility secu-rity is a very high priority. In addition, it can only beeffective if the would-be intruders approach from theunprotected side, and when security personnel arepositioned on the inside of the installation.

7.2.2 Offices and Other Commercial Buildings

Building Exteriors: Primarypoints of entry to the buildingand the areas around theseentrances should be easily visi-ble and identifiable. Dependingon the construction of the build-ing, points of entry may includeunintended entry points, suchas through walls and roofs.Luminaires set in the ground,mounted on the building orunder the eaves, or mountedon poles, provide light for thesecritical areas. While ground-mounted floodlights may pro-vide uniform illuminance, theyare accessible and can bereadily neutralized. Pole-mounted luminaires are usuallythe best option for uniformly illu-minating the surfaces of thebuilding and the surroundingarea with less opportunity forvandalism. (See Figure 14.)The average recommendedvertical illuminance on thebuilding façade ranges from 5to 20 lux (0.5 to 2 fc) with a uni-formity ratio no greater than8:1or 6:1 depending on theacceptability of losses as dis-cussed above.Building Interiors: Securitylighting for the interiors of build-ings depends on the securitymethods available. If securityofficers are on site, or makefrequent checks of the location,it is appropriate to have contin-uous or controlled illuminationto allow for quick visual inspec-tions as officers make patrolrounds. The illumination of inte-

rior stairwells, hallways, and work areas should be con-sistent so officers are not subjected to changing pat-terns of light. Generally, interior lighting for patrol offi-cers in unoccupied buildings should be at least an aver-age of 10 lux (1fc) with an average-to-minimum unifor-mity ratio not greater than 6:1. Regardless of the illumi-nance provided, patrol officers should always carrysupplemental lighting devices such as flashlights, whenpatrolling inside enclosed structures. If the building ismonitored automatically using electronic devices,enough light should be provided to operate the equip-

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Figure 13. Container storage yard is uniformly lighted with good vertical illuminancebetween the containers. (Photo courtesy of General Electric Lighting Systems.)

Figure 14. A combination of pole mounted area lighting units, ground mountedfloodlights for building surfaces, roof mounted floodlights and an internallylighted glass wall façade provide a well-lighted building environment. (Photocourtesy of General Electric Lighting Systems.)

ment within recommended tolerances. If there areinfrared motion sensors or infrared cameras that do notrequire light, it is appropriate to design the system to bedark when secure and illuminated once trespass isdetected.

Perimeter Fences and Walls: The purpose of lightingperimeter walls and fences is to deter or slow trespassand to enable guards or surveillance equipment todetect intruders. Perimeter barriers have many differentforms, from masonry walls to barrier vegetation. Thetype of lighting used will depend on the objectives, theability to see through the barrier, neighborhood consid-erations, and whether one or both sides of the barrierare patrolled. (See Figure 15, color insert.) If bothsides of a solid barrier are under surveillance, lightingcan be provided by positioning luminaires over the topto reduce shadowed areas at the base of the barrier.

If a view through the barrier is possible, and if theobstruction is patrolled, it is useful to be able to seeboth sides. This can be accomplished with pole-mounted luminaires set back from the barrier. Thelighting will be most effective if the luminance of thefence on the patrolled side is lower than the luminanceof the area being viewed through the fence. This

objective can be achieved by using a low reflectancefence material such as black or dark green-coatedchain-link. If galvanized chain link is used, care shouldbe taken with the aiming of the luminaires to reducethe illuminance directly onto the fence.

Guarded Entrances and Gate Houses: Access tosecure areas is often controlled by security personnelwho stop and inspect people, identification documenta-tion, or vehicles. (See Figure 16.) The intensity of theinspections ranges from token checks or wave–throughto challenges and detailed searches, depending on theperceived threat. In the latter instance, the entrance orinspection point should be provided with multiple, redun-dant luminaires so that the loss of any one luminaire willnot seriously degrade the lighting available to the guardsto perform their tasks. For critical applications, backuppowered incandescent luminaires or non-interruptedsources should be employed during electrical outages.

Tasks include inspection of vehicles, vehicle licenseplates, personal identification, and vehicle contentsincluding the driver and other occupants. Good hori-zontal as well as vertical illuminance should be provid-ed to allow for easy facial identification, inspection ofcredentials, and packages, without the need for auxil-

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Figure 16. Guarded entrance with well lighted checkpoint.

Figure 17. Driveway approach and canopy at the guard house provide uniform light for checking vehicles.(Photo courtesy of Operational Support Services, Inc.)

iary hand-held devices such as flashlights. Inhigh security areas, some luminaires shouldbe mounted at or below pavement level tofacilitate inspection of the undersides of vehi-cles. Having a concrete or other reflectiveroad surface will increase the reflected lightand help in the inspection process. (SeeFigure 17.)

Illuminance at ground level for inspectionareas should be an average of 100 lux (10fc), or twice that of the immediate surround-ing areas, whichever is greater, and an aver-age-to-minimum uniformity ratio not greaterthan 3:1. In addition, vertical illuminanceequal to twenty five percent of the horizontalilluminance should be provided at the level of the dri-ver. Good color rendering light sources should also beused so that officers can easily discern the color ofclothing, documents, goods and vehicles.

Illuminance inside the guardhouse should be limited tothe minimum required for comfortable completion ofassigned tasks, such as report writing and equipmentuse. It should be possible to dim the illuminance in theguardhouse to allow the guard to see clearly throughthe windows at night and to limit the ability of thoseapproaching the gatehouse to see the guard. (SeeFigure 18.) Well-shielded task luminaires are essentialto avoid reflections on surveillance monitors and thewindows of the gatehouse. Fitting the gatehouse withspecular-reflecting; low-transmission glass at a tiltedangle, painting the inside of the gatehouse in dark col-ors, and ensuring that illumination can be dimmed, willall help limit the view into the gatehouse. For a cut-away view of how these ideas can be integrated intothe design of a guard station. (See Figure 19.)

In installations where entrances are monitored byClosed Circuit Television (CCTV) or electronic devices,illuminance at the checkpoint may be lower than thatat sites manned by security staff. Illuminance, howev-er, should be at levels consistent with the surveillanceequipment manufacturer’s recommendations.

7.2.3 Automated Teller Machines and NightDepositories

Background: Automated Teller Machines (ATM) areinstalled for customer convenience. In manyinstances, convenience and marketability overrideother factors with regard to site selection and place-ment. As a result, crime against ATM customers hasbecome a major concern for security professionals.The financial industry, and some local, state andprovincial jurisdictions have responded with recom-mendations, standards and ordinances to make after-

hours banking safer and more secure.4, 5 Night depos-itories (ND) are usually located at a banking facility andpose a somewhat different threat than ATMs in thatcash is brought to the facility rather than withdrawn;however the same security lighting techniques shouldbe applied.

There are three essential elements for after-hoursbanking facilities. These are known as the “Three L’s”:Location, Lighting and Landscaping.4

Location: There are three general types of locationsfor ATMs: Drive-up, Walk-up and Interior. These maybe either attached to a banking facility or free stand-ing. Except during normal banking hours, there areusually no trained attendants at any of these loca-tions. In all cases security is an issue.

Drive-up configurations allow the customer to remainin the vehicle where, in theory, they are surrounded bya protective barrier with a ready means of escape.Problems arise when the customer’s attention is on

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Figure 19. Tilted glass limits view of the interior ofthe guardhouse.

Figure 18. A well-balanced lighting system betweenthe interior of the guardhouse and the exterior sur-veillance lighting. (Photos courtesy of OperationalSupport Services, Inc.)

the machine, allowing a perpetrator to enter the vehi-cle on the passenger side from an adjacent hidingplace. Shrubbery and other possible areas of con-cealment should be eliminated close to the ATM andsigns should suggest that customers lock car doors.

Walk-up locations create the greatest danger, as thecustomer is defenseless. No shrubbery should belocated in the immediate area and lighting should begraduated to allow the customer’s eyes to adapt fromthe darker sidewalk to the brighter ATM and reducedas the customer leaves the area. (See Figure 20.)

Interior locations may be enclosed or free standing insuch areas as supermarkets, malls, transportation ter-minals and convenience stores. In many such areas,other people may be in the immediate vicinity; how-ever, they are not usually paying attention to ATM cus-tomers. Some locations are self-enclosed, which pro-vides privacy for the customer and a view of the sur-rounding area. Some jurisdictions require that abankcard be used for access, allowing only one cus-tomer at a time. If the ATM is not enclosed, the spacesurrounding it should be clear and defined to discour-age non-customers from close contact. Illuminancevalues should be higher than surrounding areas toallow identification of potential wrong-doers.

Normal Practice and Standards: Some jurisdictionshave enacted ordinances that specify minimum secu-rity lighting for ATMs and NDs and frequently establishlimits for shrubbery or other obstructions. These ordi-nances emphasize the importance of security lightingin helping to deter crime against customers. Designersshould consult local authorities and use these require-ments as minimum only, because higher luminance insurrounding areas may necessitate more lighting inthe ATM area.Designers and bank security officers should considerthe following guidelines:

(Note: Unless otherwise specified, all distancesand illuminance values are minimum and shouldbe adjusted for local conditions.)

• To assist the customer in operating the ATM, theface of the machine should have 150 lux (15 fc), with100 lux (10 fc) on all horizontal surfaces within 3.5meters (10 ft) of the face of the ATM. An averagehorizontal illuminance of 20 lux (2 fc) should be pro-vided within a 15.2 m (50 ft) radius of exterior units.

• Supporting parking spaces within 18.5 m (60 ft) ofthe ATM, should have an average of 20 lux (2 fc).

• When the ATM is within 3 m (10 ft) of the corner ofthe building, illuminance of 20 lux (2 fc), shouldextend 12.2 m (40 ft) down the side of the building

• Installation of lighting units should be redundant tothe extent that one failed unit will not reduce the

illuminance below the above minimums.• Average-to-minimum uniformity ratio should not

exceed 3:1 for each of the zones described above.• Lighting should not produce glare for the users,

pedestrians, drivers and/or light trespass ontoneighboring properties.

• Illuminance at the machine and surrounding areasshould provide excellent definition of facial identifica-tion (vertical illuminance) at a distance of 9 m (30 ft).

• Illuminance levels should support all CCTV operat-ing requirements.

• Customers should have an unobstructed view fromthe face of the unit to a distance of 15.2 m (50 ft),in all approachable directions. If necessary, thisrequirement can be augmented by other devicessuch as mirrors, CCTV, fencing and barriers.

• Potential hiding places should be eliminated withinthe measured area.

• Luminaires should be tamper proof and/or “wet-labeled” where necessary.

• To insure good maintenance practice, it is essentialthat all lighting sources be checked at frequentintervals. Nonfunctioning equipment can createlife-threatening consequences. Personnel who pro-vide cash service to the ATM should check thelighting system and report any outages to the main-tenance department.

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Figure 20. Recessed luminaires in the roof overhangprovide uniform lighting on the walkway and verticalilluminance for customer transactions at the machine.(Photo courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)

7.2.4 Parking Facilities (Lots and Garages)

Techniques for lighting parking lots and garages aredescribed in IESNA RP-20-98, Lighting for ParkingFacilities.5 Walkways are discussed in IESNA DG-5-94,Lighting for Walkways and Class 1 Bikeways.6 Whensecurity is an issue, the recommended security illumi-nance for open parking facilities should be an averageof 30 lux (3 fc) on the pavement. A uniformity ratio notgreater than 4:1, average-to-minimum should be main-tained. Attention should be given to the use of the facili-ty and hours of operation. Uniform lighting for an emptylot is of little value, but when space is used to capacity itis important to achieve the desired lighting levelbetween vehicles since these are the likely places forcrime to occur. Sidewalks, footpaths, and groundsaround or supporting open parking lots should be illumi-nated to an average of 60 lux (6 fc), with an average-to-minimum uniformity ratio not greater than 4:1. (SeeFigure 21.)

Garages and Covered Parking Spaces

The security threat to unescorted people and unse-cured property in covered parking garages can be high.Isolated floors, numerous places to hide, lack of effec-tive surveillance, and limited escape routes often com-

bine to create this condition. (See Figure 22, colorinsert.) When security is an issue, in parking garagesand covered parking facilities, the recommended aver-age illuminance should be 60 lux (6 fc) on the pave-ment, with an average-to-minimum uniformity ratio notgreater than 4:1. These illuminances should be main-tained whenever access is allowed to the parkingareas. Glare should be avoided in such installations.Back-up generators or battery-operated lighting arenecessary in parking areas, stairwells, elevators, andexit ramps when the public is allowed access. Whensecurity is an issue, at locations where people gather,such as at elevators and stairs, illuminance should bean average of 100 lux (10 fc) in a 9 m (30 ft) radius fromthe center of the gathering point with an average-to-minimum uniformity ratio not greater than 4:1.

Perimeter or boundary lighting should allow detectionof those who loiter outside the site and those who areentering or exiting the site. Interior lighting shouldallow safe movement and easy detection of hazardsand threats out to a distance of at least 9 m (30 ft).(See Figure 23 (a) and (b).)

Visual adaptation occurs when going between regionsof high and low light levels, such as from a parkingstructure into the street or vice versa. Transitionallighting helps the eyes to adapt. For example, duringthe daytime the lighting levels at the threshold of thestructure might be increased and reduced at theentrance during nighttime use. The use of electronicsensors provides an effective solution to adjusting theentry and interior illumination when transitioning fromday to night. The quality of the light should be uniformto avoid shadows and glare.

Retro-reflective material should be used for wall signs,common walkways, gathering points, and hazardousareas. Location signs (level and bay) on columns thatface the aisles are useful indicators. Letter, numberand color patterns should indicate floor locations. Thebackground of such signs should be the floor color.Candy striped columns, black and yellow, are usefulto highlight drive paths. All of these safety features willhelp pedestrians to locate exits and their vehiclesmore quickly, reduce exposure to criminal hazards,and encourage a feeling of well being and self control.

