SECONDARY National Curriculum - English2

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English programmes ofstudy: key stage 3National curriculum in England

September 2013



English – key stage 3

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Purpose of study

English has a pre-eminent place in education and in society. A high-quality education in

English will teach pupils to speak and write fluently so that they can communicate their

ideas and emotions to others and through their reading and listening, others can

communicate with them. Through reading in particular, pupils have a chance to develop

culturally, emotionally, intellectually, socially and spiritually. Literature, especially, plays akey role in such development. Reading also enables pupils both to acquire knowledge and

to build on what they already know. All the skills of language are essential to participating

fully as a member of society; pupils, therefore, who do not learn to speak, read and write

fluently and confidently are effectively disenfranchised.

Aims

The overarching aim for English in the national curriculum is to promote high standards of

language and literacy by equipping pupils with a strong command of the spoken and

written word, and to develop their love of literature through widespread reading for

enjoyment. The national curriculum for English aims to ensure that all pupils:

read easily, fluently and with good understanding

develop the habit of reading widely and often, for both pleasure and information

acquire a wide vocabulary, an understanding of grammar and knowledge of linguistic

conventions for reading, writing and spoken language

appreciate our rich and varied literary heritage

write clearly, accurately and coherently, adapting their language and style in and for arange of contexts, purposes and audiences

use discussion in order to learn; they should be able to elaborate and explain clearly

their understanding and ideas

are competent in the arts of speaking and listening, making formal presentations,

demonstrating to others and participating in debate.

Spoken language

The national curriculum for English reflects the importance of spoken language in pupils’development across the whole curriculum – cognitively, socially and linguistically. Spoken

language continues to underpin the development of pupils’ reading and writing during key

stage 3 and teachers should therefore ensure pupils’ confidence and competence in this

area continue to develop. Pupils should be taught to understand and use the conventions

for discussion and debate, as well as continuing to develop their skills in working

collaboratively with their peers to discuss reading, writing and speech across the

curriculum.




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Reading and writing

Reading at key stage 3 should be wide, varied and challenging. Pupils should be expected

to read whole books, to read in depth and to read for pleasure and information.

Pupils should continue to develop their knowledge of and skills in writing, refining their

drafting skills and developing resilience to write at length. They should be taught to writeformal and academic essays as well as writing imaginatively. They should be taught to

write for a variety of purposes and audiences across a range of contexts. This requires an

increasingly wide knowledge of vocabulary and grammar.

Opportunities for teachers to enhance pupils’ vocabulary will arise naturally from their

reading and writing. Teachers should show pupils how to understand the relationships

between words, how to understand nuances in meaning, and how to develop their

understanding of, and ability to use, figurative language.

Pupils should be taught to control their speaking and writing consciously, understand why

sentences are constructed as they are and to use Standard English. They should

understand and use age-appropriate vocabulary, including linguistic and literary

terminology, for discussing their reading, writing and spoken language. This involves

consolidation, practice and discussion of language. It is important that pupils learn the

correct grammatical terms in English and that these terms are integrated within teaching.

Teachers should build on the knowledge and skills that pupils have been taught at key

stage 2. Decisions about progression should be based on the security of pupils’ linguistic

knowledge, skills and understanding and their readiness to progress to the next stage.

Pupils whose linguistic development is more advanced should be challenged through

being offered opportunities for increased breadth and depth in reading and writing. Those

who are less fluent should consolidate their knowledge, understanding and skills, including

through additional practice.

Glossary

A non-statutory Glossary is provided for teachers.

Attainment targetsBy the end of key stage 3, pupils are expected to know, apply and understand the matters,

skills and processes specified in the relevant programme of study.




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Key stage 3

Subject content

Reading

Pupils should be taught to:

develop an appreciation and love of reading, and read increasingly challenging material

independently through:

reading a wide range of fiction and non-fiction, including in particular whole books,

short stories, poems and plays with a wide coverage of genres, historical periods,

forms and authors. The range will include high-quality works from:

• English literature, both pre-1914 and contemporary, including prose, poetryand drama

• Shakespeare (two plays)

• seminal world literature

choosing and reading books independently for challenge, interest and enjoyment.

re-reading books encountered earlier to increase familiarity with them and provide

a basis for making comparisons.

understand increasingly challenging texts through:

learning new vocabulary, relating it explicitly to known vocabulary and

understanding it with the help of context and dictionaries

making inferences and referring to evidence in the text

knowing the purpose, audience for and context of the writing and drawing on this

knowledge to support comprehension

checking their understanding to make sure that what they have read makes

sense.

read critically through:

knowing how language, including figurative language, vocabulary choice,

grammar, text structure and organisational features, presents meaning

recognising a range of poetic conventions and understanding how these have

been used

studying setting, plot, and characterisation, and the effects of these

understanding how the work of dramatists is communicated effectively through

performance and how alternative staging allows for different interpretations of a

play

making critical comparisons across texts

studying a range of authors, including at least two authors in depth each year.




