SCP Evidence Base Case Study Proforma

Case Study: Tourism in Thailand

Key IssuesThis case study examines the extent to which the impacts of tourism on biodiversity in Thailand can be attributed to UK citizens. Thailand is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world, and the tourism sector has experienced substantial growth in recent years. It is also a country rich in biodiversity. The lessons learnt by Thailand may help to minimise adverse impacts on biodiversity in other countries that are now experiencing a similar growth in tourism.

Tourism development and activities often occur in close proximity to sensitive areas of biodiversity. The ecological impacts of tourism are clearly apparent in Thailand, although they are difficult to quantify and are often grouped in amongst other impact categories such as urban extension or pollution. It is difficult to attribute the proportion of impacts for which UK tourism is responsible. Despite Thailand being one of the UK’s most popular tourist destinations, UK tourism only constitutes approximately 7% of total international tourism in Thailand, which in itself only constitutes approximately 16% of the total tourism market 1. Spending within Thailand is greater for international tourism than for domestic tourism.

Current trends in ecotourism, golf and diving holidays suggest that adverse impacts to biodiversity are still occurring in Thailand. Specific habitats such has coral reef and mangroves have suffered significant losses, and evidence suggests a decline in the ecological quality of some national parks.

Mitigating adverse impacts demands action and cooperation from all parties with an interest in tourism development. Tourism is an international business and there is much scope for external parties, including governments and NGOs, to improve the protection of biodiversity from the adverse impacts of tourism.

IntroductionThailand’s wealth of natural and cultural resources has made it one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world, and one of the most popular destinations for UK residents. The essence of tourism and the desire of people to experience beautiful places means that tourist destinations are often located in or near to natural areas and areas of biodiversity value. Furthermore, the tourism industry is dependent on coastal areas which often retain or support valuable and sensitive ecosystems.

Tourism in Thailand

The Tourism Industry in ThailandThailand's economy is highly dependent on tourism and related industries where international tourism accounts for a higher economic contribution than in any other Asian country 2. A study by the Thailand Tourism Authority (TAT) in 2000 estimated that 11% of people in Thailand were directly or indirectly employed by the tourism industry3. Tourism is one of Thailand’s most significant and growing industries with receipts of approximately 384,400 million Baht in 2004, an increase of around 24% since the year 20004. This year it is expected that more than

Scott Wilson LtdMay 2006 154

Table 1. International Tourist Arrivals to Thailand by Country of Residence (Jan-June 2005)

Nationality Number of Visits

% Share

Malaysia 659,699 13Japan 539,865 10United Kingdom 361,584 7Korea 343,965 7U.S.A. 308,963 6Singapore 297,686 6China 260,135 5Germany 214,206 4Australia 184,921 4India 178,659 3Source: Tourism Authority of Thailand: Tourism Statistics.


14 million foreign travellers will visit Thailand, and the foreign tourist expansion ratio will reach 7 percent a year5.

Between January and June 2005, Europeans constituted over 25%, and UK Tourists constituted nearly 7%, of tourists travelling to Thailand6. A survey conducted by Kouni Travel Ltd, one of Europe’s leading travel companies, found that Thailand was their most popular long haul tourist destination at the beginning of 2004 (See table 2).

Source: Multiple Sources7

Figure 1: The Top five Non-OECD destinations by number of visits by UK Residents and the percentage change between 2000 and 2004.

Source: Derived from International Passenger Survey data

Table 2: Top Long Haul Destinations

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20048

Thailand 1 1 1 1 2 1Maldives 2 2 2 2 1 2USA 5 3 4 6 5 3Sri Lanka 4 4 3 3 3 4

Source: Kuoni Longhaul Report 2004.

Tourist Destinations in ThailandThe primary tourist attractions of Thailand have long been its capital, Bangkok, the beach orientated resorts of Phuket and Pattaya and the hill tribes region of Chiang Mai. In addition, destinations such as Ko Samui and Chiang Rai have gained prominence in recent years9.

The Official Website of the Tourism Authority of Thailand (UK & Ireland) identifies key tourist destinations in Thailand (See Table 3), the locations of which are shown in figure 6 (see The Link between Tourism and Biodiversity section).



