Sea Surface Sound Natural Mechanisms of Surface Generated Noise in the Ocean

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Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht, Boston and London

F Computer and Systems Sciences Springer-Verlag G Ecological Sciences Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, London, H Cell Biology Paris and Tokyo

Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences - Vol. 238

Sea Surface Sound Natural Mechanisms of Surface Generated Noise in the Ocean

edited by

B.R. Kerman Atmospheric Environment Service, Toronto, Canada

Kluwer Academic Publishers

Dordrecht / Boston / London

Published in cooperation with NATO Scientific Affairs Division

Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Sea Surface Sound Natural Mechanisms of Surface Generated Noise in the Ocean Lerici, Italy 15-19 June 1987

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Natural MechanisMs of Surface

Generated Noise in the Ocean (1987 ; Lerici, Italy> Sea surface sound; natural lechanis.s of surface generated noise

in the ocean / edited by B.R. Kerlan. p. c •. -- (NATO ASI series. Series C, Mathematical and

physical sciences; 238> ·Proceedlngs of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Natural

MechanisNS of Surface Generated Noise in the Ocean. held in Lerlcl, Italy, 15-19 June 1987°--T.p. verso.

Inc I udes Index. ISBN-13: 978-94-010-7856-6 1. Underwater acoustlcs--Congresses. 2. Ocean waves--Congresses.

3. Nolse--Congresses. 4. Hydrodynallcs--Congresses. I. Kerlan, B. R. (Bryan R.> II. Title. III. Series; NATO ASI series. Series C, MatheNatlcal and physical sciences; no. 238. CC242.N34 1987 534' .23--dc19 88-15570

CIP

ISBN-13: 978-94-010-7856-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-3017-9 001: 10.1007/978-94-009-3017-9

Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Oordrecht, The Netherlands.

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All Rights Reserved © 1988 by Kluwer Academic Publishers. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1988 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.

CONTENTS

PREFACE ix

OCEAN WAVE DYNAMICS

Mechanisms of Wave Breaking in Deep Water 1 M.S. Longuet- Higgins

Equilibrium Range Characteristics of Breaking Waves 31 O.M. Phillips

Experiments on Breaking Waves 39 W.K. Melville and R.J. Rapp

Wind Waves as a Coupling Process Between Air and Water 51 Turbulent Boundary Layers

Y. Toba, H. Kawamura and I. Yoshikawa

On the Mechanics of Spilling Zones of Quasi-Steady Breaking 63 Waves

M.L. Banner

An Estimate of Wave Breaking Probability for Deep Water 71 Waves.

Y.A. Papadimitrakis, N.E. Huang, L.F. Bliven, and S.R. Long

Whitecap Coverage as a Remotely Monitorable Indication of 85 the Rate of Bubble Injection into the Oceanic Mixed Layer

E.C. Monahan

Wave and Bubble Characteristics in the Surf Zone 97 P. Papanicolaou and F. Raichlen

LOA as a New Tool to Detect Air-Sea Interaction Mechanisms 111 Ch. Werner and W.A. Krichbaumer

Feasibility study of At-Sea Measurement of Ocean-Air 123 Interface Parameters Needed to Evaluate Ocean Surface Generated Noise

J.H. Wilson

BUBBLE DYNAMICS AND OBSERVATIONS

Bubble Noise Creation Mechanisms P.A. Crowther

131

VI

Bubble Dynamics in Oceanic Ambient Noise 151 A. Prosperetti

The Horizontal structure and Distribution of Bubble Clouds 173 S.A. Thorpe

On the Distribution of Bubbles Near the Ocean Surface 185 B.R. Kerman

study of Micro-Bubbles in the North Sea 197 S.C. Ling and H.P. Pao

Optical Microbubble Measurements in the North Sea 211 M.-Y. SU, S.-C. Ling and J. Cartmill

Acoustical Estimates of SUbsurface Bubble Densities in 225 the Open Ocean and Coastal Waters.

S.T. McDaniel

Acoustic Measurements of Bubble Densities at 15-50 kHz 237 S. O. McConnell

PROPAGATION EFFECTS

Propagation Effects Associated with Ambient Noise 253 W.A. Kuperman

Low Frequency Wind Generated Ambient Noise in Shallow Water 273 H. Schmidt, T. Akal and W.A. Kuperman

The Effect of Propagation Conditions on Wind-Generated Noise 281 at Real Shallow Water Sites

R.M. Hamson

Simultaneous Measurements of SUrface Generated Noise and 295 Attenuation at the Fixed Acoustic Shallow Water Range "NORDSEE"

P.C. Wille and D. Geyer

WIND AND WAVE NOISE

Mechanisms of Sound Generation at the Ocean Surface J.E. Ffowcs Williams and Y.P. Guo

Ambient Noise Radiation by "Soliton" SUrface Waves R.H. Mellen and D. Middleton

309

325

Ocean Noise Spectrum Below 10 hz - Mechanisms and Measurements

A.C. KibbleWhite

VII

337

Low Frequency Ocean Ambient Noise: Measurements and Theory 361 W.M. Carey and D. Browning

Estimation of Source Characteristics from Underwater 377 Noisefield Measurements

R.W. Bannister, A.S. Burgess and D.J. Kewley

Noise Generated by Motion of the Sea Surface - Theory and 391 Measurement

D.H. cato and I.S.F. Jones

Observations of High Frequency Ambient Sound Generated by 403 Wind

D.M. Farmer and S. Vagle

On the Spectra of Wind Generated Sound in the Ocean D. Shonting and N. Taylor

Physical Mechanisms of Noise Generation by Breaking Waves - a Laboratory Study

M.L. Banner and D.H. cato

Audio Signature of a Laboratory Breaking Wave B.R. Kerman

Noise Generation by Bubbles Formed in Breaking Waves R.D. Hollett and R.M. Heitmeyer