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Writing


write accurately, fluently, effectively and at length for pleasure and information through:

writing for a wide range of purposes and audiences, including:

• well-structured formal expository and narrative essays

• stories, scripts, poetry and other imaginative writing

• notes and polished scripts for talks and presentations

• a range of other narrative and non-narrative texts, including arguments, andpersonal and formal letters

summarising and organising material, and supporting ideas and arguments with

any necessary factual detail

applying their growing knowledge of vocabulary, grammar and text structure to

their writing and selecting the appropriate form

drawing on knowledge of literary and rhetorical devices from their reading and

listening to enhance the impact of their writing

plan, draft, edit and proof-read through:

considering how their writing reflects the audiences and purposes for which it was

intended

amending the vocabulary, grammar and structure of their writing to improve its

coherence and overall effectiveness

paying attention to accurate grammar, punctuation and spelling; applying the

spelling patterns and rules set out in English Appendix 1 to the key stage 1 and 2

programmes of study for English.

Grammar and vocabulary


consolidate and build on their knowledge of grammar and vocabulary through:

extending and applying the grammatical knowledge set out in English Appendix 2

to the key stage 1 and 2 programmes of study to analyse more challenging texts

studying the effectiveness and impact of the grammatical features of the texts

they read

drawing on new vocabulary and grammatical constructions from their reading and

listening, and using these consciously in their writing and speech to achieve

particular effects

knowing and understanding the differences between spoken and written

language, including differences associated with formal and informal registers, and

between Standard English and other varieties of English using Standard English confidently in their own writing and speech




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discussing reading, writing and spoken language with precise and confident use

of linguistic and literary terminology.1

Spoken English


speak confidently and effectively, including through:

using Standard English confidently in a range of formal and informal contexts,

including classroom discussion

giving short speeches and presentations, expressing their own ideas and keeping

to the point

participating in formal debates and structured discussions, summarising and/or

building on what has been said

improvising, rehearsing and performing play scripts and poetry in order togenerate language and discuss language use and meaning, using role, intonation,

tone, volume, mood, silence, stillness and action to add impact.

1 Teachers should refer to the Glossary that accompanies the programmes of study for English for their own

information on the range of terms used within the programmes of study as a whole.




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Glossary for the programmes of study for English(non-statutory)

The following glossary includes all the technical grammatical terms used in theprogrammes of study for English, as well as others that might be useful. It is intended as

an aid for teachers, not as the body of knowledge that should be learnt by pupils. Apart

from a few which are used only in schools (for example, root word ), the terms below are

used with the meanings defined here in most modern books on English grammar. It is

recognised that there are different schools of thought on grammar, but the terms defined

here clarify those being used in the programmes of study. For further details, teachers

should consult the many books that are available.

Terms in definitions As in any tightly structured area of knowledge, grammar, vocabulary and spelling involve a

network of technical concepts that help to define each other. Consequently, the definition

of one concept builds on other concepts that are equally technical. Concepts that are

defined elsewhere in the glossary are hyperlinked. For some concepts, the technical

definition may be slightly different from the meaning that some teachers may have learnt at

school or may have been using with their own pupils; in these cases, the more familiar

meaning is also discussed.

Term Guidance Example

active voice An active verb has its usual pattern

of subject and object (in contrast with

the passive).

Active: The school arranged a visit .

Passive: A visit was arranged by

the school.

adjective The surest way to identify adjectives

is by the ways they can be used:

before a noun, to make the

noun’s meaning more specific

(i.e. to modify the noun), or

after the verb be, as its

complement.

Adjectives cannot be modified by

other adjectives. This distinguishes

them from nouns, which can be.

Adjectives are sometimes called

‘describing words’ because they pick

out single characteristics such as

size or colour. This is often true, but

it doesn’t help to distinguish

adjectives from other word classes,

The pupils did some really good

work. [adjective used before a

noun, to modify it]

Their work was good. [adjective

used after the verb be, as itscomplement]

Not adjectives:

The lamp glowed. [verb]

It was such a bright red! [noun]

He spoke loudly. [adverb]

It was a French grammar book.

[noun]




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because verbs, nouns and adverbs

can do the same thing.

adverb The surest way to identify adverbs is

by the ways they can be used: they

can modify a verb, an adjective,

another adverb or even a whole

clause.

Adverbs are sometimes said to

describe manner or time. This is

often true, but it doesn’t help to

distinguish adverbs from other word

classes that can be used as

adverbials, such as preposition

phrases, noun phrases andsubordinate clauses.

Usha soon started snoring loudly .

[adverbs modifying the verbs

started and snoring ]

That match was really exciting!

[adverb modifying the adjective

exciting ]

We don’t get to play games very

often. [adverb modifying the other

adverb, often]

Fortunately, it didn’t rain. [adverb

modifying the whole clause ‘it didn’train’ by commenting on it]

Not adverbs:

Usha went up the stairs.

[preposition phrase used as

adverbial]

She finished her work this

evening . [noun phrase used as

adverbial]

She finished when the teacher

got cross. [subordinate clause

used as adverbial]

adverbial An adverbial is a word or phrase that

is used, like an adverb, to modify a

verb or clause. Of course, adverbs

can be used as adverbials, but many

other types of words and phrases

can be used this way, including

preposition phrases and subordinate

clauses.