7.2.5 Residential Parking Areas

Common use parking structures or open parkingareas should be lighted according to IESNA RP-20-98, Lighting for Parking Facilities6 and when securityis an issue to Section 7.2.4 of this document.

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Figure 21. Cut off luminaires in an employee parkinglot provide uniform illumination for workers leavingafter normal business hours and excellent surveil-lance opportunities for observers from an upper floorin the building. (Photo courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)

7.2.6 Parking Lots and Areas for Public ParksWhere security is an issue in parks and public spaces,the recommended average maintained horizontal illu-minance for open parking facilities in or adjacent toparks should be no less than 30 lux (3 fc) on the pave-ment with an average-to-minimum uniformity ratio notgreater than 4:1. (See Figure 24.)

Parks and public areas by their very nature are opento the public, often creatively or naturally landscapedwith thick vegetation, and are difficult to patrol andprotect. As with any other area where criminal activityis likely, lighting systems should enable fight or flightdecisions to be made at a distance of at least 9 m (30ft), by illuminating potential hiding places, movementpaths, and escape or movement routes. This is of par-ticular importance in parks and open public areas,where other security and safety amenities are usuallynot present.

Locations where loitering and criminal attacks are like-ly to occur should be illuminated to a level of at least10 lux (1 fc) at ground level, with an average-to-mini-mum uniformity ratio not greater than 4:1. Glareshould always be avoided. Planners need to considerthe following issues when designing lighting and othersecurity components for parks open at night:

• Prior history of crime in the park and surroundingareas

• Social conditions and citizen participation• Local cultural values• Traffic patterns and access• Patrol frequency• Light pollution and light trespass

Park trails and walkways7 open to the public at nightshould be illuminated to at least 6 lux (0.6 fc) main-tained along the length of the trail, and on all sidesout to a distance of 9 m (30 ft) on both sides of thetrail or walkway. The average-to-minimum uniformityratio should be 4:1. Where trails are situated inwoods, landscaped areas, or even broken terrain,lighting designers should also consider aestheticsissues in the lighting design.8 For example, it may notalways be possible or desirable for light to impingeout on both sides of the trail. Creative combinationsof lamps and mounting devices can assist in theseapplications. Again, glare should be avoided and thedesigner must be especially sensitive to issues oftransient adaptation, wildlife and other environmentalissues in these applications.

7.2.7 Supermarkets and Major Retail Outlets

In 1998 the Food Marketing Institute, the food indus-try’s trade association representing 40,000 supermar-

kets across the United States and Canada, publisheda study titled “Consumer Trends in the Food Industry.”Consumers ranked their personal safety as veryimportant. Many supermarkets today are high volumeoperations, well in excess of 100,000 square feet,offering a vast array of services, while attracting thou-sands of customers a day. Many operate 24-hours aday and parking lots for these facilities are enormous.Forty percent of crime in retail facilities occurs in theparking lots where customers and employees aremost vulnerable. Proper illumination is a critical com-ponent of the overall security plan for most 24-hourretailers. (See Figure 25.)

When security is an issue, illuminance levels shouldbe at least an average of 30 lux (3 fc) on the pave-ment with an average-to-minimum uniformity ratio not

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Figure 23 (b). A higher ceiling and light surfacesthroughout results in a uniform distribution of lightand a shadow-free environment . (Photo courtesy ofRuud Lighting.)

Figure 23 (a). Structural elements afford concealmentof luminaires. When coupled with a low ceiling, thedesigner may be challenged (successfully in this case)to provide uniform lighting in the space, especiallybetween parked cars. (Photo courtesy of Holophane.)

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Figure 4. The color appearance of various light sources defined in terms of color tempera-ture. (Illustration courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA.)

Figure 5. Electromagnetic spectrum. (Illustration courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA.)

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Figure 15.Instant on,

reflectorizedfluorescent

prisonlighting

appears as a“wall of light”

to inmates.Patrol

personneland vehicles

cannot bedetected

during patrol.(Photo

courtesy ofMagnaray.)

Figure 12. Uniformly spaced poles and luminaires provide lighting at each crane assembly area in this cargoterminal. (Photo courtesy of Holophane.)

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Figure 22. Awell-lighted

stairwellreduces

apprehensionand facilitatesobservation of

other people inthe space.

(Photo courtesyof Holophane.)

Figure 30. Securitylighting around aresidence can beachieved withlandscape lightingto highlight plantsand trees.Luminaires arewell concealed andthe lighting effects“frame” thedriveway entrance.(Photo courtesy ofRuud Lighting.)

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Figure 36. and transition from onebuilding to another. (Photo courtesyof General Electric.)

Figure 35. Clearly defined walkways through a cam-pus assure safe passage for visitors and students,(Photo courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)

Figure 34. Lighting forvehicular and pedestriantraffic facilitates surveil-

lance when security issuesare a high priority on cam-

pus. (Photo courtesy ofHolophane.)

greater than 4:1 in the parking lot (including parkingand support areas used by employees). For storesoperating in the early morning hours or 24-hours-a-day, additional illumination should be provided in theparking area closest to the store and outside the mainentrance where customers will be parking duringthese low-activity, high-vulnerability hours.Illuminance in this area should be at least an averageof 50 lux (5 fc) on the pavement with a uniformity rationot greater than 4:1average-to-minimum.

Roadways and rear areas of the store should be illu-minated based on ANSI/IESNARP-8-00, Roadway

Lighting,9 and IESNA RP-20-99,Lighting for Parking Facilities.6 If securi-ty is an issue, illuminance in the area ofdelivery docks, outdoor trash com-pactors, and recycling bins in the back ofthe store must be at least an average of30 lux (3 fc) on the pavement with a uni-formity ratio not greater than 4:1 aver-age-to-minimum. This will provide ade-quate security lighting for delivery per-sonnel as well as employees needing towork or move about in these areas.

7.2.8 Fast Food and Franchise Restaurants

Many fast food and franchise restau-rants have 24-hour or late-night opera-tions, with a high priority on patron andemployee security. Safety effectivenessfor fast-food security personnel resultsfrom proper site planning, quality illumi-nation, staff training, and integration oflayers of security. Critical among these

security features is lighting. Areas of most concern tofast food managers are the customer drive-thru, gen-eral parking, and refuse disposal areas.

The customer is most vulnerable to attack on the blindsides of the building and the drive-thru lane, particular-ly when patrons are transacting business at the pay-ment or order window(s). Customer attention is on thetendering of payment, collecting purchased food, orreceiving change. An attacker typically approaches thepatron between the building and the left rear of theautomobile. Building and lighting designs should allowwindow-service personnel to view the driver’s side ofcars, as this is a major deterrent to this type of attack.The best designs provide a setback from the window-service area to the rear of the building, and a side win-dow from which the store personnel can view this areaand various approaches. See Figure 26 (a) and (b).

Lighting that is mounted on the building, above theside-window, allows good observation by the employ-ee; however, glare for the patrons in their cars can beprevented with the use of side visors. The averagemaintained illuminance for the area within 9 m (30 ft)of the drive up window(s) should be an average of 60lux (6 fc) on the pavement and an average-to-mini-mum uniformity ratio not greater than 3:1. Generalparking areas, sidewalks, footpaths, play areas, andareas adjacent to the structure, should be illuminatedto at least an average maintained illuminance of 30lux (3 fc), at grade, and an average-to-minimum uni-formity ratio not greater than 4:1.

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Figure 24. Parking spaces at a sports event may be some distancefrom the stadium resulting in long walks across parking lots. Highmast HID lighting in this facility provides good horizontal and verti-cal illuminance for pedestrians and vehicular traffic pre- and post-game. (Photo of Holophane.)

Figure 25. Parking lot lighting designed with cutoff-type luminaires not only provides a well-lighted envi-ronment for shoppers but prevents glare for driverson adjacent roadways. (Photo courtesy of TampaElectric Company.)

Most municipalities and franchised operators requirerefuse disposal areas to be enclosed. Such statutoryrequirements increase the security risk to employeesusing these enclosures. Simply lighting this area with-out other security considerations is not effective. Thedesign of the facility and the written procedures needto address critical security concerns after hours. Theillumination of the refuse area, however, both insideand outside the enclosure, should be consistent withthe rest of the lighting in the general parking areas.

7.2.9 Convenience Stores and Gas Stations

Convenience stores and gas stations often operatearound the clock. Extended hours of operation, ease ofaccess and egress, ready availability of money andalcoholic beverages, and proximity to major thorough-fares make these types of retail outlets susceptible toviolent crime. When security is an issue, the averagemaintained illuminance should be at least of 60 lux (6fc) on the pavement. These recommended valuesapply to storefront entrance and sidewalk areas, gaso-

line pumps and islands, air and water stations, tele-phones, and other customer use areas. The site shouldhave a uniformity ratio of not more than 4:1. (SeeFigure 27 (a) and (b).) These levels are minimum, andthe designer or operator should also review IESNA RP-2-01, Lighting Merchandising Areas (A Store LightingGuide)10 when considering illuminance levels in theseareas. Surrounding, adjacent, or internal sidewalks,footpaths, refuse disposal area(s), and grounds shouldbe illuminated to at least 30 lux (3 fc) at ground leveland an average-to-minimum uniformity ratio not greaterthan 4:1. Glare should always be avoided.Properly placed horizontal and vertical illuminanceswill improve the visibility of outdoor areas to peopleinside the store, provided the luminance of objectsexceeds the luminance of the reflections on the insideof the windows. Ambient lighting within the storeshould be an average maintained illuminance of 300lux (30 fc). Store employees and customers shouldalways have a clear view of the outside area fromwithin the store, and especially from behind the clerk’scounter. (See Figure 28.) Lighting and constructionmust eliminate a condition where windows act as amirror, making it difficult for clerks to view the lot andpump areas. Tilting or coating store window glass canalso avoid this condition, as well as controlling thereflectance values of objects reflected in the window.(Dark-colored merchandise will present little or noimage reflected in the glass, compared with whitemerchandise.) Covering windows with opaque salespromotion posters that block the view of the outside

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Figure 26 (b). Recessed luminaires define the build-ing with a soft wash of light and highlight the drive-up window, allowing window-service personnel toclearly see the arriving customers. Light surfacesreflect light onto the driveway for easy way-finding.(Photo courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)

Figure 26 (a). Light is emitted from the floodlights toproject down the lane and parallel to the car toenable detection of intruders from the rear corner ofthe building. (Illustration courtesy of OccupationalSafety Systems Inc.)

areas should be discouraged. Clerks should also beclearly visible to outside customers.

7.2.10 Single-Family Residences

Lighting of exterior doors is usually provided for theidentification of callers, safety, and for more routine

tasks such as finding keysquickly and locating lock key-ways. Luminaire location isimportant. Light from luminairesinstalled on both exterior sidesof the door will help the home-owner recognize faces whenviewed through peephole secu-rity viewers. Luminaires mount-ed overhead will create harshshadows or a silhouette effect ifthey are located directly aboveor behind where the personwould normally be standing.The minimum vertical illumi-nance for security lighting atexterior doorways should be 8lux (0.8 fc), measured 1.5 m (5ft) above the doorway thresh-old, or at the midpoint elevationof the viewing device or doorwindow, out to a radius of atleast 3 m (10 ft). Facial lumi-nance should be no less thanone-fourth of the background;otherwise the face becomes sil-houetted and indistinguishable.(See Figure 29.)

Illumination installed at single-family residential doors is usual-ly manually controlled, but timeror motion sensor devices arehighly recommended. As visi-tors approach, the sensor-con-trolled light will be turned on,and callers perceive a presencein the home. The time delay forthe switch should remain on forat least five minutes. Sensorscan also alert the homeownersthat someone is at or passingthe doorway. Using a motionsensor and photocell combina-tion device will preclude theluminaire coming on duringdaylight hours. Timer switchesare less effective in this rolebecause they are insensitive toambient light level.

In exterior residential applications, spotlights mountedon walls and under building eaves, and orientedtowards approach paths, can be an effective deterrent.Floodlights should be employed at safe distances fromadjoining roads or highways. Top visors that limit glareand wasted uplight are recommended. Passers-by

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Figure 27 (a). Transition between pump island and service building is facilitatedwhen uniformity ratios do not exceed 4:1. (Photo courtesy of General Electric.)

Figure 27 (b). Well-balanced horizontal and vertical illuminance insures safeand secure task performance at the pump island and visibility of outdoorareas to people inside the store. (Photo courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)

(whether sidewalk pedestriansor drivers in cars) and neigh-bors should not be subjected toglare from security lighting.Very careful design and instal-lation is essential in controllingglare off the property so as notto impede surveillance frompatrol car occupants, produceglare on adjacent streets, orcreate light trespass on neigh-boring properties.

When it is determined thatlighting is necessary for addi-tional security protection, walls,fences, perimeter barriers andsimilar features should be light-ed from above. Plant land-scape materials can be up-lighted to eliminate shadows orhiding spaces and for aesthet-ics. (See Figure 30, color insert.)

Interiors of the home should have several timer switch-es that operate lamps throughout the house duringnormal time of use. The timing pattern will be deter-mined by the makeup and behavioral patterns of theresidents. The homeowner should not wait until goingout of town to establish this practice. Neighbors shouldbe educated about the light patterns. For long life andenergy savings, compact fluorescent lamps (ratherthan incandescent) provide an ideal source type forthese timer-controlled table lamps. Lamps should belocated in a bedroom, reading or sitting area, and evenin the kitchen. If properly planned, members of thefamily should be able to come home to a familiar andsafe lighted pattern throughout the house. This ser-viceable pattern is most effective when it flows fromthe exterior approach into the relative safety of thehome. Timer controls, infrared sensors, or photocellseffectively augment established patterns.

7.2.11 Multi-family Residences and Dormitories

Multi-family dwelling units present a security lightingchallenge different from that for single-family dwellings.Even when inside the complex perimeter, occupantsare not in a totally secure environment. The buildingand grounds are naturally accessible to other residentsand their guests. As a result, occupants may feel at riskwhen moving about on the grounds and into the build-ing where their individual residence is located. (SeeFigure 31.) Owners and operators of multi-family facil-ities should take this into consideration when planningthe security of their properties. Special attention shouldbe given to crime reports, vandalism, graffiti, and local

crime statistics, as gathered through resident com-plaints, security agencies, and the police. These datashould be reviewed at least yearly, and the informationmade available to residents. Criminal activity at nightand the areas where it occurs will be of particular impor-tance when considering upgrading or improving lightingpatterns and values.