RAIN NOISE

417

429

437

449

Acoustic Emissions Associated with Drop Impacts 463 H.C. Pumphrey and L.A. Crum

The Sound Generated by Precipitation Striking the Ocean 485 Surface

J.A. Nystuen and D.M. Farmer

Studies of Mechanisms Influencing Rain Noise L. Bj~rtlP'

ICE NOISE

501

Speculations on the Origin of Low Frequency Arctic Ocean 513 Noise

I. Dyer

viii

Observation of the Sound Radiated by Individual Ice Fracturing Events

P.J. Stein

The Correlation of Hid-Frequency Pack Ice Noise with Environmental Parameters

R.E. Keenan

533

545

High Frequency Ambient Sound in the Arctic 555 D.H. Farmer and S.R. Waddell

Arctic Ocean Noise Generation Due to Pack Ice Kinematics 565 and Heat Fluxes

J.K. Lewis and W.W. Denner

Acoustic Ambient Noise in the Arctic Ocean Below the Harginal Ice Zone

H.J. Buckingham and C.-F. Chen

Ice Eddy Ambient Noise O.H. Johannessen. S.G. Payne. K.V. Starke, G.A. Gotthardt and I. Dyer

PANEL DISCUSSION REPORTS

Breaking Waves O.H. Phillips

Study of the Distribution of Bubbles and Turbulence In and Near a Breaking Wave

S.A. Thorpe

Sources of Sound at the Ocean Surface; Bubbles and Other Noise

J.E. Ffowcs Williams

Wave and Turbulence Noise A.C. Kibblewbite

Precipitation Noise L. BjllSrnllS

Ice Noise I. Dyer

SUBJECT INDEX

583

599

607

611

617

621

629

633

635

PREFACE

In its relentless pursuit of further knowledge, science tends to compartmentalize. Over the years the pursuit of What might be called geophysical acoustics of the sea-surface has languished. This has occured even through there are well-developed and active research programs in underwater acoustics, ocean hydrodynamics, cloud and precipitation physics, and ice mechanics - to name a few - as well as a history of engineering expertise built on these scientific fields. It remained to create a convergence, a dialogue across disciplines, of mutual benefit.

The central theme of the Lerici workshop, perhaps overly simplified, was 'What are the mechanisms causing ambient noise at the upper surface of the ocean?' What could hydrodynamicists contribute to a better understanding of breaking wave dynamics, bubble production, ocean wave dynamics, or near-surface turbulence for the benefit of the underwater acoustics community? What further insights could fluid dynamicists gain by including acoustic measurements in their repertoire of instrumentation? While every attendee will have his or her percep­tions of details, it was universally agreed that a valuable step had been taken to bring together two mature disciplines and that significant co-operative studies would undoubtedly follow.

The scope of the workshop was enlarged beyond its original intent to also include the question of ice-noise generation. The success of this decision can be seen in high quality of the presentations. the contribution of its disciples in the other workshop discussions and the heightened awareness and interest of we other novices.

I wish to salute all the participants, not only for their presentations and manuscript contributions, but for the stimulating atmosphere of inquiry that characterized the meeting. Among those who assured an open, challenging discussion were the invited speakers and panel chairmen, OWen Phillips, Hichael Longuet-Higgins, Ira Dyer, John Ffowcs Williams. Larry Crum, Alex KibbleWhite, Bill Kuperman, David Farmer, Paul Crowther, Andrea Prosperetti, and panelists, Hike Banner, Norden Huang, Leif Bjorno, Doug Cato, Bob Hellen, Herman Hedwin, Peter Wille and Ken Helville.

Of utmost importance to the initiation, organization and execution of the workshop were my fellow committee members, Leif Bjorno, Dick Heitmeyer, Reg Hollett and Andrea Prosperetti. The experience of Leif Bjorno in guiding us through the process is warmly appreciated. Reg Hollett and Dick Heitmeyer handled all the local details effectively with a cheery aplomb Which we all appreciated.

I know that all others involved with the meeting would like to extend their heartfelt thanks to Ralph Goodman, Director, NATO ASW

ix

x

Research Centre, La Spezia, for his encouragement and support that brought an idea to reality. others Who have contributed significantly are the late M. Di Lullo of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Vincenzo Damiani and Mario Astraldi of our host, the Energy and Environment Research Centre of Santa Teresa in Lerici, Skip Lackie of the Office of Naval Research, and James Young of the Atmospheric Environment Service.

Without the support of Anna Bizzari and Adolf Legner in Lerici, and of Evonna Mathis and Marg Stasyshyn in Toronto Who handled all the myriad of important aspects that tied everything together, there would not have been a meeting and a book as an on-going record of everyone's efforts.

The financial support for the workshop was provided by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization through its Advanced Research Workshop program as well as by the United States Office of Naval Research and by the Atmospheric Environment Service of Canada.

The full transcript of the discussions of the panel discussions and of some individual papers is also available as an AES report at no cost. Those Who would like a copy, should contact the editor.

To the reader, from all those Whose work is bound up here, may you enjoy as much as we have.

Atmospheric Environment Service 4905 Dufferin Street Downsview, Ontario, M3H 5T4 Canada

December 31, 1987

Bryan R. Kerman

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