The bus leaves in five minutes.

[preposition phrase as adverbial:

modifies leaves]

She promised to see him last night.

[noun phrase modifying either

promised or see, according to the

intended meaning]

She worked until she had finished .

[subordinate clause as adverbial]

antonym Two words are antonyms if their

meanings are opposites.

hot – cold

light – dark

light – heavy

apostrophe Apostrophes have two completely

different uses:

showing the place of missing

letters (e.g. I’m for I am)

I’m going out and I won’t be long .

[showing missing letters]

Hannah’s mother went to town in

Justin’s car . [marking possessives]




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marking possessives

(e.g. Hannah’s mother ).

article The articles the (definite) and a or an

(indefinite) are the most common

type of determiner .

The dog found a bone in an old

box.

auxiliary verb The auxiliary verbs are: be, have, do

and the modal verbs. They can be

used to make questions and

negative statements. In addition:

be is used in the progressive and

passive

have is used in the perfect

do is used to form questions and

negative statements if no other

auxiliary verb is present

They are winning the match. [be

used in the progressive]

Have you finished your picture?

[have used to make a question,

and the perfect]

No, I don’t know him. [do used to

make a negative; no other auxiliary

is present]Will you come with me or not?

[modal verb will used to make a

question about the other person’s

willingness]

clause A clause is a special type of phrase

whose head is a verb. Clauses can

sometimes be complete sentences.

Clauses may be main or

subordinate. Traditionally, a clause had to have a

finite verb, but most modern

grammarians also recognise non-

finite clauses.

It was raining. [single-clause

sentence]

It was raining but we were indoors.

[two finite clauses]

If you are coming to the party ,

please let us know. [finite

subordinate clause inside a finite

main clause]

Usha went upstairs to play on her

computer . [non-finite clause]

cohesion A text has cohesion if it is clear how

the meanings of its parts fit together.

Cohesive devices can help to do

this.

In the example, there are repeated

references to the same thing (shown

by the different style pairings), and

the logical relations, such as time

and cause, between different parts

are clear.

A visit has been arranged for Year

6 , to the Mountain Peaks Field

Study Centre, leaving school at

9.30am. This is an overnight

visit. The centre has beautiful

grounds and a nature trail . During

the afternoon, the children will

follow the trail .

cohesive device Cohesive devices are words used to

show how the different parts of a text

fit together. In other words, they

create cohesion.

Julia’s dad bought her a football.

The football was expensive!

[determiner; refers us back to a

particular football]




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Some examples of cohesive devices

are:

determiners and pronouns, which

can refer back to earlier words

conjunctions and adverbs, which

can make relations between

words clear

ellipsis of expected words.

Joe was given a bike for

Christmas. He liked it very much.

[the pronouns refer back to Joe

and the bike]

We’ll be going shopping before we

go to the park. [conjunction; makes

a relationship of time clear]

I’m afraid we’re going to have to

wait for the next train. Meanwhile,

we could have a cup of tea.

[adverb; refers back to the time of

waiting]

Where are you going? [ ] To

school! [ellipsis of the expected

words I’m going ; links the answer

back to the question]

complement A verb’s subject complement adds

more information about its subject,

and its object complement does the

same for its object.

Unlike the verb’s object, its

complement may be an adjective.

The verb be normally has a

complement.

She is our teacher. [adds more

information about the subject, she]

They seem very competent. [adds

more information about the subject,

they ]

Learning makes me happy. [addsmore information about the object,

me]

compound,

compounding

A compound word contains at least

two root words in its morphology;

e.g. whiteboard, superman.

Compounding is very important in

English.

blackbird, blow-dry, bookshop, ice-

cream, English teacher, inkjet, one-

eyed, bone-dry, baby-sit,

daydream, outgrow

conjunction A conjunction links two words or

phrases together.There are two main types of

conjunctions:

co-ordinating conjunctions (e.g.

and ) link two words or phrases

together as an equal pair

subordinating conjunctions (e.g.

when) introduce a subordinate

clause.

James bought a bat and ball. [links

the words bat and ball as an equalpair]

Kylie is young but she can kick the

ball hard. [links two clauses as an

equal pair]

Everyone watches when Kyle does

back-flips. [introduces a

subordinate clause]

Joe can’t practise kicking because

he’s injured. [introduces asubordinate clause]




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consonant A sound which is produced when the

speaker closes off or obstructs the

flow of air through the vocal tract,

usually using lips, tongue or teeth.

Most of the letters of the alphabet

represent consonants. Only the

letters a, e, i , o, u and y can

represent vowel sounds.

/p/ [flow of air stopped by the lips,

then released]

/t/ [flow of air stopped by the

tongue touching the roof of the

mouth, then released]

/f/ [flow of air obstructed by the

bottom lip touching the top teeth]

/s/ [flow of air obstructed by the tip

of the tongue touching the gum

line]

continuous See progressive

co-ordinate,

co-ordination

Words or phrases are co-ordinated if

they are linked as an equal pair by a

co-ordinating conjunction (i.e. and,

but, or ).

In the examples on the right, the co-

ordinated elements are shown in

bold, and the conjunction is

underlined.