Common Areas: Common areas such as hallways,stairways, entrances, and assembly areas have inher-ent critical safety and security considerations. (SeeFigure 32.) Lighting that enables recognition of facesis essential to determine who belongs in the spaceand who does not, who is perceived as safe and whomay present a danger. An average maintained illumi-nance of at least 30 lux (3 fc) should be provided in

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Figure 28. In-store clerk has a clear view of the pump island outside. (Photocourtesy of Occupational Safety Systems, Inc.)

Figure 29. Luminaires mounted on either side of thedoor uniformly light the front door. Supplementarylandscape lighting in the surrounding area con-tributes to a lighted welcome to visitors and enablesthe homeowner to easily identify the caller. (Photocourtesy of Occupational Safety Systems, Inc.)

the space with an average-to-minimum uniformityratio not greater than 4:1. If the residential complexshares a common mailbox area, the space, open orenclosed, should be uniformly illuminated to an aver-age of 100 lux (10 fc), with an average-to-minimumuniformity ratio not greater than 3:1.

Other Areas: Illuminance is required for other high-use gathering points such as laundry rooms, showers,locker rooms, and exercise rooms, regardless ofwhether such facilities are of closed or open con-struction. (See Figure 33.) Care should be given to

illuminate probable hiding or seclusionareas where perpetrators can prey on ten-ants approaching or exiting these areas.This includes spaces under stairways,unsecured storage lockers, vendingareas, roof access wells, furnace, andmaintenance rooms. Transitional lightingshould be provided for exits.

Individual Residence Controls: Individualresidences should have, as a minimum, anindividual luminaire by every entry door toprovide light for viewing someone prior toopening the door. Regardless of whethervisitor viewing is through a window or secu-rity-viewing device (peephole), illuminationshould enable clear recognition of facialfeatures. Consider the approaches dis-cussed in Section 7.2.11 for single-familyresidences.

Parking Areas: Parking structures or open parkingareas should be lighted in accordance with the rec-ommendations contained in other applicable IESNApublications under low risk conditions.6 When securityis an issue, lighting should be installed consistent withguidelines contained in Section 7.2.4.

Maintenance Considerations: Maintenance of lumi-naires for a multi-family residential complex is a chal-lenge. Stocking the number and variety of lamps andcoping with vandalism, wear and tear, and tenants whointentionally circumvent security systems, are just someof the problems faced by residence managers.Nevertheless, management must maintain a formalinspection routine and record keeping process for repairand replacement of lighting equipment. These inspec-tions should be performed no less than weekly, with ashort turn-around time for repairs of no more than 36hours. Formal records of the inspection process, andresulting repairs should be kept and referred to often.Where police or security officers work on the property,this inspection process should be performed daily as theofficer makes rounds, and reported on his daily activitylog, or other forms. Also, if battery-operated lights areused, spare batteries and lamps should be available.

7.2.12 Multi-family Residences for the Elderly

As the average population age in North Americaincreases, security for the elderly becomes more of anissue. Multi-family housing units designed specificallyfor the elderly are increasing in popularity, and fre-quency of use. IESNA RP-28-98, Lighting and theVisual Environment for Senior Living11 includes specif-ic recommendations for senior citizens that may besight-impaired.

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Figure 31. Clearly defined walkways and easily identifiedentrances provide safe transition from the parking area to thedwelling units. (Photo courtesy of Magnaray International.)

Figure 32. A well-lighted entrance to a dormitorybuilding insures safe passage for returning occu-pants and easy identification of arriving visitors forsomeone inside the building. The light distributionfrom wall-mounted luminaires also enhances thetexture of the building surface. (Photo courtesy ofRuud Lighting.)

Parking garages may offer a seeing problem to older dri-vers. Seniors’ ability to readily adapt to rapid and/orextreme changes in lighting levels is diminished. Theytypically drive more during the day than at night becausethey are sensitive to glare, such as from oncomingheadlights. Most parking garages have very low illumi-nance levels as compared with day lighting. With prop-er design, the extreme difference between outside day-light and interior electric lighting levels can be ade-quately transitioned. Parking garages used frequentlyby seniors should be designed with a greater transitionarea for adaptation between the interior and exteriorlighting conditions. The recommended minimum main-tained daytime illuminance for the transition zone is 500lux (50 fc).In all spaces, glare and contrast levels are important toseniors. Their sensitivity to glare from exposed pointsources is extreme. Bare lamps and luminaires thatexceed 850 cd/m2 should be well shielded from oldereyes. Contrast is one of the most important visual cuesfor older people. Excessive differences in lighting lev-els should be avoided in transition areas betweenexterior driveways, entrances, lobbies and corridors.Exterior walkways should have a minimum maintainedilluminance of 50 lux (5 fc). Doors, handrails andobstructions should have good contrast with the back-grounds. High light levels (e.g., an average of 300 lux(30 fc)) in interior corridors and at entrances to apart-ments help to produce a secure feeling for individualsin the space. Illuminance may be reduced to moreappropriate levels (e.g.,100 lux (10 fc)) for sleepinghours. Entrance doorways should be free of shadows.

7.2.13 Schools and Institutions

The traditional role, utilization, and occupancy rates ofmany schools are changing. Most schools in the pastwere used only during the day and only nine monthsout of the year. Roles have expanded for manyschools. There are now sporting events, eveningclasses, community meetings and organizationalactivities, all of which may meet during the eveninghours. During such gatherings, there is movement ofpersons in the buildings, on the grounds, and in park-ing lots. Combining this with mass hurried movementof vehicles creates a potential hazard. When securityis an issue, parking facilities should be illuminated toat least an average maintained illuminance of 30 lux(3 fc) on the pavement with a uniformity ratio notgreater than 4:1, average-to-minimum. Sidewalks,footpaths, and grounds supporting mass movementof persons should be illuminated to at least an aver-age maintained illuminance of 10 lux (1 fc), with anaverage-to-minimum uniformity ratio not greater than4:1, during planned use periods. Illuminance levelsspecified are only required for a period of two hoursbefore a scheduled event, and up to two hours after

all participants have departed the school grounds.(See Figure 34, 35 and 36, color insert.)

During periods of inactivity, some rural and suburbanschool administrators choose to use a black-outmethod to protect buildings and contents, wherebybuildings and grounds are deliberately left in the dark.In this approach, patrol officers are able to readilydetect individuals using hand-held lighting deviceswhen on the grounds. In addition, energy is con-served and the property is less visible to unknowingpassers-by. When planning such an approach,administrators need to consider a means of allowingpatrol officers (private or public) to quickly illuminatethe grounds or buildings when responding to alarmcalls or making a determination that the integrity of thefacility is being violated. Installation of locked orremote- controlled on/off devices, and coordinationwith local security or law enforcement providers canaddress this concern.

7.2.14 Law Enforcement, Fire, Ambulance, andOther Emergency Services

The facilities of public law enforcement departmentsare places that require a high quality of outdoor light inorder to safely move prisoners from place to place,load and handle firearms, make rapid vehicle move-ments, and be perceived as safe havens for the publicseeking refuge and assistance. This is no less true forfire, ambulance or trauma centers, where excellent vis-ibility at night is a critical life safety issue (see Figure37.) Lighting that enables recognition of faces isessential to determine who belongs in the space andwho does not, who is perceived as safe and who may

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Figure 33. Clear sight-lines in a well-lighted spaceenable the user of the exercise equipment to focuson the workout without concern for surprise intrud-ers. (Photo courtesy of General Electric.)

present a danger, and what their intentions are. Anaverage maintained illuminance of at least 80 lux (8 fc)should be provided at ground level with an average-to-minimum uniformity ratio not greater than 3:1, on andwithin 18.2 m (60 ft) of all emergency vehicle andpedestrian movement areas. This includes entrances,interior, and exits to sally ports and holding areas oflaw enforcement agencies. General parking for these

emergency facilities should haveaverage maintained illuminance of30 lux (3 fc) on all parking andwalking surfaces, with an averageto minimum uniformity ratio notgreater than 4:1.

7.2.15 Hotels and Motels

In recent years the hospitalityindustry has been moving moreand more toward the concept ofpersonal security away fromhome. Security applicationimprovements for hotels andmotels now include electronickeys for individual room and dooraccess, and increased lighting forparking lots, grounds, and foot-paths. (See Figure 38.) Whensecurity is an issue, parking facili-ties should be illuminated to atleast an average of 30 lux (3 fc) onthe pavement with a uniformityratio not greater than 4:1, aver-age-to-minimum. Sidewalks, foot-paths, and grounds around sup-porting mass movement of per-sons should be illuminated to anaverage maintained illuminanceof 10 lux (1 fc) at the ground, withan average-to-minimum uniformi-ty ratio not greater than 3:1.Management, security, or mainte-nance personnel should check forlamps that are out or not perform-ing according to specificationswhile walking the grounds nightly.Repairs or replacement should bemade within 48 hours of a majordeficiency being

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Figure 38. Parking areas and entrances to guest suites are well lighted toenable guests to safely transition from cars to rooms. The absence of anyobstructions or vegetation eliminates hiding places and provides unob-structed views of the parking lot. (Photo courtesy of Ruud Lighting.)

Figure 37. A well lighted hospital entrance and driveway provides a senseof security and enables patients and visitors to transition between thebuilding and parking lot without concern. (Photo courtesy of TampaElectric Company.)

8.0 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Various terms and phrases are used throughout thistext. The following is a listing of some of these terms.For a more complete listing of terms and lighting tech-niques, refer to the IESNA Lighting Handbook2 andANSI/IESNA RP-16-96, Nomenclature and Definitionsfor Illuminating Engineering.12

Adaptation. The process by which the eye becomesaccustomed to more or less light than it was exposedto during an immediately preceding period. It results ina change to the sensitivity to light.

Dark adaptation – the process by which the eyebecomes adapted to a luminance less than about0.034 cd/m2.

Light adaptation – the process by which the eyebecomes adapted to a luminance greater thanabout 3.4 cd/m2.

Transient adaptation – where the human eye hasto adapt from low to high light levels and back inshort intervals. This happens when the visualenvironment has very high contrast. Excessivetransient adaptation soon results in eye fatigueand reduces visibility momentarily until the eyefully adapts to the new luminance level.

Brightness. Brightness is a psychological responseto luminance and not synonymous with it.

Candela (cd). The SI unit of luminous intensity in aspecific direction equal to one lumen per steradian(lm/sr).

Candlepower. Luminous intensity expressed in can-delas.

Charge Coupled Device (CCD). Television camerautilizing an integrated circuit, semi-conductor array oflight sensitive picture elements (pixels) arranged on asilicon chip to sense light passed from the scenethrough the lens, frequently referred to as a ‘chip’ cam-era.

Cutoff. A means of defining the distribution of a lumi-naire based on candela per 1000 lamp lumens.Luminaires are rated as Full cutoff, Cutoff, semicutoff,or Noncutoff.

Full cutoff - A luminaire light distribution wherezero candela intensity occurs at an angle of 90˚above nadir, and all greater angles from nadir.

Additionally the candela per 1000 lamp lumensdoes not numerically exceed 100 (10 percent) atan angle 80˚ above nadir. This applies to all later-al angles around the luminaire.

Cutoff - A luminaire light distribution where thecandela per 1000 lamp lumens does not numeri-cally exceed 25 (2.5 percent) at an angle of 90˚above nadir, and 100 (10 percent) at a verticalangle of 80˚ above nadir. This applies to all later-al angles around the luminaire.

Semicutoff - A luminaire light distribution candelaper 1000 lamp lumens does not numericallyexceed 50 (5 percent) at an angle of 90˚ abovenadir, and 200 (20 percent) at a vertical angle of80˚ above nadir. This applies to all lateral anglesaround the luminaire.

Noncutoff - A luminaire light distribution wherethere is no intensity (candela) limitation in thezone above maximum intensity.

Dark adaptation. The process by which the eyebecomes adapted to a luminance less than about0.034 cd/m2.

Footcandle (fc). A unit of illuminance equal to 1 lm/ft2

or 10.76 lux.

Glare. The sensation produced by luminances withinthe visual field that are sufficiently greater than theluminance to which the eyes are adapted, whichcauses annoyance, discomfort or loss in visual per-formance and visibility.

Direct glare - Glare resulting from high lumi-nances or insufficiently shielded light sources inthe field of view. It is usually associated with brightareas, such as luminaires, ceilings and windows,which are outside the visual task or region beingviewed. A direct glare source may also affect per-formance by distracting attention.

Disability glare - The effect of stray light on the eyewhereby visibility and visual performance arereduced. A direct glare source that produces dis-comfort may also produce disability glare by intro-ducing a measurable amount of stray light in theeye.

Illuminance. The density of the luminus flux incidentat a point on a surface measured in lux or footcandles.

Horizontal illuminance - Luminous flux incidentupon a horizontal surface

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Vertical illuminance - Luminous flux incident upona vertical surface.

Incident light. Light falling on an object or surface.

Infrared (IR) radiation. Radiant energy within thewavelength range of 780 to 1200 nanometers.

Light. Radiant energy that is capable of exciting theretina and producing a visual sensation. The visibleportion of the electromagnetic spectrum extends fromabout 380 to 780 nanometers.

Light pollution. The scattering of electric light into theatmosphere, usually caused by luminous flux abovethe horizontal. Often referred to as sky glow or skybrightness.

Light trespass. Light that strays from its intendedpurpose, causing visual annoyance. A severe form oflight trespass involves glare.

Light adaptation. The process by which the retinabecomes adapted to luminances greater than about3.4 cd/m2.

Lumen. SI unit of luminous flux. Photometrically, theluminous flux emitted within a unit solid angle (1 sr) by apoint source having a uniform luminous intensity of 1 cd.