Table 3: Key Tourist Destinations, and Diving, Trekking and Beach Resort Destinations in Thailand

Tourist Destinations Dive destinations Trekking Destinations Beach resorts

North

Chiang Rai Chiang MaiChiang Mai* Chiang RaiMae Hong Son Angkhang Nature ReserveSukhothai Chiang Doa Elephant Camp

Doi Inthanon National Park

North

Ea

st

Khon Kaen Nakhon RatchasiNakhon Ratchasima*10 Loei

Cent

ral a

nd

east

Ayutthaya Cha AmBangkok* PattayaPattaya * Hua HinKanchanaburi *Cha-AmHua Hin

Sout

h

Krabi Similan Islands Krabi

Phuket *Rasha Yai (An Island near to Phuket) Phuket

Ko Samui* Burma Banks (West of Burma) Koh Samui

Surat ThaniMergui Archipelago – (West of Burma) Trang

Prachuap Khiri Khan Koh Surin Koh LantaKo Chang Koh Tao Koh TaoTrang Khao LakSimilian Islands Koh PhanganKo LantaKo TaoKo Samet

Source: The Official Website of the Tourism Authority of Thailand (UK & Ireland). http://www.thaismile.co.uk/

In addition to this list the main Thai official tourism website11 also identifies Nong Khai, Chon Buri and Hat Yai* as major tourist destinations.

Hotel and Tourist Accommodation DevelopmentHotel development in Thailand has increased continuously since the 1960s. In 2003 Thailand had the second largest number of hotel rooms of all Asian countries. In 1999 Thailand was recorded to have 4837 tourism establishments. At this time Phuket had the greatest number of tourism establishments (303) and Bangkok had the most rooms (55,845)12.

A pre-tsunami press release by the Thai Tourism Authority identifies hotel development in Thailand, and provides an indication of areas planned for tourism expansion. The press release was posted on the Thai smile website and shows recent (2003-2004) and future planned (until mid 2007) hotel development by key hotelier companies and operators 13. Although this information does not represent the full extent of hotel development in Thailand, it gives an indication of where the tourism industry is growing. Table 4 shows the number of resort, hotel and / or villa developments recently completed or planned at the key destinations identified.



At the time of this press release Chiang Mai, Krabi, Phuket, Ko Samui and Bangkok appear to show the highest levels of construction for tourism purposes.

Tourist ActivitiesThe Thailand Tourism Authority website identifies the following types of tourism:

Adventure Long Stay Culture Marine Diving Medical Tourism Eco-Tourism Shopping Family Spa Golf Thai Food & Cooking

Generally all tourist activities have the potential to affect biodiversity through the resources that they use. Particular types of tourism may have a more significant and direct impact on biodiversity; these include eco-tourism, marine, adventure and golf tourism.

Eco-tourism has recently been identified as Thailand’s fastest growing tourism sub-sector with an estimated annual growth of 10 to 15 per cent. Visits to National parks have also risen. Between 1995 and 1999 visits to Thai national parks increased by approximately 35% 14. Biodiversity is a key component of the environment that tourists and especially ecotourists go to enjoy. In Thailand most of the popular eco-tourism destinations are located in protected areas such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries15.

Diving has also experienced a sharp increase over the last 10 years (see table 5). A large number of tourists obtain their dive certification in Thailand, with Kao Tao processing the highest number of dive certifications in Asia16.

Table 5: Growth of the Thai Dive Industry

1992 2003No. of Dive Shops 47 163No. of Dive Instructors 488 1839No. of Divers 7247 78126

Source: PADI in correspondence with IUCN Thailand

Tracing UK tourists to destinations There are two main sources of data that can be used to identify the flow of UK residents into Thailand:

The International Passenger Survey (IPS) (carried out by UK Office of National Statistics)

The Tourist Authority of Thailand (TAT)

The International Passenger survey provides a sample-based estimate of visits by UK residents to countries all over the world, and provides data for a range of variables including:


Table 4: A list of recently completed and planned hotel and resort development published in a press release by the Thailand Tourist Authority