The difference between

co-ordination and subordination is

that, in subordination, the two linked

elements are not equal.

Susan and Amra met in a café.

[links the words Susan and Amra

as an equal pair]

They talked and drank tea for an

hour. [links two clauses as an

equal pair]

Susan got a bus but Amra

walked . [links two clauses as an

equal pair]

Not co-ordination: They ate beforethey met . [before introduces a

subordinate clause]

determiner A determiner specifies a noun as

known or unknown, and it goes

before any modifiers (e.g. adjectives

or other nouns).

Some examples of determiners are:

articles (the, a or an)

demonstratives (e.g. this, those)

possessives (e.g. my , your )

quantifiers (e.g. some, every ).

the home team [article, specifies

the team as known]

a good team [article, specifies the

team as unknown]

that pupil [demonstrative, known]

Julia’s parents [possessive, known]

some big boys [quantifier,

unknown]

Contrast: home the team, big some

boys [both incorrect, because the

determiner should come before

other modifiers]

digraph A type of grapheme where two

letters represent one phoneme.

Sometimes, these two letters are not

next to one another; this is called a

The digraph ea in each is

pronounced /i:/.

The digraph sh in shed is

pronounced / ʃ /.




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split digraph. The split digraph i–e in line is

pronounced /aɪ/.

ellipsis Ellipsis is the omission of a word or

phrase which is expected and

predictable.

Frankie waved to Ivana and she

watched her drive away.

She did it because she wanted to

do it.

etymology A word’s etymology is its history: its

origins in earlier forms of English or

other languages, and how its form

and meaning have changed. Many

words in English have come from

Greek, Latin or French.

The word school was borrowed

from a Greek word ó÷ïëÞ (skholé)

meaning ‘leisure’.

The word verb comes from Latin

verbum, meaning ‘word’.

The word mutton comes from

French mouton, meaning ‘sheep’.

finite verb Every sentence typically has at least

one verb which is either past or

present tense. Such verbs are called

‘finite’. The imperative verb in a

command is also finite.

Verbs that are not finite, such as

participles or infinitives, cannot stand

on their own: they are linked to

another verb in the sentence.

Lizzie does the dishes every day.

[present tense]

Even Hana did the dishes

yesterday. [past tense]

Do the dishes, Naser! [imperative]

Not finite verbs:

I have done them. [combined

with the finite verb have]

I will do them. [combined with

the finite verb will ]

I want to do them! [combined

with the finite verb want ]

fronting, fronted A word or phrase that normally

comes after the verb may be moved

before the verb: when this happens,

we say it has been ‘fronted’. For

example, a fronted adverbial is an

adverbial which has been moved

before the verb.

When writing fronted phrases, we

often follow them with a comma.

Before we begin, make sure you’ve

got a pencil.

[Without fronting: Make sure you’ve

got a pencil before we begin.]The day after tomorrow, I’m visiting

my granddad.

[Without fronting: I’m visiting my

granddad the day after tomorrow.]

future Reference to future time can be

marked in a number of different ways

in English. All these ways involve the

use of a present-tense verb.

See also tense.

Unlike many other languages (such

He will leave tomorrow. [present-

tense will followed by infinitive

leave]

He may leave tomorrow. [present-tense may followed by infinitive

leave]




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as French, Spanish or Italian),

English has no distinct ‘future tense’

form of the verb comparable with its

present and past tenses.

He leaves tomorrow . [present-

tense leaves]

He is going to leave tomorrow.

[present tense is followed by going

to plus the infinitive leave]

GPC See grapheme-phoneme

correspondences.

grapheme A letter, or combination of letters,

that corresponds to a single

phoneme within a word.

The grapheme t in the words ten,

bet and ate corresponds to the

phoneme /t/.

The grapheme ph in the word

dolphin corresponds to the

phoneme /f/.grapheme-

phoneme

correspondences

The links between letters, or

combinations of letters (graphemes)

and the speech sounds (phonemes)

that they represent.

In the English writing system,

graphemes may correspond to

different phonemes in different

words.

The grapheme s corresponds to

the phoneme /s/ in the word see,

but…

…it corresponds to the phoneme

/z/ in the word easy.

head See phrase.

homonym Two different words are homonyms if

they both look exactly the same

when written, and sound exactly the

same when pronounced.

Has he left yet? Yes – he went

through the door on the left.

The noise a dog makes is called a

bark. Trees have bark.

homophone Two different words are

homophones if they sound exactly

the same when pronounced.

hear , here

some, sum

infinitive A verb’s infinitive is the basic formused as the head-word in a

dictionary (e.g. walk, be).

Infinitives are often used:

after to

after modal verbs.

I want to walk.

I will be quiet.

inflection When we add -ed to walk , or change

mouse to mice, this change of

morphology produces an inflection

(‘bending’) of the basic word which

has special grammar (e.g. past tense

dogs is an inflection of dog.

went is an inflection of go.

better is an inflection of good .




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or plural). In contrast, adding -er to

walk produces a completely different

word, walker , which is part of the

same word family. Inflection is

sometimes thought of as merely achange of ending, but, in fact, some

words change completely when

inflected.

intransitive verb A verb which does not need an

object in a sentence to complete its

meaning is described as intransitive.