Lumen per square meter. A unit of incident light equalto one lumen equally distributed over one squaremeter of area producing an illuminance of one lux.

Luminance. (Formerly Photometric Brightness.) Theluminous intensity of any surface in a given direction perunit area of that surface as viewed from that direction.

Luminaire (light fixture). A complete lighting unitconsisting of a lamp or lamps and ballast(s) (whenapplicable) together with the parts designed to distrib-ute the light, to position and protect the lamps, and toconnect the lamps to the power supply.

Lux. The international unit of illuminance equal to onelumen evenly distributed over a surface of one squaremeter. One lux is equal to approximately 0.093 foot-candles.

Reflectance of a surface or medium. The ratio ofthe reflected light (flux) to the incident light (flux). Asurface that has the same luminance regardless ofviewing angle is called a lambertian surface.

Tube type TV camera. A general term for televisioncameras that utilize a vacuum cathode ray tube (CRT)to sense luminance passing through the lens.

Category includes Vidicon, Intensified Vidicon, SiliconTarget, Silicon Intensifier Target, and IntensifiedSilicon Intensifier Target. The last four are intended forapplications with increasingly low light levels.

Vision.

Mesopic vision - Vision with fully adapted eyes atluminance conditions between Photopic andScotopic vision, that is, between 3.4 cd/m2 and0.034 cd/m2.

Photopic vision - Light adapted vision that occursat moderate and high levels of luminance so as topermit discrimination of colors. It is generallyassociated with adaptation to luminance ofgreater than 3.4 cd/m2 and is vision mediatedessentially or exclusively by the cone receptors inthe retina of the eye.

Scotopic vision - Vision mediated essentially orexclusively by the rods. It is generally associatedwith adaptation to a luminance below about 0.034cd/m2.

REFERENCES

1. IES. Protective Lighting Committee, ANS/IES RP-10-1977, American National StandardPractice for Protective Lighting. New York:Illuminating Engineering Society.

2. IESNA. The IESNA Lighting Handbook, NinthEdition, 2000. New York: Illuminating EngineeringSociety of North America.

3. IESNA. Obtrusive Light Subcommittee of theRoadway Lighting Committee, IESNA TM-11-00,Light Trespass:Research, Results, and Recommen-dations. New York: Illuminating Engineering Societyof North America.

4. A Banker’s Resource Kit, ATM Security. AmericanBankers Association. 1994.

5. IESNA. Financial Facilities Committee, DG-7-1997, Lighting for Automated Teller Machines. NewYork: Illuminating Engineering Society of NorthAmerica.

6. IESNA. Off-Roadway Facilities Subcommittee ofthe Roadway Lighting Committee. RP-20-98,Lighting for Parking Facilities. New York:Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.

7. IESNA. Off-Roadway Facilities Subcommittee of theRoadway Lighting Committee. DG-5-94, Lighting forWalkways and Class I Bikeways. New York:Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.

8. Moyer, J.L. The Landscape Lighting Book. 1992.New York: John Wiley.

9. IESNA. Roadway Lighting Committee.ANSI/IESNA RP-8-00, Roadway Lighting. NewYork: Illuminating Engineering Society of NorthAmerica.

10. IESNA. Merchandise Lighting Committee. IESNARP-2-01, Lighting Merchandising Areas (A StoreLighting Guide). New York: IlluminatingEngineering Society of North America.

11. IESNA. Lighting for the Aged and Partially SightedCommittee. ANSI/IESNA RP-28-98, Lighting andthe Visual Environment for Senior Living. NewYork: Illuminating Engineering Society of NorthAmerica.

12. IESNA. Nomenclature Committee. ANSI/IESNARP-16-96, Nomenclature and Definitions forIlluminating Engineering. New York: IlluminatingEngineering Society of North America.

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ANNEX A

Sources for further reading about studies and fieldexperiments on the role of lighting in reducing crime.

Barr, R., and Lawes, H., (1991) Towards a BrighterMonsall: Street Lighting as a Factor in CommunitySafety - the Manchester Experience, Manchester, UK:Manchester University.

Burden, T., and Murphy, L., (1991) Street Lighting,Community Safety and the Local Environment, Leeds,UK: Leeds Polytechnic.

Clarke, R.V., (1995) Situational Crime Prevention, inM.Tonry and D.P. Farrington (eds) Building a SaferSociety: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention,Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Cridland, W., (1995) The Impact of Street LightingImprovements on Crime, Fear of Crime and Quality ofLife. The Larkhill Estate, Stockport, Billericay, U.K:Personal and Professional Management Services.

Davidson, N., and Goodey, J., (1991) Street Lightingand Crime: The Hull Project, Hull, UK: University ofHull.

Ditton, J., and Nair, G., (1994) Throwing light on crime:A case study of the relationship between street lightingand crime prevention, Security Journal, 5, 125-132.

Gabor, T., (1990) Crime displacement and situationalprevention: Toward the development of some princi-ples, Canadian Journal of Criminology, 32, 41-74.

Glasgow Crime Survey Team, (1991) Street Lightingand Crime:The Strathclyde Twin Site Study, Glasgow,UK: Criminology Research Unit, Glasgow University.

Herbert, D., and Moore, L., (1991) Street Lighting andCrime: The Cardiff Project, Swansea, UK: UniversityCollege of Swansea.

Loomis, D., Marshall, S.W., Wolf, S.H., Runyan, C.W.,and Butts, J.D., (2002) Effectiveness of safety mea-sures recommended for prevention of workplacehomicide, Journal of the American MedicalAssociation, 287, 1011-1017.

Nair, G. and Ditton, J., (1994) “In the dark, a taper isbetter then nothing”, The Lighting Journal, 59, 25-26.

Nair, G., Ditton, J., and Phillips, S, (1993)Environmental improvements and the fear of crime,

the sad case of the “Pond” area in Glasgow, BritishJournal of Criminology, 33, 555-561.

Painter, K., (1988) Lighting and Crime Prevention:The Edmonton Project, Hatfield, UK: MiddlesexPolytechnic.

Painter, K., (1989) Lighting and Crime Prevention forCommunity Safety; The Tower Hamlets Study, 1stReport, Hatfield, UK: Middlesex Polytechnic.

Painter, K., (1991a) An evaluation of public lighting asa crime prevention strategy: The West Park surveys,The Lighting Journal, 56, 228-232.

Painter, K., (1991b) An Evaluation of Public Lightingas a Crime Prevention Strategy with Special Focus onWomen and Elderly People, Hatfield, UK: MiddlesexPolytechnic.

Painter, K, (1994) The impact of street lighting oncrime, fear, and pedestrian street use, SecurityJournal, 5, 116-124.

Painter, K., (1996) Street Lighting , Crime and Fear ofCrime: A Summary of Research, in T.H.Bennett (ed)Preventing Crime and Disorder: Targeting Strategiesand Responsibilities, 22nd Cropwood Round TableConference, Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge.

Painter, K., and Farrington, D.P., (1997) The crimereducing effect of improved street lighting: The Dudleyproject, in R.V.Clarke (ed) Situational CrimePrevention: Successful Case Studies, Albany, NY:Harrow and Heston.

Painter, K., and Farrington, D.P., (1999) Street lightingand crime: Diffusion of benefits in the Stoke-on-Trentproject, in K. Painter and N.Tilley (eds) CrimePrevention Studies, Monsey, NY: Criminal JusticePress.

Painter, K.A., and Farrington, D.P., (2001) Evaluatingsituational crime prevention using a young people’ssurvey, British Journal of Criminology, 41, 266-284.

Pease, K., (1997) Crime Prevention, in OxfordHandbook of Criminology, Oxford, UK: Clarendon.

Poyner, B. (1991) Situational prevention in two carparks, Security Journal, 2, 96-101.

Taylor, R.B., and Gottfredson, S., (1986)Environmental Design, Crime and Crime Reduction:An Examination of Community Dynamics, in A.J.Reiss, and M. Tonry (eds) Communities and Crime,Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

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Tien, J.M., O’Donnell, V.F., Barnett, A., andMirchandani, P.B., (1979) Street Lighting ProjectsNational Evaluation Program: Phase 1 Report,Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.

Wright, R.M., Keilweil, P., Pelletier, P., and Dickinson,K., (1974) The Impact of Street Lighting on Crime,Part 1, Washington, DC: National Institute of LawEnforcement and Criminal Justice.

ANNEX B

Physical Security SurveyA physical security survey may also be known as anaudit, risk assessment, threat assessment, vulnerabil-ity/criticality analysis, or needs identification. No facili-ty can be properly protected until there is a logicalprocess to evaluate risks to life and property andapplication of appropriate countermeasures.

For large sites, or those supported by a managementstaff, surveys should be conducted by a team whosemembers might include the facility manager, securitydirector, security consultant (if employed), architect (ifthere is remodeling or new construction), lighting spe-cialists, a representative from any security and/orsafety committees, and a representative of any con-tract guard or police employed on the site. In the caseof health care institutions, it is wise to include a nurs-ing representative, or patient care professional. Theteam should always remember that criminals like thedark. For smaller facilities, or those properties sup-ported by a small staff, all these functions may bynecessity be performed by a smaller group of people.

The purpose of any physical security survey is togauge the risks, vulnerabilities and threats at a partic-ular site, and the effectiveness of existing security(policies and procedures, hardware and personnelperformance) in addressing those risks. The outcomewill be a series of recommended short-term, interme-diate, and long-term improvements where warranted,and the cost and cost-effectiveness of such recom-mendations. The survey is a fact-finding process.

No security plan or program can be effective unlessbased upon a clear understanding of the actual risksinvolved.1 The role of lighting is a critical componentin a risk analysis and the lighting system must be eval-uated in conjunction with any other planned physicalsecurity measures.

Factors to ConsiderIn determining the threat level, as much objective infor-mation as possible about the location and its surround-ings must be gathered. The site should be visited dur-ing the day and at night. Illuminance readings shouldbe taken at the site, as well as at surrounding proper-ties. Specific locations to be considered include path-ways that employees, residents and customers musttake to access the location and any buildings on thesite.

Other factors include whether the neighborhood isdeclining or in a state of dynamic growth? Are there

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signs of gang activity such as graffiti on walls or equip-ment boxes? What is the current population or siteuse, in terms of numbers of people? An assessmentshould consider how the intended and unintendeduses of surrounding properties affect the vulnerabili-ties or risk of the property under investigation. A keyelement in determining the threat level to a property isan analysis of the crime associated with the propertyover time. For more information on performing a crimeanalysis, refer to Annex D.

SpaceSafety is enhanced when people can see each otherbeyond a 10 m (30 ft) distance. The closure rate oftwo people walking towards each other yields about a5 to 6 second closure time within which to make adecision to avoid, evade, flee, ignore, or defendagainst the other person, if necessary. Confined areasand areas that restrict the ability of people to seeahead 10 m (30 ft) promote the ability of would-beattackers to surprise potential victims. Lighting canplay a key role in the defense principal of allowingindividuals to see potential threats and identify escaperoutes at greater distances, and instilling in would beattackers the sense of being discovered before or dur-ing the commission of the crime.

Open sight linesAreas that have no obstructions to lines of sight, nohard corners, no hiding-places, use low-level land-scaping, have a tree canopy trimmed to at least 2.1 m(7 ft) above the ground, and are well maintained,enhance feelings of personal security. Elements ofhardscape (buildings, retaining walls, sidewalk) andsoftscape (trees, bushes, plant materials), all have aneffect on the lighting design. Areas with many abruptangles, large changes in elevation and/or copiouslandscaping are a challenge to the design of securitylighting and can add to the system costs. Poorlyplanned and maintained landscaping can defeat themost elaborate lighting designs.

Patrol response timeIn designing a security program, the lighting designerneeds to consider how lighting can enhance the effec-tiveness of the local patrol force. Relevant questionsmay include: How often is this area routinelypatrolled? Do patrol officers actually come on theproperty or simply drive by? Where are they most like-ly to patrol? Are patrol officers equipped with auxiliarylights for viewing into alleys, doorways, and hallways?Will the placement of lights create a glare that will limitthe ability of the patrol to see into areas that mayappear to be well lighted? How easy is it for emer-gency personnel to identify buildings and locations on

the site from the streets? What is the response time ifthere is an emergency? How can lighting enhance orinhibit that response time? A benchmark for measur-ing the effectiveness of a patrol system is responsetime. This is a measurement of the length of timeexpressed in minutes and seconds that it takes thefirst officer to receive a signal from the dispatcher, andarrive at the crime or emergency scene. For example,most major city police departments will strive toreduce their response time down to 5 minutes or less.Internal facility or base security personnel often haveeven quicker response times, due to shorter distancesof travel, greater familiarity with the property, and asmaller population to serve. Operations utilizing con-tract security forces may contractually designate max-imum response times, and are wise to periodically testthe system. Public police are usually less responsiveto such request or monitoring. The lighting designermay need to consider this time factor into the finaldesign package. For example a small plant or officebuilding in a rural county may need more active andpassive protection at the site, as patrol service is sim-ply not practical, and emergency response times aretwenty to thirty minutes or more.

Supplemental Security DesignIncreasingly, security strategies include the use ofelectronic surveillance to supplement the on-site sur-veillance of both public police and private security.Electronic security, including closed-circuit television(CCTV), provides “always-on” capabilities that are notpossible through security personnel without extreme-ly large security budgets. Lighting is a critical part ofan electronic security design that relies on CCTV aswell as on regular patrols. Although cameras capableof operating under infra-red and low level lighting areavailable, the quality of these pictures, as well asvideo images used for identification and investigation,will be enhanced by ensuring that adequate lightingexists in those areas that are most vulnerable andreinforced by video patrols.

Survey ProcessThe survey process includes several steps. Surveysshould be conducted annually, at a minimum, and asneeded (especially after a serious incident) on builtproperties. Surveys are regularly conducted whenev-er new construction or renovation of an existing prop-erty takes place on the site.