Number of recently completed (2003 –04) or planned hotel developments

Chiang Rai 2Chiang Mai 4Krabi 4Phuket 7Ko Samui 7Ko Chang 2Ko Lanta 2Khao lak 1Racha 1Khao Sok National Park

1

Kho Yao 1Pran Buri 1Koh Kut/Kood 1Bangkok 5Source: Thaismile.co.uk (the Official Website of the Tourism Authority of Thailand (UK & Ireland)) press release: Thailand Hotel Development


Destination Year Number of visits Duration of stay Purpose (e.g. holiday / family visit) Spend Age of traveller Confidence Interval

The Thai tourist authority collects data on arrivals to Thailand for use within the travel and tourism industry. There is no information available on the methods used to collate this data.

Tracing the flow of international tourists within Thailand is more difficult. There are no freely available statistics on the number of visitors to resorts, regions or key destinations. Some market research reports may provide this information at a cost17.

Information sources for the flows of UK tourists in Thailand are therefore restricted mainly to the more general travel guides and websites. Key tourist destinations may be identified from these sources, although there is no statistical evidence to support the validity of the area as a key destination in terms of number of visitors. Furthermore, such sources identify destinations for all tourists and not just UK residents.

For the purposes of this study the Tourism Authority of Thailand website for UK and Ireland provided the main basis for identifying the key tourism destinations for UK residents.

Biodiversity and sensitive ecological areas in Thailand

OverviewThailand covers an area of 51.4 million hectares. It is a country of varying topography and landscape consisting of coastline, highlands, central plains and islands. The varying altitudes and wide ranging latitude of Thailand means that it has a high level of biodiversity relative to total land area. Thailand exhibits an array of different forests, wetlands, coastal and marine habitats accommodating an abundance of wildlife.

There is a diverse range of evergreen and deciduous forest types within Thailand. The evergreen forests encompass the rainforests found in the hills of the South, monsoonal evergreen forest, dry evergreen forests, montane forests (above about 1000 m), and the specialized mangrove, peatswamp and limestone forests18. The limestone hills account for approximately 5% of land coverage, and provide a unique habitat with several endemic species of plant and animal.

Thailand’s freshwater wetlands consist of a network of rivers, lakes, ponds, swamps and estuarine areas. There are six major riverine systems including the Mekong that harbours a great diversity of freshwater species including the critically endangered Mekong Giant Catfish (Pangasianodon gigas) (see Figure 2). The Mekong is not only valued for it’s river species but also for a range of habitats that lie within or adjacent to its catchments area.


Figure 2. The Mekong Giant Catfish

Source: WWF Thailand


The coastline of Thailand stretches for approximately 2600km and accommodates a variety of habitats some of which are extremely rich in biodiversity. Habitats that feature along the coastline include coral reefs, mangrove forests, sea grass meadows, tidal flats, mud flats, sand dunes, runnels, estuaries, deltas, lagoons, marshes, swamps and off shore bars.

The mangrove forests of Thailand are highly productive and act as shelters and nurseries for many aquatic animal species, as well as providing an important food source and physical protection for coastlines against strong winds and waves. Approximately 55% of the country’s mangrove forests were lost between 1961 and 199319.

Coral reefs provide some of Thailand’s most diverse and valuable ecosystems. The reefs of Thailand cover an area of approximately 180000 hectares, forming 1.8% of the total reef area in South East Asia20. They can be found in two main areas, the Gulf of Thailand and The Andaman Sea. Three types of reef are present in the area; these are coral communities with no true reef structure; developing fringing reefs; and early formation of fringing reefs. Thailand has a predicted coral diversity of 357 species, higher than for Vietnam and China but considerably lower than Malaysia and Indonesia. It is estimated that about 60 percent of corals in the Andaman Sea and 90% in the Gulf of Thailand are at risk21. Figure 3 shows the status of Coral Reefs in Thai waters, and figure 4 illustrates the types of threat to the reefs.