See ‘transitive verb’.

We all laughed.

We would like to stay longer, but

we must leave.

main clause A sentence contains at least one

clause which is not a subordinateclause; such a clause is a main

clause. A main clause may contain

any number of subordinate clauses.

It was raining but the sun was

shining . [two main clauses]

The man who wrote it told me that

it was true. [one main clause

containing two subordinate

clauses.]

She said, “It rained all day.” [one

main clause containing another.]

modal verb Modal verbs are used to change the

meaning of other verbs. They can

express meanings such as certainty,

ability, or obligation. The main modal

verbs are will, would, can, could,

may, might, shall, should, must and

ought .

A modal verb only has finite forms

and has no suffixes (e.g. I sing – he

sings, but not I must – he musts).

I can do this maths work by myself.

This ride may be too scary for you!You should help your little brother.

Is it going to rain? Yes, it might.

Canning swim is important . [not

possible because can must be

finite; contrast: Being able to swim

is important , where being is not a

modal verb]

modify, modifier One word or phrase modifies

another by making its meaning more

specific.

Because the two words make a

phrase, the ‘modifier’ is normally

close to the modified word.

In the phrase primary-school

teacher :

teacher is modified by primary-

school (to mean a specific kind

of teacher)

school is modified by primary

(to mean a specific kind of

school).

morphology A word’s morphology is its internal

make-up in terms of root words and

suffixes or prefixes, as well as other

kinds of change such as the change

dogs has the morphological make-

up: dog + s.

unhelpfulness has the




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of mouse to mice.

Morphology may be used to produce

different inflections of the same word

(e.g. boy – boys), or entirely new

words (e.g. boy – boyish) belonging

to the same word family.

A word that contains two or more

root words is a compound (e.g.

news+paper, ice+cream).

morphological make-up:

unhelpful + ness

where unhelpful = un + helpful

and helpful = help + ful

noun The surest way to identify nouns is

by the ways they can be used after

determiners such as the: for

example, most nouns will fit into the

frame “The __ matters/matter.”

Nouns are sometimes called ‘naming

words’ because they name people,

places and ‘things’; this is often true,

but it doesn’t help to distinguish

nouns from other word classes. For

example, prepositions can name

places and verbs can name ‘things’

such as actions.

Nouns may be classified as

common (e.g. boy, day ) or proper

(e.g. Ivan, Wednesday ), and also as

countable (e.g. thing, boy ) or non-

countable (e.g. stuff, money ). These

classes can be recognised by the

determiners they combine with.

Our dog bit the burglar on his

behind!

My big brother did an amazing

jump on his skateboard. Actions speak louder than words.

Not nouns:

He’s behind you! [this names a

place, but is a preposition, not

a noun]

She can jump so high! [this

names an action, but is a verb,

not a noun]

common, countable: a book,

books, two chocolates, one day,

fewer ideas

common, non-countable: money,

some chocolate, less imagination

proper, countable: Marilyn,

London, Wednesday

noun phrase A noun phrase is a phrase with a

noun as its head, e.g. some foxes,foxes with bushy tails. Some

grammarians recognise one-word

phrases, so that foxes are

multiplying would contain the noun

foxes acting as the head of the noun

phrase foxes.

Adult foxes can jump. [adult

modifies foxes, so adult belongs tothe noun phrase]

Almost all healthy adult foxes in

this area can jump. [all the other

words help to modify foxes, so they

all belong to the noun phrase]

object An object is normally a noun,

pronoun or noun phrase that comes

straight after the verb, and shows

what the verb is acting upon.

Objects can be turned into the

Year 2 designed puppets. [noun

acting as object]

I like that. [pronoun acting asobject]




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subject of a passive verb, and

cannot be adjectives (contrast with

complements).

Some people suggested a pretty

display. [noun phrase acting as

object]

Contrast:

A display was suggested .

[object of active verb becomes

the subject of the passive verb]

Year 2 designed pretty .

[incorrect, because adjectives

cannot be objects]

participle Verbs in English have two

participles, called ‘present participle’

(e.g. walking, taking ) and ‘past

participle’ (e.g. walked, taken).

Unfortunately, these terms can be

confusing to learners, because:

they don’t necessarily have

anything to do with present or

past time

although past participles are

used as perfects (e.g. has eaten)

they are also used as passives

(e.g. was eaten).

He is walking to school . [present

participle in a progressive]

He has taken the bus to school .[past participle in a perfect]

The photo was taken in the rain.

[past participle in a passive]

passive The sentence It was eaten by our

dog is the passive of Our dog ate it .

A passive is recognisable from:

the past participle form eaten

the normal object (it ) turned into

the subject

the normal subject (our dog )

turned into an optional

preposition phrase with by as its

head

the verb be(was), or some other

verb such as get .

Contrast active.

A verb is not ‘passive’ just because it

has a passive meaning: it must be

the passive version of an active verb.

A visit was arranged by the school.

Our cat got run over by a bus.

Active versions:

The school arranged a visit.

A bus ran over our cat.