Survey Tools• Pad and pen to record locations measured and

marked on a site diagram or plan• Survey form or template to guide the assessment• Calibrated, cosine corrected, digital light meter

• Small flashlight• Tape recorder• Tape measure to record distances from light

sources• Clipboard and several pensTwo people are optimum for the light measurement. Anassessment template or survey needs to be created thatensures that all critical areas are included in the assess-ment. A lighting survey for a building that houses seniorcitizens, for example, should include assessment of thelighting on either side of the property lines, at the busstops, parking lot entrances, parking lots, in the com-mon areas inside and outside the building, along walk-ways, under the canopy or vestibule, in the entranceand lobby, at the elevators and on the elevators, in frontof the mail boxes, inside and outside the emergencyexists, in the stairwells and on several of the floors.

Recording Light ValuesThe illuminance, as registered on the illuminancemeter, should be noted in the survey plan. For detailson taking and recording photometric readings refer toAnnex C.

Technical SpecificationsAs part of the survey process, technical specifications

of lamps, luminaries, locations, aiming angles, mount-ing heights, and controls should be examined to seeif existing conditions require change. The most impor-tant lighting considerations are:

• Quantity of light – lumen output of each light source• Spatial distribution of light (composition of two- and

three-dimensional lighting patterns)• Spectral distribution of light (color attributes of light-

ing)• Temporal distribution of light (sequential changes

in light emitted, visual effects when passingthrough, or redirecting vision)

• Added elements (visible components of the lightingsystem).

Use of Light ValuesLight measurements should be evaluated for adequacy,recommended minimums and maximums, and unifor-mity. Measurement of light values on any property allow-ing public access, where security is an issue should beevaluated and recorded on a scheduled program basis.

Additional Factors of LightingIn addition to taking light meter readings, and evaluatingtechnical specifications, there are psychological consid-

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Figure B1

Lighting and Crime in and Around Elderly HighRises

Example of light mapping and crime assess-ment associated with high-rises for the elderly.Black dots are the locations where readingswere taken around the property. Readings weretaken between 10:00 and 11:00 pm.

Provided courtesy of SPARTA Consulting Corporation

Lighting and Crime in and Around a Multi-Family Housing Complex

Example of a light map associated with anapartment complex. Location of light poles andcrime are shown, as well as location of trees.Numbers indicate the location of the light read-ing and the value in footcandles. Readingswere taken between 12:00 and 2:00 am.

Provided courtesy of SPARTA Consulting Corporation

erations. Light and shade, highlights and shadows, andvariation in color will affect the senses. It is wise to con-sider the advice of non-technical personnel, both malesand females, in evaluating psychological responses. Forexample, consideration should be given to how thephysical senses are impacted when passing througheach lighted area. Does the ambient lighting stimulatealertness or dullness, fear or tranquility? Are the shad-ows harsh, creating very dark areas or are they soft, per-mitting one to look into the shadows easily?

Light Pollution, Light Trespass and GlareThe surrounding environment will affect lighting needson the property. Adjacent street lighting, or lightspillover from adjacent properties, may interfere withCCTV cameras by producing too much backlightingagainst which an intruders face will appear in silhou-ette. Neighboring property owner/operators, or civilauthorities, may complain. Ambient light that spillsover onto neighboring properties, or into the wronginternal area(s), can be controlled through the use ofinternal or external light shields as one option.

Glare can work for or against an effective securitylighting system. Glare reduces visibility when lowmounted luminaires are aimed out and away from theproperty to be protected. This will create glare in theeyes of the potential trespasser, while allowing theguards or cameras positioned behind or directly underthe lights to view the perimeter without being detect-ed. The glare makes the criminal uncertain aboutwhat is in the area and how well it is guarded. To beeffective, the secure area should be left dark and thelow-mounted luminaires should floodlight all theapproaches to the area.2 Glare, however, in the wrongareas can limit ability to see a perpetrator. Just asglare can hinder the trespasser, it can also hinder thepolice officer or security guard who is patrolling fromthe perimeter. If glare is used within a facility, it mustbe carefully placed so as not to inhibit the operation ofcameras or security personnel assigned to protect anarea. Unnecessary or unwanted glare can be mini-mized by using higher fixture mounting heights andsteeper aiming angles, thereby putting the light whereit is needed, while reducing the visibility of the actuallight source (direct glare), and minimizing light pollu-tion and light trespass.

Special NeedsIn addition to the security requirements already dis-cussed, the visual needs of senior citizens must beconsidered. Older eyes have special needs.ANSI/IESNA RP-28-98, Lighting and the VisualEnvironment for Senior Living (reference 10 in the maindocument) should be consulted if seniors frequent,shop, work in, or visit the location to be surveyed.

Structuring the AssessmentAssessments should be as thorough as possible andshould be graphical. Below are some examples oflighting maps that were designed based on a lightingassessment in a Northeastern community. The crimedata are for 2000 and are indicated using icons.Lighting values were taken in footcandles and plottedon the site maps for each development.

RecommendationsFollowing an analysis of the survey, the next step is toconsider the need for change. Recommendations forany changes in lighting patterns, or for improved light-ing should be detailed and specific, providing a ratio-nale for the change. These recommendations shouldmention applicable alternatives, and the cost involvedfor each. Lighting professionals can provide the nec-essary data.

REFERENCES

1. Protection of Assets Manual, Chapter 2-1;Revision 2-1, April 2000.

2. Leslie, R.P. and Rogers P.A., The Outdoor LightingPattern Book. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996, p. 4.

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ANNEX C

Taking Security Illumination Measurements – APractical Guide

BackgroundTaking lighting measurements in the field for securitypurposes is often quite different in practice and pur-pose than taking measurements for other lightingapplications. Security lighting recordings are often per-formed by police officers investigating a crime scene,a security officer, or maintenance personnel makingrounds, a property manager or security consultantevaluating an incident location. In these cases, thesecurity lighting evaluation is most often conducted inconjunction with other tasks. As a result, the record-ings need to be conducted efficiently, and with a mini-mum of mathematical calculations or equipment.

Preparing for the Evaluation:Preparation and study are essential for security light-ing surveys. First, if possible a typical night should beselected. Test times to be avoided include completelyovercast conditions, full phase of the moon, snow onthe ground, rainy or stormy nights, or nights with nomoon. An average night hypothetically will have a skywith half cloud cover, mid phase of the moon, no rain,no snow cover, and no light trespass from a nearbysporting event. In other words, reasonable not perfectconditions are optimal. However, many exposures areopen to the public during all hours and weather con-ditions and light readings must be taken under repre-sentative times and conditions. Lighting measure-ments should be made under reasonable conditions,taking into account weather conditions such as mois-ture and temperature and their effect on the meter andits ability to provide reliable information. If readingshave to be taken under adverse conditions such assnow cover because of the time of the year, theseconditions should be noted in the assessment.

Taking Measurements – The following is a step-by-step approach to taking security and safety lightingmeasurements for property:

Step 1. Select the equipment - Measuring securitylighting is not an expensive proposition. An illumi-nance meter, often referred to simply as a lightmeter, is the first requirement. The meter must becosine corrected and color corrected. Measurementresults should be displayed in both lux and footcan-dles. Typically, these meters have a sensor attachedto the body by a flex cord. Meters of this type areproduced by a variety of manufacturers, and can bepurchased commercially from an industrial meter or

instrument shop or electrical supply house. For aview of a typical meter refer to Figure C1.

For accurate and repeatable results, the metershould be calibrated. It should be recalibrated asrecommended by the manufacturer. Other helpfulitems include a compass for determining cardinaldirections (north, south, east, and west); a measur-ing tape or ruler for determining height aboveground; a distance measuring device, such as awheeled foot and inch counter; flashlight; fisheyelevel; plot plan or sketch; and, recording materials.As a helpful hint, the fisheye level should beattached to the light meter sensor, without it inter-fering with the sensor head. This will aid in keepingthe meter level, if the placement or slope of the ter-rain is in doubt.

Step 2. Orientation to the property – Orientation tothe property, i.e., the cardinal directions (north,south, east, and west) should be determined withthe aid of a plot plan and a compass, and the plan orsketch marked accordingly. This will be useful laterwhen describing results, and identifying objects.

Step 3. Layout of the area - The area of the prop-erty where the measurements are to be madeshould be determined. If the area is clearly defined,such as a parking lot or fenced school playground,the measurement locations can be planned on astraight line that samples a typical section of thearea. To take a correct sample, a line locationshould be selected that includes a good range ofwhat appears to be the best and the worst lightingconditions. An easy “trick” in this regard is to look atone’s own shadow on the ground. Certainly, the

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Figure C1. Typical illuminance meter. (Annex C photoscourtesy of Operational Support Services, Inc.)

best place to start looking for the lowest values ismidway between the widest luminaire spacing.However, if the two luminaires have differentsources, optical systems, or differ in aiming, thephysical mid-point may not be the area of lowestilluminance. In this case, a comparison of the twoshadows (usually one’s own body-shadow) may bethe best estimator. When the shadows are of equaldarkness, the contribution of light from each lumi-naire will also be comparable, and give the lowestlight readings. Scanning back and forth with themeter is also useful to find absolute levels.

If measuring an irregular or poorly defined area,such as a curving sidewalk, or exposed ATM or NDin an outside area, or a crime scene, the flow oflogical pedestrian movement should be followed. Adetermination should be made about where andhow many readings will be taken. The number andlocation of the test points will be determined by thelayout, size, and shape of the area and the degreeof accuracy desired. A reasonable number of testpoints would be no less than eight, of equal dis-tance apart, along either a straight line or terrainfollowing course. For example, to check the secu-rity lighting at a large guardhouse entrance that is30 yards across, measurements might be taken atintervals of 3 yards (paces). In this example, read-ings will be taken at ten different points. The areato be surveyed is measured or paced off. Positionsto be measured should be flagged, or distancesmeasured by pacing from point to point. For largerareas such as supermarket or mall parking lots thereadings should be taken in at least one half (1⁄2) themounting height intervals.1 This exercise should berepeated as often as needed to secure a reason-able sampling of the area being measured.Readings should also be taken at least 5 m (16 ft)on either side of the path to ensure visibility into theareas near where people walk or travel. Readingsshould also be taken on either side of fences andperimeters of the property.

Step 4. Determine height - Primary readings willbe taken at ground or floor level; however, consid-eration should be given to any secondary heightsabove ground or floor that might apply. For exam-ple, if the protection of persons or facial recognitionis the primary concern at this property, additionalreadings should be taken at 1.5 m (5 ft), or otherdetermined heights above ground level. SeeFigure C2. These above ground readings shouldbe taken at the same points or locations as groundlevel readings. (See Step 5.) In the case of ATMmachines a state statute may require a 0.9 m (3 ft)above ground level measurement (the estimatedheight of an ATM transaction face). Practical field

experience shows that measurements at heightare usually comparable to or higher than thosetaken at ground level. Once the secondary heightis determined, the location can be measured with atape measure or ruler. This height can be deter-mined in relation to the operator’s own height. Forexample, the 5 ft mark may be just above or beloweye level, or the 3 ft mark may be at belt height.With this in mind, the measurements can be com-pleted more easily, with no need to carry height-measuring equipment, and progress will be faster.

Step 5. Reading at grade - At the first test point, ahorizontal reading should be taken at ground level.This is accomplished by placing the meter on theground or pavement surface, with the sensor face up,taking care not to block light from reaching it, orcause shadows on the sensor. A good practice is tomove away from the meter as far as possible, whilestill being able to read the digital display. Specialremote-cords on some meters allow the read-outportion of the meter to be separated from the lightsensor. Results should be recorded and marked aspoint 1 – ground level. See Figure C3.

Step 6. Reading at height - (readings taken at thework plane). For many applications, it may beappropriate to take measurements at a heightabove ground that is considered a work or func-tional plane. Examples of these planes includeinterior and exterior ATM machines, guard postswhere drivers’ faces and identification papers mustbe viewed, and tops of vehicles. Once the appro-

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Figure C2. Meter position for measuring horizontaland vertical Illuminance.

1One half (1⁄2) the mounting height is equal to the distance from luminaire to finished grade,

divided by two.

priate task application is determined, another read-ing should be taken at the first location, just abovethe point 1-ground level position, at the heightabove ground as determined in Step 4, above. Themeter should be held in a horizontal position, aslevel as possible, with as little obstruction or shad-ow to the meter’s sensor as possible. Results willbe recorded as point 1 – height level.

Step 7. Complete taking readings - The processdescribed in Steps 5 and 6 should be repeated untilall ground level and height level measurementshave been completed for each designated point.

Step 8. Calculating the results - With the resultsrecorded, the summary data can then be deter-mined. First, all of the ground level readings shouldbe added, and then divided by the number of read-ings taken at ground level. The result will equal theaverage lux ( fc) at ground level, for that area wherereadings were taken. The average lux (fc) level forthe entire site can best be calculated when readingsare taken over the entire site. Extrapolations can beaccurate only if the site is lighted throughout with thesame equipment, and at the same spacing and withthe same number of burning hours on all the lamps.The average-to-minimum ratio can now be deter-mined. This is usually expressed as a ratio to unity,e.g., an average of ten and a minimum of one will beexpressed as 10:1 and an average of ten and a min-imum of two will be expressed as 5:1. To determinethis ratio, the statistical average of all lux (fc) read-

ings at ground level should be taken. This is theaverage. The minimum in the calculation is theabsolute lowest lux (fc) reading recorded at groundlevel. This is written as average lux (fc) at groundlevel: lowest lux (fc) reading recorded at groundlevel. For example, using the guardhouse scenario,imagine that the average lux (fc) at ground level was37 lux (3.7 fc), and the lowest lux (fc) reading atground level was 14 lux (1.4 fc). This is expressed asa ratio of 2.6:1. The average illuminance and theratio of average-to-minimum illuminance at this loca-tion is now determined. These figures can now becompared to the recommended standard.