Several species of fish, spiny lobsters, giant clams, sea turtles, dugong, dolphins and whales are among the threatened marine species for which Thailand shares responsibility and concern22. Dugongs are also found in marine waters off the coasts of Thailand, mainly along the southern area of the west coast in the Andaman Sea and the east part of the Gulf of Thailand.



Figure 3. The status of Coral Reefs in Thailand (Threat Levels: = High, = Medium, =Low)

Source: http://reefgis.reefbase.org/mapper.asp

Figure 4. The status of Coral Reefs in Thailand and type of threat identified (Threat Levels: = High, = Medium, =Low)

Source: http://reefgis.reefbase.org/mapper.asp

Sensitive Ecological AreasThe WWF global 200 ranking system, which identifies the world’s most biologically outstanding terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats, has identified a total of eight ‘ecoregions’ that lie partially or completely within Thailand (See Figures 6 and 7):

Northern Indochina Subtropical Moist Forests*


http://reefgis.reefbase.org/mapper.asp

http://reefgis.reefbase.org/mapper.asp


Kayah-Karen / Tenasserim Moist Forests Peninsular Malaysian Lowland and Mountain Forests* Cardamom Mountains Moist Forests Indochina Dry Forests Andaman Sea* Mekong River Salween River

Conservation International has also identified two ‘hotpsots’ designated for having high numbers of endemic species, a relatively low remaining land coverage and the extent to which they are threatened:

Indo-Burma Sundaland

The Global 200

The Andaman SeaThe Andaman Sea is situated to the East of Southern Thailand and stretches northwards along the coast of Burma. The eco-region includes the Andaman and Nicobar islands which are volcanic archepelagos. The Andaman Sea contains over half of Thailand’s coral reef resources, with approximately 210 coral species and over 100 reef fish species recorded in the area. The Surin islands provide some of the best-developed reefs in Thailand. The Andaman sea provides feeding and nesting grounds for several important species including four species of marine turtle23, the Dugong (Dugong dugon), the Irrawaddy Dolphin and whale sharks.

Areas of particular importance in Thailand include a 600,000 hectares block encompassing a 100km stretch of the Andaman coast from Kuraburi to Northern Phuket and extending 60km out to sea enveloping the Similan Islands, the Surin Islands and Phra Thong island24. This area is home to valuable habitats such as coral reef, sea-grass beds, and mangrove forests and is internationally important for the conservation of some of the world’s most diverse coral reef ecosystems.

The WWF identify that development of tourism and recreational activities, all exert stress on the natural resources of the islands of the Andaman SEA.

Kayah-Karen / Tenasserim Moist ForestsThe Kayah-Karen / Tenasserim Moist Forests run up the Thai peninsular and along the west of Thailand into Burma. These montane rainforests remain generally intact. The rough terrain consisting of cliffs, sinkholes and caverns mean that areas of this ecoregion remain largely unexplored by scientists. The region is seen as being of great biological value and is considered to be globally outstanding because of its species diversity25.


Figure 5. A Marine Turtle in the Andaman Region

Source: WWF Thailand

http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/africa/where/southern_africa/mozambique/expedition/dugongs.cfm


Indochina Dry ForestThese monsoon and dry forests contain more diversity, within many groups of plants and animals, than any other dry forests in Asia. This Global 200 eco-region is made up of the Southeastern Indochina dry evergreen forests and the Central Indochina dry forests ecoregions.

Monsoon forests such as these are adapted to dry periods of several months followed by several months of torrential rain. Most of the tree species in these forests lose their leaves during part of the year, but all of the trees are not leafless at the same time, as in northern deciduous forests. Although most of the original monsoon forests of this ecoregion have been degraded, especially in Vietnam, those fragments that remain contain an extraordinary diversity of life.26

Mekong RiverThe Forests of the Lower Mekong are an "ecoregion complex" containing more than one of WWF's Global 200 ecoregions - the Greater Annamites, the Central Indochina Dry Forests, the Lower Mekong Floodlands and the Cardamon Mountains.