Not passive:

He received a warning . [pasttense, active received ]

We had an accident. [past

tense, active had ]

past tense Verbs in the past tense arecommonly used to:

Tom and Chris showed me theirnew TV . [names an event in the




17


talk about the past

talk about imagined situations

make a request sound more

polite.

Most verbs take a suffix –ed , to form

their past tense, but many

commonly-used verbs are irregular.

See also tense.

past]

Antonio went on holiday to Brazil .

[names an event in the past;

irregular past of go]

I wish I had a puppy. [names an

imagined situation, not a situation

in the past]

I was hoping you’d help tomorrow.

[makes an implied request sound

more polite]

perfect The perfect form of a verb generally

calls attention to the consequences

of a prior event; for example, he hasgone to lunch implies that he is still

away, in contrast with he went to

lunch. ‘Had gone to lunch’ takes a

past time point (i.e. when we arrived)

as its reference point and is another

way of establishing time relations in

a text. The perfect tense is formed

by:

turning the verb into its past

participle inflection

adding a form of the verb have

before it.

It can also be combined with the

progressive (e.g. he has been

going ).

She has downloaded some songs.

[present perfect; now she has

some songs]I had eaten lunch when you came.

[past perfect; I wasn’t hungry when

you came]

phoneme A phoneme is the smallest unit of

sound that signals a distinct,

contrasting meaning. For example:

/t/ contrasts with /k/ to signal the

difference between tap and cap

/t/ contrasts with /l/ to signal the

difference between bought and

ball .

It is this contrast in meaning that tells

us there are two distinct phonemes

at work.

There are around 44 phonemes inEnglish; the exact number depends

on regional accents. A single

The word cat has three letters and

three phonemes: /kæt/

The word catch has five letters andthree phonemes: /kaʧ /

The word caught has six letters

and three phonemes: /k ɔ:t/




18


phoneme may be represented in

writing by one, two, three or four

letters constituting a single

grapheme.

phrase A phrase is a group of words that are

grammatically connected so that

they stay together, and that expand

a single word, called the ‘head’. The

phrase is a noun phrase if its head is

a noun, a preposition phrase if its

head is a preposition, and so on; but

if the head is a verb, the phrase is

called a clause. Phrases can be

made up of other phrases.

She waved to her mother. [a noun

phrase, with the noun mother as its

head]

She waved to her mother . [a

preposition phrase, with the

preposition to as its head]

She waved to her mother . [a

clause, with the verb waved as its

head]

plural A plural noun normally has a suffix –

s or –es and means ‘more than one’.

There are a few nouns with different

morphology in the plural (e.g. mice,

formulae).

dogs [more than one dog]; boxes

[more than one box]

mice [more than one mouse]

possessive A possessive can be:

a noun followed by an

apostrophe, with or without s

a possessive pronoun.

The relation expressed by a

possessive goes well beyond

ordinary ideas of ‘possession’.

A possessive may act as a

determiner .

Tariq’s book [Tariq has the book]

The boys’ arrival [the boys arrive]

His obituary [the obituary is abouthim]

That essay is mine. [I wrote the

essay]

prefix A prefix is added at the beginning of

a word in order to turn it into another

word.

Contrast suffix.

overtake, disappear

preposition A preposition links a following noun,

pronoun or noun phrase to some

other word in the sentence.

Prepositions often describe locations

or directions, but can describe other

things, such as relations of time.

Words like before or since can act

either as prepositions or asconjunctions.

Tom waved goodbye to Christy.

She’ll be back from Australia in two

weeks.

I haven’t seen my dog since this

morning.

Contrast: I’m going, since no-one

wants me here! [conjunction: links

two clauses]




19


preposition

phrase

A preposition phrase has a

preposition as its head followed by a

noun, pronoun or noun phrase.

He was in bed.

I met them after the party.

present tense Verbs in the present tense are

commonly used to:

talk about the present

talk about the future.

They may take a suffix –s

(depending on the subject).

See also tense.

Jamal goes to the pool every day.

[describes a habit that exists now]

He can swim. [describes a state

that is true now]

The bus arrives at three.

[scheduled now]

My friends are coming to play .

[describes a plan in progress now]

progressive The progressive (also known as the

‘continuous’) form of a verb generally

describes events in progress. It is

formed by combining the verb’s

present participle (e.g. singing ) with

a form of the verb be (e.g. he was

singing ). The progressive can also

be combined with the perfect (e.g. he

has been singing ).

Michael is singing in the store

room. [present progressive]

Amanda was making a patchwork

quilt. [past progressive]

Usha had been practising for an

hour when I called. [past perfect

progressive]

pronoun Pronouns are normally used like

nouns, except that: they are grammatically more

specialised

it is harder to modify them

In the examples, each sentence is

written twice: once with nouns, and

once with pronouns (underlined).

Where the same thing is being talked

about, the words are shown in bold.

Amanda waved to Michael .

She waved to him.

John’s mother is over there. His

mother is over there.

The visit will be an overnight visit .

This will be an overnight visit .

Simon is the person: Simon broke

it. He is the one who broke it.

punctuation Punctuation includes any

conventional features of writing other

than spelling and general layout: the

standard punctuation marks . , ; : ? !