Step 9. Vertical illuminance readings – Lightingthat allows identification of faces is a relatively newconcept to security lighting, but important in certainapplications, such as parking facilities, lighting forpeep-hole viewing (looking at a person through theoptical device or small window in a door), or atsecurity checkpoints. The light meter is held in avertical position, at an average facial height of 1.5m (5 ft) above ground level to determine the inci-dent light on a face. (See Figure C2.) But in whichdirection on the compass does one hold the meter(in this vertical position)? For some applications,the answer is simple: for peephole viewing, themeter should face the peephole; for checkpoints,it’s the direction facing the officer when viewingpeople passing through the checkpoint. Open andsemi-open areas present no such easy determina-tion. An accepted method for taking vertical illumi-nance readings when no set direction of vision isestablished is this: readings should be taken inNorth, East, South, and West directions and aver-aged. If the average exceeds 6 lux (0.6 fc), and thelowest of the four readings is no less than one-fourth of that average, there should be adequatevertical illumination to see and identify a face froma distance of 10 m (30 ft) or more. If the minimumreading is less than that, a determination of threatin that direction should be reassessed and princi-ples similar to those in the case of the peepholecan be applied. Background illuminance shouldalso be considered. If the background (behind theface) is more than four times the illuminance on theface, the image will be in silhouette. Thus, if thebackground illuminance is 100 lux (10 fc), the facialilluminance must be above 25 lux (2.5 fc) in orderto have visibility of the face. In some cases silhou-etting may be the best strategy when landscapingor architectural features limit the ability to ade-quately illuminate a face along a perimeter area.Creating a silhouette may be sufficient for one todetermine that a potential threat exists and todetermine whether to continue along a path oravoid the area to reduce risk.

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Figure C3. Recording meter reading atpoint 1 – ground level.

Step 10. Look for trouble - Before leaving the site,it is important to stop and consider why thisprocess was started in the first place. It was todetermine the security lighting posture of this loca-tion in relation to recommended practices, codes,standards, and/or in response to a perceivedthreat. Such testing is best utilized when part of anoverall security effort or inquiry. Determine whatother security issues or questionable practicesthere are. Can any of these problems beaddressed by improved security or safety lighting?Conditions should also be recorded that may onlyindirectly relate to security lighting but create athreat to the property, such as overgrowth of foliageor trees that either obstruct lighting, or provide hid-ing places. The weakness or problem areas shouldbe recorded and reported. The individual responsi-ble for this location should consider improvements.Things that are done well should also be includedin the report.

For properties open to the public, security lighting sur-veys should be performed at least annually, and com-pared with adjoining properties. The lighting on thisproperty could appear to be comparatively weak andvulnerable if more robust lighting or relighting hasoccurred at one or more adjoining properties andcould be a more attractive crime site to persons seek-ing to stay out of the better lighted neighbor’s proper-ty. Lighting maintenance inspections for servicing ofluminaries and replacement of lamps and fixturesshould be performed at least monthly, if not weeklywhen there is a history of vandalism and efforts todefeat the lighting system.

ANNEX D

Crime Analysis and the Foreseeability of Crime

BackgroundThe extent and type of lighting to be used as part of abalanced security system is determined by severalfactors. Critical among these is the actual criminal his-tory on or near the property. An analysis of priorevents and crime that have occurred on or around thesite can help to establish the foreseeability of futurecrime at the location. For the professional security andlighting designer, or occupants of a particular site,foreseeability of crime should be considered in formu-lating the original security and safety lighting design,as well as planning for future needs.

In the case of an existing site, it is appropriate to consultdata that details prior criminal history on the premises aspart of a recurring assessment. Generally, such ananalysis should be performed at least annually, and thesecurity readiness of the property adjusted accordingly.If the site is being developed in a previously unoccupiedarea, or there is a fundamental shift in use, an analysisof crime in the area is acceptable, as opposed to anexact address research. On property where a history ofrelevant crime exists, security is an issue.

The most reliable means of determining future securi-ty needs and criminal vulnerabilities is to conduct acrime analysis of the property and immediate neigh-borhood. Such an analysis utilizes established crimereporting sources considered most credible by crimi-nologists, security, and police professionals through-out North America. In the United States and Canada,most city and county governments have a centralcrime reporting capability. This capability exists at thestate, Commonwealth, and provincial level as well.Data is available to the public through a variety ofreporting sources. End users can request the rawdata from various government agencies, or choose touse the services of an experienced analyst. Costs forthis data range from free to an hourly charge, depend-ing on the source(s) and depth of analysis.

Crime searches within the United States can berequested for specific street addresses, police patrolbeats, cities, counties, states, and the nation. This isalso the case within many of the major metropolitanareas of Canada. Mexico is more fragmented in itsreporting efforts, and more reliance is placed on localpolice to collect and retain criminal data.Restricted use sites, government property, and busi-nesses with an established guard or loss preventionstaff may also have internal record keeping capabili-

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ties that can supplement public police data.Maintenance departments may also have records ofvandalism and damages to the property that can beinvaluable in determining the most vulnerable areason a site.

In recent years the availability of information on crimi-nal incidents from both governmental and privatesources has caused security and lighting profession-als to focus on analysis of the data to alter both exist-ing and future designs. Additionally, the on demandavailability of crime data from government sources toindividual employees, supervisors, and managersplaces the professional on notice that historical crimeinformation should be consulted and analyzed whensecurity lighting design is being considered. This isespecially true when the lighting design is in supportof facilities open to the public. Recent advances incomputer analysis have resulted in the ability of somelarger police departments and researchers to mapcrime in their communities. Such mapping increasesan understanding of how and when crime affectsproperties in order to better plan lighting and preven-tion strategies.

Terms:As an aid to the reader, it is appropriate to list andbriefly discuss some of the terms used in the analysisof crime. Key terms:

Police call reports - Calls for service as recorded bythe local police department. The most commonform of data collection is through emergency oper-ator systems and police radio dispatcher logs. Datais collected and reported by date, time, locationfrom which the call originated, and categories ofactivity code as interpreted at the time of the call.Call reports are almost never corrected by theresponding officer(s) upon arrival or after an initialinvestigation. For example, a call for service isreceived as an assault, and after officers arrive andconduct their investigation, the activity is found tobe friendly but aggressive horseplay. The call willusually remain recorded as an “assault.”

There are other factors to consider in better under-standing call reports. The caller may have reportedthe incident from a location other than where itoccurred. This could be “a safe place” from whichto place the call, such as a nearby grocery store, orthe alleged incident could have occurred in a pub-lic street, which does not have an address orphone. The call is recorded as having occurred at

the store address where the original report ismade, instead of where it actually took place.These and similar scenarios are especially true inareas where phone service is limited. Police callreports are, therefore, not usually a reliableresource in determining or predicting actual crime.

Police Incident Report - Sometimes referred to asan offense or patrol report, incident reports arecompleted by the original responding officer afterarriving at the scene, completing some inquiry, anddetermining that a violation of the law is likely tohave occurred. The reports are usually assignedcontrol numbers, and are filed for future referenceor follow-up. If the incident is considered a criminalact, the report may become part of the UniformCrime Reporting system. Depending on the natureof the potential crime or activity, other officers maymake more detailed inquiries and reduce thesefindings to a written investigation report.

Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program1 - This isa nationwide cooperative crime statistics gatheringeffort for the United States and Canada. The programbegan in 1930 in the United States, and was subse-quently adopted by Canada with modifications.Reporting by local, state and provincial, and federallaw enforcement agencies in both countries is on avoluntary basis. UCR data represents approximately97 percent of the United States population living inMetropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs)*2; and, 89 per-cent of the population residing in smaller communi-ties, cities, and rural counties. Canada receives a sim-ilar response in its data collection effort. Mexico doesnot have a UCR program. Under the UCR program,data is compiled annually from contributing depart-ments utilizing established definitions and criteria.Such uniformity in reporting makes comparativeanalysis possible and generally more accurate.

Index Crimes** 1,2 - a category that includes the mostserious crimes as defined, collected, and reported bythe United States federal government, and utilized bymost other agencies through the UCR program:

1. Murder and non-negligent manslaughter2. Forcible rape3. Robbery4. Aggravated assault5. Burglary6. Larceny theft7. Motor vehicle (auto) theft8. Arson***All crime occurring on property may be relevant,

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* Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) includes a central city of at least 50,000 people oran urban area of at least 50,000. The county containing the central city and other con-tiguous counties having strong economic and social ties to the central city and county arealso included. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1998.

** Also known as Part I offenses, these are used to compile the Crime Index. Sourcebookof Criminal Justice Statistics. 1998.*** Arson is considered an Index Crime but is not included in the tabulation of all IndexCrimes for the United States.

and can be considered in the following context.Violent crimes such as murder and non-negligentmanslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, aggravatedassault, and assault are considered to involve forceor threat of force. In addition to criminal acts con-sidered violent, certain other criminal acts areprone to violence, or could evolve into seriousthreats to human life. Although not always violent inand of themselves, violent-prone crimes degradethe overall quality of life by placing reasonable per-sons in fear and indicate a loss of control of theproperty. Violent-prone acts may change depend-ing on the locale, but may include crimes such asburglary, larceny theft, motor vehicle theft, arson,terrorist threats, stalking, gang graffiti, vandalism,trespass, and vagrancy.

Factors Affecting Crime Reporting:3,4

The level of crime reported to police or a securitydepartment is dependent on numerous variables.

1. Classification of offenses by security and localpolice departments is often based on calls forservice, rather than the final determination of adetailed investigation, court, medical examiner,coroner, jury, or other judicial body.

2. Some incidents are falsely reported to the policeas crimes and may not be removed from thecrime data.

3. Public attitude toward law enforcement causesunderreporting of crime, perhaps by as much as63 percent.

4. Size, population, and demographic compositionof an area may result in many calls for service notbeing investigated and recorded as incidents.

5. Economic status and unemployment rate in thearea tend to influence the types of crime that arereported.

6. Stability of the population, i.e., level of tran-sients, commuters, and seasonal populationmay decrease reporting or influence the accura-cy of where crime occurs if the crimes arereported after the incident and in another loca-tion.

7. Climate may create variations in crime patternsover a short period of time.

8. Standards, practices, and relative strength ofthe law enforcement agency(s), including thepolicies and practices of courts and prosecutors,the law enforcement agency’s administrativeeffectiveness and efficiency, investigative effec-tiveness, efficiency, and accuracy, and reportingmethods.

Of particular note to those conducting statisticalresearch is Item 3. Members of society do not reportall crime to police. According to the National CrimeVictimization Survey (NCVS) 1999,5 only 37 percent

of all crimes were reported to police. Crimes of vio-lence were reported only 43 percent of the time andonly 33 percent of property crimes were reported. Asfar as why victims did not report violent crime topolice, 19 percent said that the crime was a private orpersonal matter, and of those victimized by propertycrime, 25 percent said the object was recovered, orthe offender was unsuccessful. The data for this oneyear is typical.

Equally discouraging is the fact that even when thepolice are called, more that 80 percent of the calls arenever classified as crimes and never appear in policeincident reports or the UCR crime data, against whichthe level and seriousness of crime in communities isjudged.

Both non-reporting of crime and the failure to classifyincidents as crimes can lead to false impressionsabout the relative safety of various environments. Atthe same time, some neighborhoods, particularlythose of lower-income, have a much higher rate ofreporting crime or conflicts than do more affluentneighborhoods. This may be because they have agreater incidence of crime, and also because theytend to use the police as mediators and authority fig-ures in disputes more than other groups.

The local police, constable, or sheriffs’ departmentshould be contacted for site-specific data. If thedepartment does not collect and report the informa-tion, the question should be asked . . . who does? Aswith the other reporting levels, there are private firmsthat can collect and interpret the information.

A. Patrol Beat or Division - Most major cities aredivided into districts that encompass geograph-ic areas, which are patrolled by police. The lay-out of these areas is logically configured accord-ing to such factors as population and geograph-ic features, thus creating defined areas calledpatrol beats or patrol divisions. Crime data maybe requested for a particular police beat, patroldivision, or neighborhood geographic area, inaddition to exact address, and compared toother similarly divided areas, or the city as awhole. Data that is derived from arbitrary sizingsuch as “1 mile square area” or “a 2 mile radius”should be avoided. Such arbitrary plots ofteninclude unwanted information, such as sectionsof other communities, making the data difficult orimpossible to use for comparison purposes.Many major police departments in the UnitedStates and Canada have web sites that providea breakdown of city or county crime into subdi-visions that can be compared one to another.

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B. City or County - Compare the city or county asa whole to other cities in the nearby area, state,and nation. Consider comparisons to cities orcounties with similar demographics, industry,and other comparative features. For companiesoperating in different cities, this information canbe used as a prime indicator regarding the allo-cation of security resources.

C. State or Province - Each state (United States)and province (Canada) collects and reportscrime. Comparison of one state or province toanother may provide needed insight. For enter-prises operating in different states, this informa-tion can be another important indicator regard-ing the allocation of security resources.

D. National - As the public moves from place toplace more frequently, a look at the national crimereport card is important in understanding both thereality and the perceptions regarding crime. Thoseinterested in Canadian crime data can contact:Statistics Canada by calling 613-951-8219 or onthe web at <www.statcan.ca>. In Mexico, the con-tact is the Department de Justicia, in Mexico City.Contacting United States Department of Justice,Office of Justice Program, Bureau of JusticeStatistics at 800-732-3277 can access data on thevarious states, and national crime in the UnitedStates. United States data is also on the Internetat <www.fbi.gov>, <www.usdoj.gov>, <www.icpsr.umich.edu/nacjd/ucr.html>, and <www.ojp.usdoj.gov>.

E. International - During the 1990’s the UnitedNations began to take an interest in comparativeanalysis among member countries and encour-aged countries to collect and report crime usingthe general format and definitions found in vic-timization studies conducted in the UnitedStates, Canada and other industrialized coun-tries. This project is known as the InternationalCrime Victim Survey.6 At the present time thissurvey reports on the primary eleven industrial-ized countries, including the United States andCanada. This comparative data may be of par-ticular interest to lighting and security practition-ers operating across international boundaries.The data details trends since 1991, and pro-vides breakdowns by types of crime.