Overall, the ecoregion complex contains an incredible diversity of habitats including deciduous dipterocarp forests (tall hardwoods), moist evergreen forests, karst limestone forests, open grasslands and savannas, upland plateaus, wetlands, and pristine riparian environments. These habitats support diverse, abundant, and rare wildlife. Six new large mammal species; the saola (discovered by WWF scientists in 1993), large-antlered muntjac, Roosevelt's muntjac, Annamite muntjac, and the Annamite striped rabbit, have been described in the Greater Annamites ecoregion alone within the last ten years. 27

Conservation International HotspotsOf the 34 hotspots of biodiversity designated by Conservation international, two are found in Thailand. The Indoburma biodiversity hotspot encompasses nearly the whole of Thailand with the exception of a small portion of southern Thailand (the provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat) which falls within the Sundalund Hotspot.

The Indo Burma hotspot accommodates a wide diversity of ecosystems including mixed wet evergreen, dry evergreen, deciduous, and montane forests. There are also patches of shrublands and woodlands on karst limestone outcrops and, in some coastal areas, scattered heath forests. In the last 12 years, six new mammal species have been discovered here. This hotspot also holds remarkable endemism in freshwater turtle species, most of which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss. Bird life in Indo-Burma is also incredibly diverse, holding almost 1,300 different bird species, including the threatened white-eared night-heron, the grey-crowned crocias and the orange-necked partridge.28

Protected Areas

National ParksThere are 81 areas protected under the Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act (1960) and the National Parks Act (1961) in Thailand. In 2002 the area of protected land encompassed 4,645,300 hectares or 9.07 per cent of the country29. In addition to these terrestrial national parks there are a total of 15 marine protected areas30.


http://www.worldwildlife.org/science/ecoregions/g200.cfm

http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0202.html

http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0210.html


The most important marine parks in Thailand include31:

Khao Laem Ya - Mu Ko Samet (there is tourism development on Ko Samet); Ko Chang (Thailand’s second largest island after Phuket, also has tourism

development); Mu Ko Ang Thong; Ko Tarutao (including Ko Adang and Ko Pehtra); Hat Nopharat Thara-Ko Phi Phi; Mu Ko Surin; and Mu Ko Similan32.

RAMSAR SitesThere are a total of ten Ramsar sites33 in Thailand (See Figure 6), located at inland, marine and coastal locations. These sites consist of a range of habitats including mangrove swamps; Freshwater, tree-dominated wetlands; Freshwater swamp forest; Permanent freshwater marshes/pools; Permanent freshwater lakes; Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats; Marine subtidal aquatic beds; Forested peatlands; and Shrub-dominated wetlands.

Tourism is identified as: a social or cultural value in seven of the ten Ramsar sites; as a current landuse within 6 Ramsar sites; and as a current landuse within the surroundings / catchment of at least one further site.

UNESCO World Heritage SitesThailand has two UNESCO World Heritage sites34 designated for their natural value (see figure 6):

Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex (2005) Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuaries (1991)

Threatened SpeciesIn 2003, the list of threatened species of Thai plants and animals included 84 plants, 37 mammals, 37birds, 19 reptiles, 35 fishes and 1 mollusc. In addition to this there are currently 400 endangered plant species and 600 rare species.35

Legislation, Plans and Strategies for BiodiversityThe legal framework for the protection of biodiversity and the foundation of a protected area system stems back to the enactment of the Wild Animal Preservation and Protection Act of 1960, and the National Park act of 1961. Further significant legislation includes the National Forests Act (1964), and the 1985 National Forest Policy which laid the foundations for a protected area system and targeted the maintenance of 40% of forest in Thailand. This target has since fluctuated and now aims to increase forest cover to 50% of total land area.

Polices for protecting areas were further established through the 1992 enhancement of the National Environmental Quality Act .The Wildlife Protection Act (1992,improved) now provides the legal basis for the formation of protected areas including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, forest parks, non-hunting areas and natural conservation areas. Plans for


http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/591

http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/590


protected areas are usually recommended by the National Environment Board. Other key players include the Royal Forest Department, the Natural Park Division and the Marine National Parks Division amongst others.