- – ( ) “ ” ‘ ’ , and also word-spaces,

capital letters, apostrophes,

paragraph breaks and bullet points.

One important role of punctuation is

to indicate sentence boundaries.

“I’m going out, Usha, and I won’t

be long,” Mum said.

ReceivedPronunciation

Received Pronunciation (oftenabbreviated to RP) is an accent

which is used only by a small




20


minority of English speakers in

England. It is not associated with any

one region. Because of its regional

neutrality, it is the accent which is

generally shown in dictionaries in theUK (but not, of course, in the USA).

RP has no special status in the

national curriculum.

register Classroom lessons, football

commentaries and novels use

different registers of the same

language, recognised by differences

of vocabulary and grammar.

Registers are ‘varieties’ of a

language which are each tied to a

range of uses, in contrast with

dialects, which are tied to groups of

users.

I regret to inform you that Mr

Joseph Smith has passed away.

[formal letter]

Have you heard that Joe has died?

[casual speech]

Joe falls down and dies, centre

stage. [stage direction]

relative clause A relative clause is a special type of

subordinate clause that modifies a

noun. It often does this by using a

relative pronoun such as who or that

to refer back to that noun, though the

relative pronoun that is often omitted.

A relative clause may also be

attached to a clause. In that case,

the pronoun refers back to the whole

clause, rather than referring back to

a noun.

In the examples, the relative clauses

are underlined, and both the

pronouns and the words they refer

back to are in bold.

That’s the boy who lives near

school. [who refers back to boy ]

The prize that I won was a book.

[that refers back to prize]

The prize I won was a book. [thepronoun that is omitted]

Tom broke the game, which

annoyed Ali. [which refers back to

the whole clause]

root word Morphology breaks words down into

root words, which can stand alone,

and suffixes or prefixes which can’t.

For example, help is the root word

for other words in its word family

such as helpful and helpless, and

also for its inflections such as

helping. Compound words (e.g. help-

desk ) contain two or more rootwords. When looking in a dictionary,

we sometimes have to look for the

played [the root word is play ]

unfair [the root word is fair ]

football [the root words are foot

and ball ]




21


root word (or words) of the word we

are interested in.

schwa The name of a vowel sound that is

found only in unstressed positions in

English. It is the most common vowel

sound in English.

It is wr itten as /ə/ in the International

Phonetic Alphabet. In the English

writing system, it can be written in

many different ways.

/əlɒŋ/ [

/bʌtə/ [

/dɒktə/

along ]

butter ]

[doctor ]

sentence A sentence is a group of words

which are grammatically connected

to each other but not to any words

outside the sentence.

The form of a sentence’s main

clause shows whether it is being

used as a statement, a question, a

command or an exclamation.

A sentence may consist of a single

clause or it may contain several

clauses held together by

subordination or co-ordination.

Classifying sentences as ‘simple’,

‘complex’ or ‘compound’ can be

confusing, because a ‘simple’

sentence may be complicated, and a

‘complex’ one may be

straightforward. The terms ‘single-

clause sentence’ and ‘multi-clause

sentence’ may be more helpful.

John went to his friend’s house. He

stayed there till tea-time.

John went to his friend’s house, hestayed there till tea-time. [This is a

‘comma splice’, a common error in

which a comma is used where

either a full stop or a semi-colon is

needed to indicate the lack of any

grammatical connection between

the two clauses.]

You are my friend. [statement]

Are you my friend? [question]

Be my friend! [command]

What a good friend you are!

[exclamation]

Ali went home on his bike to his

goldfish and his current library

book about pets. [single-clause

sentence]

She went shopping but took back

everything she had boughtbecause she didn’t like any of it.

[multi-clause sentence]

split digraph See digraph.

Standard English Standard English can be recognised

by the use of a very small range of

forms such as those books, I did it

and I wasn’t doing anything (rather

than their non-Standard equivalents);

it is not limited to any particularaccent. It is the variety of English

which is used, with only minor

I did it because they were not

willing to undertake any more work

on those houses. [formal Standard

English]

I did it cos they wouldn’t do any

more work on those houses.

[casual Standard English]




22


variation, as a major world language.

Some people use Standard English

all the time, in all situations from the

most casual to the most formal, so it

covers most registers. The aim of thenational curriculum is that everyone

should be able to use Standard

English as needed in writing and in

relatively formal speaking.

I done it cos they wouldn’t do no

more work on them houses.

[casual non-Standard English]

stress A syllable is stressed if it is

pronounced more forcefully than the

syllables next to it. The other

syllables are unstressed.

about

visit

subject The subject of a verb is normally thenoun, noun phrase or pronoun that

names the ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’. The

subject’s normal position is:

just before the verb in a

statement

just after the auxiliary verb, in a

question.

Unlike the verb’s object and

complement, the subject candetermine the form of the verb (e.g. I

am, you are).

Rula’s mother went out.

That is uncertain.

The children will study the animals.

Will the children study the animals?

subjunctive In some languages, the inflections of

a verb include a large range of

special forms which are used

typically in subordinate clauses, and

are called ‘subjunctives’. English has

very few such forms and those it has

tend to be used in rather formal

styles.