F. Analytical Process - Once the data is availablefor review, an analysis should be made of thetypes of crimes that have been occurring on theproperty. While considering that all crime is rele-vant, a determination of whether to focus onincidents of violent crime (crimes directed

against persons), or on property crimes (crimesdirected against property) is recommended. Forfacilities open to the public, the initial focus willrest on the protection of people, not property. Inthe case of a controlled site, such as a volatilefuel processing plant, property protection maybe critical. When combining data from policewith data collected internally, care should betaken to present the clearest representation ofthe property, and to eliminate duplication ofinformation. Good internal security reporting isjust as credible as information collected by thepolice.

Important questions to ask are: “What is likely to hap-pen on this property in the future?” and “Is the ownerin control of the property?” If there is an increasingpattern of violent or violent-prone crimes, it is reason-able to foresee similar crimes occurring in the future.Conversely, if crime has been declining on the prop-erty, it is reasonable to expect the trend to continue. Ifthere are conflicting patterns or questions remainunanswered, a professional should be consulted.Local police commanders, or security consultants,may have much to offer.

After considering the crime at the site, examine crimein the patrol beat, city, and/or county. If the site islocated in a comparatively high-crime area, it is prob-able that many physical defenses, including lighting,are necessary to maintain overall security on thepremises. As success in controlling crime is realized,it may be possible to reallocate valuable resources.With this same theme in mind, a review of state orprovincial, and national statistics will provide insightinto long-range trends.

It is reasonable for property owners to check statisti-cal crime data annually. Convenience stores, shop-ping centers, malls, food markets, fast food restau-rants, multi-family housing complexes, hospitals,banks and similar businesses open to the publicshould consider making results of their findings avail-able to employees, tenants, and users of the proper-ty. By informing regular users of the property, they areplaced on notice, and can participate in solutions,while taking personal precautions, if needed. Findingsshould not be concealed from those who have a rea-sonable need and vested interest in knowing true con-ditions at the location.

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REFERENCES

1. Crime in the United States, 1998. Federal Bureauof Investigation, 1999.

2. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1998.United States Department of Justice, 2000.

3. Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1992.United States Department of Justice.

4. Salmon, D.L, Crime Analysis. 2001.5. National Crime Victims Survey, 1999. Bureau of

Justice Statistics, 2000.6. Mayhew, P. and van Dijk, J.J.M., International

Crime Surveys. Leiden University, 1997.

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ANNEX E

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design(CPTED)Security lighting is only one element, albeit a criticalone, of an overall security program. To better under-stand the relationship between security lighting andother security measures and practices, it is importantto consider lighting in relation to other crime preven-tion design concepts. This broader understanding canbe gained by a study of Crime Prevention ThroughEnvironmental Design (CPTED).

CPTED (acronym is pronounced sep_ted) hasemerged as one of the most promising and effectiveapproaches to creating safer properties and physicalenvironments. CPTED contends that architects,designers, municipal planning boards, law enforce-ment officials, security professionals, and citizens canwork together in the initial design or redesign of thebuilt environment. Emphasis placed on the properapproach to design and effective use of the built envi-ronment will thus lead to a reduction in the incidence,opportunity, and fear of crime. The proper applicationof CPTED concepts creates improvement in the qual-ity of life, while providing for prevention-oriented,rather than reactive-oriented, approaches to crime.

CPTED has become increasingly recognized as a costeffective approach in the design or re-design of an envi-ronment to reduce the opportunity for crime and thefear of crime through natural, mechanical, and proce-dural means. A partial history of the evolution ofCPTED1 as a practical approach is summarized below.

CPTED ObjectivesThe primary objective of CPTED is to enforce adesign fundamental of “form follows function,” in cre-ating a productive use of space, while providing anaesthetically pleasing built environment. The goal is tocreate a climate of safety by designing environmentsthat positively influence behavior; encouraging

desired activities and discouraging undesired ones.Additional objectives focus on crime and loss preven-tion through the facilitation of inherent human territor-ial behaviors, while incorporating natural access con-trol measures and natural observation.

Prevention of undesirable and criminal activity in anarea may be achieved by measures as simple as trim-ming a hedgerow, locating a window to overlook aparking area, installing a fence to control access, orby providing adequate parking lot lighting.

CPTED principles applied to lighting design in a pub-lic access area include the use of luminaires that aretamper-proof, durable, and, where practical, thatblend into the surroundings. CPTED principlesencourage the protection of lighting system compo-nents from vandals while providing sufficient light lev-els for users.

When incorporating CPTED principles, considerationshould be given to all the players. They fall into threeprimary categories: normal users, abnormal users,and observers. The environment must give the nor-mal user a sense of security, the abnormal user thefeeling of being at a disadvantage or at risk, and theobserver the opportunity to keep the area underappropriate surveillance. The abnormal user’s per-ceived disadvantage may come from a lack of coverand concealment, a restriction of access to the terri-tory of a normal user, or a sense of not being able toadequately avoid either the casual viewer or trainedobserver.

The following questions will assist in incorporating thethree ‘Ds’ of CPTED (designation, definition, anddesign) into a facility or area:

• Does the facility or space clearly belong to the nor-mal user?

• Who is responsible for the facility or space?• Is the intended or proposed use of the facility or

space clearly defined? Does it correlate with thesurroundings?

1. Target hardening 5. Entry/exit screening 9. Target removal 13. Rule setting

2. Access control 6. Formal surveillance 10. Identifying property 14. Stimulating conscience

3. Deflecting offenders 7. Surveillance by 11. Reducing temptation 15. Controlling employees dis-inhibitors

4. Controlling facilitators 8. Natural surveillance 12. Denying benefits 16. Facilitating compliance

Figure E1. Situational Crime Prevention Matrix

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1. Target hardening.

Definition:Target hardening uses physical barriersand impediments—locks, bolts, safes,screens, toughened glass, and reinforcedmaterials—to obstruct the vandal or thethief.

2. Access control.

Definition:Access control measures are intended toexclude people from spaces, premises orfacilities, who have no legitimate reasonfor entering and who may be potentialoffenders.

3. Deflecting offenders.

Definition:Deflecting offenders refers to measuresthat are intended to influence the routineactivities of potential offenders so as tokeep them away from possible crime tar-gets.

4. Controlling facilitators.

Definition:Crime “facilitators” are tools that makecrime easier, including weapons, but alsomany everyday objects—cars, tele-phones, credit cards, cans of spray paint,beer glasses—that in some circum-stances can facilitate crime. Situationalcontrols on such facilitators, whichinclude removing them, modifying themand restricting access to them, seek toimpede their use in crime.

Examples:• Minimum security standards for locks, doors, door frames,

windows, screens• Routine inspections of premises security• Avoiding glass panels next to doors, or replacing glass next to

door hardware with security glass or polycarbonate equivalent• Increasing security hardware for all openings within 18 feet

of ground level• Toughened glass in unsupervised areas• Thorny shrubs to discourage climbing• Removing trees that facilitate scaling perimeter wall• Removing drainpipes or structures that facilitate climbing to

upper levels• Strict security for housing unit keys in management offices• Securing sub-floor and attic spaces

Examples:• Manning entrances to site• Reducing number of site entrances• Perimeter fencing• Parking lot barriers• Keyed access to laundry rooms• No outside access to rear of buildings• Emergency exits with alarm-connected panic bars and no

exterior handles• Front access to rear yards in conventional housing• Rear yards should not adjoin open space

Examples:• Limited pedestrian routes across sites• Clear signage and numbering to discourage wandering• Routing footpaths used by schoolchildren away from hous-

ing and parking• Placing fuel meters in front of buildings• Defining front yards for ground floor dwellings• Careful placement of recreational space• Locating kiddy play areas away from sidewalk• Locating bus stops away from residences• Placing railings on low walls to discourage loitering• Traffic routing and street closures to divert drug purchasers

Examples:• Removing or modifying pay phones to prevent use in drug

dealing• Removing abandoned furniture that drug dealers sit on• Prohibiting rear-in parking, which assists drug dealing• Towing of abandoned vehicles used to stash drugs• Prohibiting on-premises car repair used by drug dealers as

excuse to “hang out”.• Reducing vacancies and securing empty units that can be

used for drug dealing.• Controlling the sale of spray cans by local ordinances/volun-

tary agreements.

Figure E2. Application of Situational Crime Prevention in Multi-Family Housing

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5. Entry/exit screening.

Definition:Entry screening differs from access con-trol in that the purpose is less to excludepotential offenders than to increase thelikelihood of detecting people not in con-formity with entry requirements. Theserequirements may include having legiti-mate business on the premises. Exitscreens serve primarily to deter theft bydetecting objects that should not beremoved from the protected area, suchas items not paid for at a shop.

6. Formal surveillance.

Definition:Police, security guards and store detec-tives, whose main function is to furnish adeterrent threat to potential offenders,provide formal surveillance. The surveil-lance afforded by security personnel maybe enhanced by electronic hardware,such as burglar alarms and monitoredclosed circuit television (CCTV).

7. Surveillance by employees.

Definition:In addition to their primary work-relatedfunction, some employees, particularlythose dealing with the public, also performa surveillance role by virtue of their posi-tion. These include a variety of “placemanagers” such as shop assistants, hoteldoormen, park keepers, train conductorsand receptionist or concierges in apart-ment blocks. All these employees areexpected to assume some responsibilityfor monitoring conduct in their workplaces.

8. Natural surveillance.

Definition:Natural surveillance is designed to pro-mote the kind of supervision exercised bypeople going about their everyday busi-ness. Householders may trim bushes atthe front of their homes to make it easierfor neighbors or passers-by to see bur-glars. Enhancing natural surveillance is aprime objective of defensible space archi-tecture, of improved street lighting, and of“neighborhood watch”.

Examples:• Installing electronic access controls (“entry phones”)• Installing spy holes for front doors• Concierge or receptionist for apartment blocks• Resident photo IDs• Guest sign-in schemes

Examples:• Police and security guard patrols• Police bike patrols• Police substation on site• CCTV at entrances to buildings• Install burglar alarms• Supply temporary burglar alarms for repeat victims• Screening of resident applicants

Examples:• Encourage housing authority employees to reside in public

housing• Encourage crime reports by mailmen, delivery workers and

maintenance crews• Locate pay phones where visible to employees• Facilitate surveillance of estate from management office

Examples:• “Neighborhood watch”, “apartment watch” and resident patrols• Supplying free phones to block watch organizers• “Call 577-TIPS” to report crime• Overlooking building entrances and parking spots from resi-

dences• Reducing number of units per entrance in apartment blocks• Improving interior lighting in hallways and corridors• Improving exterior lighting on paths, at entrances and in

parking lots.• Free electricity for porch lights• Removing greenery obstructing view of public areas• Replacing solid stockade fencing with see-through picket fencing• Eliminating blind spots in stairwells or corridors• Clearing sightlines along pathways• Providing a greenery set back of 3 yards from paths

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9. Target removal.

Definition:Some objects are particularly attractive tar-gets for crime. For example, targets fortheft include cash and objects that can beeasily sold, such as car radios, VCRmachines, handguns, and jewelry. Targetremoval measures seek to remove attrac-tive targets from the situations in whichoffenders can access them; e.g., convert-ing pay phones from coin to phone carduse, or installing drop safes in conveniencestores.

10. Identifying property.

Definition:School students write their names ontheir backpacks or sneakers, not just toguard against loss, but also against theft.The most developed programs of identify-ing property relate to vehicles.Registration of motor vehicles wasrequired in some U.S. states from almostthe beginning of the century and, subse-quently, all vehicles sold in the UnitedStates were required to carry a uniqueVehicle Identification Number (or VIN).

11. Reducing temptation.

Definition:The surface characteristics of some wallsalmost invite graffiti, and already damagedfacilities or equipment can provoke thevandal to further attacks. Wearing a goldchain in some parts of the city almostinvites it to be snatched. Some sport carsleft on the street at night may prove an irre-sistible temptation to the joy rider.Reducing temptation reduces such invita-tions to crime.

12. Denying benefits.

Definition:Benefit denial measures try to insure thatthe offender does not obtain the benefitsought by crime. The recent developmentof security-coded car radios that require athief to know the radio’s PIN before it canbe used in another vehicle constitutes anexcellent example of this principle.Another example would be the use byclothing stores of ink tags, which cannotbe removed by thieves without spilling inkon the stolen garment.

Examples:• No-cash policies in housing manger office• Tokens for laundry and vending machines• Payphones operated by phone cards• Off-site food stamp distribution• Door-to-door mail delivery• Storing maintenance equipment/supplies in secure lock-ups

Identifying property.

Examples:• Defining private areas and yards around residences• Property marking schemes for residents• Resident vehicle registration policy• Coded bumper stickers linked to residences• Logo or property tags for all housing authority equipment

Examples:• Hiding graffiti-prone walls behind shrubbery• Rapid repair of vandalism• Gender-neutral lists of residents• Closing children’s playgrounds at night

Examples:• Cleaning graffiti and gang “tags”• Using anti-graffiti paint• PIN for car radios

• Does the facility or space correlate with the sur-rounding environment adequately?

1. Designation:a. What is the designed purpose of thespace?b. Will the new facility or space fulfill the orig-inalintention?c. How well does the facility or space supportits current use or its intended use?

d. What, if any, conflicts exist with the pro-posed use of the facility or area?

2. Definition:a. How is the facility or space defined?b. Is it clear to the normal user or observerwho owns the space?c. Are the borders of the facility or spaceclearly defined?d. Do any social or cultural definitions of the

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13. Rule setting.

Definition:Rule setting is the introduction of new rulesor procedures, and the clarification of andpublicizing of those already in place, whichare intended to remove any ambiguity con-cerning proscribed conduct or actions.

14. Stimulating conscience.

Definition:This situational technique can be distin-guished from society’s more general infor-mal social control by its focus on specificforms of crime occurring in discrete, highlylimited settings. Rather than attempting tobring about lasting changes in generalizedattitudes to law breaking, these measuresserve simply to stimulate feelings of con-science at the point of contemplating thecommission of a specific kind of offense.

15. Controlling dis-inhibitors.

Definition:Crime is not only facilitated by tools suchas weapons, but also by psychological dis-inhibitors, especially alcohol and drugs,which undermine the usual social or moralinhibitions, or impair perception and cogni-tion so that offenders are less aware ofbreaking the law. Most examples of thistechnique relate to controls on drinking.

16. Facilitating compliance.

Definition:Measures that facilitate compliance seekto make it easier for people to complywith rules, regulations and laws. Thesemeasures include the provision of facili-ties, such as litterbins or public urinals,and the simplifying of procedures for pay-ing rent or checking out library books.

Examples:• Establishing drug-free zones• Posting notices of local ordinances• Posting and enforcing parking ordinances• No trespass and private property signs• Notifying clear eviction policy to residents

Examples:• CCTV surveillance of drug purchases• Postcards to homes of drivers suspected of purchasing

drugs• Publishing license tags of cruising vehicles

Examples:• Controls on drinking in semi-public and public areas• Moving or closing down liquor stores• Closing local bars

Examples:• Provision of public lavatories• Provision of garbage cans with secure lids• Frequent collection of refuse• Painting lines and numbers for parking stalls

facility or space affect how the area will be uti-lized?

3. Design:a. Does the physical design support theintended function of the facility or space?b. Does the physical design of the facility orspace support the definition for desiredbehaviors?c. Does the physical design support the pro-ductive use of the facility or space?

After responding to the three ‘Ds’ of CPTED develop-ment, a strategy can be determined, which mayinclude some of the following:

a. Lighting should provide clear border definition ofcontrolled spaces.

b. Strategic lighting should clearly mark any transi-tional zones, i.e., areas where there is movementfrom public to semipublic to private spaces.

c. In areas where people gather or where there is aneed for access control for normal users the light-ing should provide for natural surveillance byobservers.

d. Distant or isolated areas should be evaluated forimprovement using CPTED principles for lightingdesign.

e. Lighting of formal gathering areas should be ade-quate for normal users, thus creating the percep-tion that all other areas are “off limits.”

f. Proper lighting and design of a facility or areashould stimulate normal users and observers toscrutinize anyone not in proper areas; or lightingcan create an environment wherein abnormalusers perceive greater risk (with fewer excuses forbeing in the wrong areas).

CPTED generally follows five principles: natural sur-veillance, access control, territorial reinforcement,image and maintenance, and location setting andplace considerations.

Natural surveillance focuses on the placementof physical features, activities, and people insuch a way as to maximize visibility. Thisincludes the lighting of public spaces and walk-ways at night.Access control includes physical features thatguide people who are coming and going from aspace through the judicious placement ofentrances, exits, fencing, gates, landscapingand lighting.Territorial reinforcement refers to the encour-agement of ownership through the use of phys-ical attributes such as fences, pavement treat-ment, art, signage, landscaping and lighting.

Image and maintenance refers to the image,reputation and stigma often associated withlocations. CPTED recognizes the relationshipbetween maintenance of an area and the imagethat it projects to others.

Location setting and place considerations-vigi-lant management practices that sustain territori-ality, access control and surveillance are criticalto the continued use of a space for its intendedpurpose, and serve as an additional expressionof ownership. CPTED concepts also considerenvironmental settings of crime and how crimeis influenced by the proximity and juxtapositionof safe and unsafe activities.

The application of CPTED principals, integrated withother theories about crime prevention, results in saferproperties. CPTED emphasizes the use of naturalelements for crime and loss prevention measures.Modern criminology emphasizes how people use theenvironment. An example of the integration of CPTEDwith the concepts of situational crime prevention canassist the planner in understanding how to approachthe initial and re-design issues that often confrontsecurity planners.

There are sixteen (16) opportunity-reducing tech-niques of situational crime prevention and crime pre-vention through environmental design. (See FigureE1.) The techniques, with examples of their applica-tion, are applied to public housing and other settings.2

(See Figure E2.)Although lighting may not be the primary focus ofCPTED, it is a key fundamental to the proper applica-tion of CPTED fundamentals and principles.Designation, definition, and design questions will assistin proper strategy utilization of CPTED concepts.

REFERENCES

1. Sorensen, S. L., Codifying CPTED: MovingBeyond Art to Science. 2000. Bethesda, MD:Sparta Consulting Corporation.

2. Sorensen. S. L., and Clarke, R., “SixteenTechniques of Situational Crime Prevention inPublic Housing.” 1999.

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ANNEX F

Lighting for Television and PhotographicSurveillanceAny TV camera, given adequate lighting, will “see” thesame objects the eye sees. The various hues andshades of color perceived by the eye, however, will bedisplayed as shades of gray by a black and white TVcamera and can only be rendered accurately withcolor cameras and monitors. TV camera imagers canalso pick up scenes lighted in the infrared band, notvisible to humans. The most important illuminationfactors in regard to scene viewing are the type, quali-ty and quantity of useful light available.

Type of lighting. Lighting can be from sunlight,moonlight, or electric sources including the followingtypes: incandescent, fluorescent, mercury vapor(used infrequently), metal halide, high- pressure sodi-um, and low-pressure sodium.

Incandescent lamps contain energy in a broad bandof the spectrum, with the exception of violet and bluewavelengths. The other lamp types have narrowerbands and lack one or another wavelength of the vis-ible spectrum. Color rendering will vary with thesource type selected. (See Section 6.0 of the maindocument G-1.)

Quality of light refers to its compatibility with theimage sensor in the television camera. Formerly, theimager would have been a vidicon or other type vac-uum tube. Currently the imager will more likely be aPixel (picture element) array in a CCD camera.

Characteristic differences among the sources, solarand electric, affect the television camera image.These are differences in the spectral quality of thelight and the color temperature. Differences in the vis-ible spectrum are emphasized in an effect termed“spectral response.” It is important that the cameraselected for a particular scene be capable of acquiringat least a usable image and preferably full video with-in the spectral response area of the lighted scene.Analysis of camera specifications is a first step, butthe most convincing test is to sample the scene underthe expected lighting conditions, using the specificcamera being considered.

Quantity of light Quantity is equally as important asthe quality of light. The amount of light needed to pro-duce a TV image at the monitor is stated as theamount of illumination on the solid state cameraimage sensor or the tube type camera face plate. This

measure is the most useful because it is an absolutevalue and does not depend upon factors outside theCCTV system, such as the amount of light falling onthe scene or the reflectance characteristics of sur-faces in the scene. It specifies the actual intensity oflight needed at the camera imager.

TV camera manufacturers specify in footcandles or luxthe amount of illumination needed for minimum func-tion (sometimes called “usable picture”) and for com-plete performance (called “full video”). It may be spec-ified as scene illumination or as illumination at the face-plate or image sensor. The latter identifies the lightintensity that must reach the image sensor. The inten-sity of the light source is often reduced or attenuatedby scene reflectance. Scene luminance may be lessintense then the incident light from the source and lightintensity at the image sensor may be still less than thatreflected from the scene. Actual TV camera perfor-mance under any light source may be increased byselecting lenses with lower “f stop” ratings, allowingmore light to reach the imager. Each increase in f-stopnumbers typically reduces the light transmitting capa-bility of the lens by one-half. Thus, if a 1.4 lens has arelative brightness of 1, an f-2 lens will have a relativebrightness of 1⁄2 and an f-2.8 lens 1⁄4, and so forth.

The amount of light falling upon or reflected from ascene can be determined with a good grade illumi-nance meter. Readings should be taken at about thelocation at which the camera lens will be positioned, inall the directions in which the camera may be pointed.Allowance must be made for the amount of light thecamera lens will transmit (generally between 70 and90 percent), and the focal length or f-stop rating of thelens. Both values are available from lens or cameramanufacturers. Although scene illuminance can beread directly with the light meter, the light reaching thecamera imager requires a calculation. If the actuallight level read by the light meter when placed at theapproximate location of the camera lens is used inplace of the term “Is” in the following equation, theequation can be used to determine illumination on theimage sensor.

E = π L T4 N2

Where:

E = Illuminance on the image sensor, lm/m2 (lm/ft2)L = Luminance of scene, cd/m2 (cd/ft2 )T = Transmittance of lens (usually 0.70 to 0.90), andN = f-number (f-stop) of lens

When selecting television cameras for surveillance

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under electrical light, a determination should be madewhether the general scene luminance will be sufficientto permit full video from conventional cameras, orwhether special image intensifier cameras will beneeded. The first criterion for general scene lumi-nance should be the security lighting intensity levelsfor various applications as recommended elsewherein this publication. After that minimum has been satis-fied, any problem of lighting adequacy can beaddressed either by installing additional lighting or byusing low light level cameras. This decision is usuallybased upon economic considerations.

Light Source Color Considerations for ClosedCircuit TelevisionFor the purposes of safety and security lighting, coloris an important consideration in the choice of lightsources used. There are several important measure-ments of color including Color Rendering Index, ColorTemperature, and Spectral Power Distribution.Highest on the list is Color Rendering Index, or CRI.(See Section 6.0, 2 a., b, c. and d., and Figure 1 inthe main document G-1.)

Spectral RangesFigure F1 indicates the spectral responses of the var-ious types of CCD and tube-type television cameras.The illumination necessary for good color renderingdepends on the color balance of the camera.Generally, a source that does not provide reasonablecolor rendering for visual viewing will not provide goodcolor for TV surveillance.

Infrared. Television cameras with highly sensitiveinfrared spectral response, i.e., above 800 nm, shouldbe used for viewing scenes where infrared sourcesare installed. Note that any infrared filters should beremoved from the camera under daylight or conven-tional lighting conditions. Infrared radiation (IR) can beproduced by incandescent or xenon lamps with thevisible wavelengths filtered out, or by IR light emittingdiode (LED) arrays. Filtered incandescent lamps have

a high spectral intensity in the 800 to 1000 nm ranges,falling off to lesser intensity above 1000 nm. FilteredXenon lamps have a slightly lower spectral intensityand are most effective in the 800 to 900 nm range.Arrays of Gallium Arsenide diodes can emit highintensity, narrow band IR, peaking between 880 and950 nm. The LED sources are cooler and have alonger life cycle than incandescent lamps.

Images produced under IR will be viewed by the TVcamera and displayed on TV monitors as black andwhite with shades of gray but will not be visible whenviewed directly. The distance between an IR sourceand the object or scene to be illuminated, and thebeam-spread angle of the light source determine therequired lighting intensity. With average scenereflectance of 50 percent, a filtered incandescentsource with 100-watt output and a 60˚ beam angle willbe effective at 7.6 m (25 ft), while one with a 500-wattoutput and a 12˚ beam angle will be effective at 137m (450 ft). The practical upper limit for filtered lampoutput devices is about 1,000 watts.

Although the illuminated object will not be visible,direct visual observation of the IR source may detecta bright red glow at 650 nm, a dull glow at 750 nm andno visible glow at and above 950 nm. Because IR isinvisible, there is potential for eye injury if IR illumina-tors are viewed directly. A minimum standoff or sepa-ration distance should be maintained between thesource and the eye. Manufacturers of IR illuminatorswill specify the safe distances. The distances shownin Figure F2 may be used as a general guide.

Still and motion picture camera surveillance light-ing. The principles applied for TV lighting will general-ly apply equally to lighting for still and motion picturecamera surveillance, both black and white and color.An additional factor for film cameras is the characterof the film and its relative speed (light absorbingcapacity) in relation to the intensity of scene lumi-nance. Camera manufacturers will specify the speedof the lenses and film suppliers will specify the speedof the film, relative to f-stop and distance betweencamera and object. As the camera shutters open only

Camera Type Spectral Peak Response (In Nm)Range (In Nm)

CCD 400 –1120 950

CCD with IR filter 400 –1100 550

Vidicon 400 – 650 530

Intensified Vidicon 350 – 800 480

Silicon Target 280 - 1100 700

Silicon Intensifier Target 320 –1100 740

Figure F1

Power of Source Distance

15 watts 1 foot

30 watts 4 feet

60 watts 10 feet

300 watts 35 feet

500 watts 40 feet

Figure F2.

briefly, fixed lighting not supplemented by flash mustbe of consistent intensity to ensure adequate lightingat the instant of exposure. This consideration is of par-ticular relevance for fixed or motion picture camerasthat are event activated.

ANNEX G

Municipal Approvals

Codes or local ordinances that regulate lighting mayrestrict the type and amount of light that can be used,as well as the types of luminaires and the maximumheight at which they can be mounted. There may alsobe regulations concerning light trespass, glare, andlight pollution. Most municipalities have a projectapproval process that requires formal application andreview. This would encompass lighting associatedwith new construction or for changes to existing lay-outs, resulting in increased illuminance or differenttypes of light sources. The building department orcode compliance office of the local governmentshould be consulted to find out the requirements in aspecific municipality.

When a formal presentation is required before aPlanning or Zoning Board, it is importation to providedetailed information regarding the scope of the projectand the reasons for the lighting layout. The presenta-tion should include a description of the property orfacility and how it is used. Drawings showing poleplacement and spacing, pole heights and types ofluminaires to be used are helpful. Special securityissues or concerns should be identifed. The board, inmost cases will want to know why the particular lay-out, luminaire, type and amount of light are appropri-ate for the particular project. This RecommendedPractice, the IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9 th Editionand the following IESNA publications will provide use-ful background information:

IESNA RP-33, Lighting for Exterior EnvironmentsIESNA TM-10, Addressing Obtrusive Light (UrbanSky Glow and Light Trespass) in Conjunction withRoadway LightingIESNA TM-11, Light Trespass: Research, Results andRecommendationsANSI/IESNA RP-8, Roadway LightingIESNA RP-6, Sports Lighting

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ANNEX H

Additional Reading

Arnheim, R. (1967). Art and Visual Perception: A psy-chology of the Creative Eye. Berkley and LosAngeles: University of California Press.

Boyce, P.R., Rea M. “Security Lighting: Effects ofIlluminance and Light Source on the Capabilities ofGuards and Intruders.” Lighting Research andTechnology. 22(2) 1990.

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Tien, J. M., V. F. O’Donnell, V. F., Barnett A.I., andMirchandani, P.B. Street Lighting and Crime.Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, July1977.

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