The school requires that all pupils

be honest.

The school rules demand that

pupils not enter the gym at

lunchtime.

If Zoë were the class president,

things would be much better.

subordinate,

subordination

A subordinate word or phrase tells

us more about the meaning of the

word it is subordinate to.

Subordination can be thought of as

an unequal relationship between a

subordinate word and a main word.

For example:

an adjective is subordinate to the

noun it modifies

subjects and objects are

big dogs [big is subordinate to

dogs]

Big dogs need long walks.

[big dogs and long walks are

subordinate to need ]

We can watch TV when we’ve

finished. [when we’ve finished is

subordinate to watch]




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subordinate to their verbs.

Subordination is much more

common than the equal relationship

of co-ordination.

See also subordinate clause.

subordinate

clause

A clause which is subordinate to

some other part of the same

sentence is a subordinate clause; for

example, in The apple that I ate was

sour , the clause that I ate is

subordinate to apple (which it

modifies). Subordinate clauses

contrast with co-ordinate clauses asin It was sour but looked very tasty .

(Contrast: main clause)

However, clauses that are directly

quoted as direct speech are not

subordinate clauses.

That’s the street where Ben lives.

[relative clause; modifies street ]

He watched her as she

disappeared . [adverbial; modifies

watched ]

What you said was very nice. [acts

as subject of was]She noticed an hour had passed .

[acts as object of noticed ]

Not subordinate: He shouted,

“Look out!”

suffix A suffix is an ‘ending’, used at the

end of one word to turn it into

another word. Unlike root words,

suffixes cannot stand on their own asa complete word.

Contrast prefix.

call – called

teach – teacher [turns a verb into a

noun]

terror – terrorise [turns a noun into

a verb]

green – greenish [leaves word

class unchanged]

syllable A syllable sounds like a beat in a

word. Syllables consist of at least

one vowel, and possibly one or more

consonants.

Cat has one syllable.

Fairy has two syllables.

Hippopotamus has five syllables.

synonym Two words are synonyms if theyhave the same meaning, or similar

meanings. Contrast antonym.

talk – speak

old – elderly

tense In English, tense is the choice

between present and past verbs,

which is special because it is

signalled by inflections and normally

indicates differences of time. In

contrast, languages like French,

Spanish and Italian, have three ormore distinct tense forms, including

He studies. [present tense –

present time]

He studied yesterday . [past tense –

past time]

He studies tomorrow, or else!

[present tense – future time]

He may study tomorrow . [present




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a future tense. (See also: future.)

The simple tenses (present and

past) may be combined in English

with the perfect and progressive.

tense + infinitive – future time]

He plans to study tomorrow .

[present tense + infinitive – future

time]

If he studied tomorrow, he’d see

the difference! [past tense –

imagined future]

Contrast three distinct tense forms

in Spanish:

Estudia. [present tense]

Estudió. [past tense]

Estudiará. [future tense]

transitive verb A transitive verb takes at least one

object in a sentence to complete its

meaning, in contrast to an

intransitive verb, which does not.

He loves Juliet.

She understands English grammar.

trigraph A type of grapheme where three

letters represent one phoneme.

High, pure, patch, hedge

unstressed See stressed.

verb The surest way to identify verbs is bythe ways they can be used: they canusually have a tense, either present or past (see also future).

Verbs are sometimes called ‘doingwords’ because many verbs namean action that someone does; whilethis can be a way of recognisingverbs, it doesn’t distinguish verbsfrom nouns (which can also nameactions). Moreover many verbsname states or feelings rather thanactions.

Verbs can be classified in variousways: for example, as auxiliary, ormodal; as transitive or intransitive; and as states or events.

He lives in Birmingham. [presenttense]

The teacher wrote a song for theclass. [past tense]

He likes chocolate. [present tense;not an action]

He knew my father. [past tense;not an action]

Not verbs:

The walk to Halina’s house will

take an hour. [noun]

All that surfing makes

Morwenna so sleepy! [noun]

vowel A vowel is a speech sound which isproduced without any closure orobstruction of the vocal tract.

Vowels can form syllables bythemselves, or they may combinewith consonants.

In the English writing system, theletters a, e, i , o, u and y canrepresent vowels.





word A word is a unit of grammar: it canbe selected and moved aroundrelatively independently, but cannoteasily be split. In punctuation, wordsare normally separated by word

spaces.

Sometimes, a sequence thatappears grammatically to be twowords is collapsed into a singlewritten word, indicated with a hyphenor apostrophe (e.g. well-built, he’s).

headteacher or head teacher [canbe written with or without a space]

I’m going out.

9.30 am

word class Every word belongs to a word classwhich summarises the ways in whichit can be used in grammar. Themajor word classes for English are:noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, determiner , pronoun, conjunction. Word classes aresometimes called ‘parts of speech’.

word family The words in a word family arenormally related to each other by acombination of morphology, grammar and meaning.

teach – teacher

extend – extent – extensive

grammar – grammatical –

grammarian

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You may re-use this information (excluding logos) free of charge in any format or medium, under

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SECONDARY National Curriculum - English2

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