In 1992, Thailand signed but have not yet ratified the Convention on Biodiversity 36. Thailand’s first National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was produced for the period 1998 –2002. None of the 446 projects proposed under this plan were implemented. The lack of success was attributed to a lack of funding resulting from the economic crisis of 1997. Since this time a second strategy has been prepared for the period 2003-2007. The priorities for this strategy are:

Capacity building of institutions; Enhancing the efficiency of protected area management; Improving incentives for conservation at a local level; Conserving species, populations and ecosystems; Controlling and monitoring process and activities that have an impact on

biodiversity; Promoting the conservation of biodiversity in urban, rural and traditional

environments; and Promoting cooperation between international and national institutions.

The link between tourism and biodiversityTourism and biodiversity are inherently linked with one another. The most popular tourist destinations are often the most natural and untouched areas of the world. Figure 6 shows the locations of key tourist destinations in relation to sensitive ecological areas and protected areas in Thailand.

Of the key tourist destinations that were mapped for this study, 63% are located within Global 200 ecoregions. A total of 16 (50%) of the key destinations are located in the Kayah-Karen / Tenasserim Moist Forests and the Indochina Dry Forest ecoregions. Five destinations are located in the Mekong River freshwater ecoregion and one is positioned within the Salween River Freshwater ecoregion. None of the tourist destinations identified in this study are located within the remaining G200 terrestrial ecoregions in Thailand.

Nine of the key tourism destinations identified are located near to reefs that are considered to be at medium to very high risk from coastal development. A further three destinations are located near to reefs that are at risk from marine pollution and overfishing 37. The reefs currently under the greatest threat from coastal development, marine pollution and overexploitation are located on the west coast of Thailand on the Andaman Sea. There are at least 8 key tourist destinations located either along or off the coast of the Andaman Sea, which is one of the Global 200 marine ecoregions.

Tourism has been identified as a specific threat in Marine Protected Areas and in some National Parks (see Table 6). Those national parks that are sited near to urban centres (i.e. Doi Suthep and Doi Inthanon National Parks near to Chang Mai) are especially vulnerable, and the number of tourists can exceed the physical carrying capacity of the parks38.

Tourism or tourism based disturbance has been identified as a specific threat within 2 Ramsar sites (Krabi Estuary and Pang Nga Bay Marine National Park), and within the catchment area or surroundings of at least another two sites. Recreational and tourist facility development has also been identified as a specific threat in the Nong Bong Kai Non-Hunting Area 39. Other threats to the integrity of Ramsar sites include agriculture and agricultural run-off, domestic



sewage and solid waste, unspecified recreation, the hunting of protected species, the expansion/development of settlements, and disturbance from other unspecified human activities.

Particular locations have been identified as having already suffered from severe environmental degradation as a result of tourism (e.g. Phuket and Pattaya); and others have gained prominence in recent years and now face an increased threat from tourism (e.g. Samui and natural areas near to Chang Rai). These locations also include Pha Ngan, Tao and Ang Thong; Nang-Yuan Island; Koh Samet; Koh Hae and Mu Koh Phi Phi (see Table 6). Figure 6. Key tourist destinations and sensitive terrestrial ecosystems in Thailand (Includes Ramsar and World Heritage Sites)

Source: Conservation International (2006), WWF G200 Hotspots (2006), UNEP-WCMC Database of Protected areas (2006).



Figure 7 – Key tourist destinations, sensitive marine and freshwater ecosystems and reefs threatened by coastal development in Thailand

Source: Conservation International (2006), WWF G200 Hotspots (2006), UNEP-WCMC Database of Protected areas (2006).

Impacts of tourism on biodiversityThe impacts of tourism on biodiversity can be summarised into 4 groups: construction impacts, resource use, pollution, and recreational activities (e.g. diving / trekking). Further to this there are often additional impacts through the supporting infrastructure needed to support primary tourism development, and tourism may exert further pressures on resources that are already stretched by the native population. Impacts may be primary, secondary, direct, indirect, short, medium and long-term, permanent and temporary, and cumulative. Table 6 provides a summary of tourism impacts on biodiversity and provides examples of impacts that have occurred in Thailand.

This section has largely focused upon the adverse impacts of tourism on biodiversity. There are however potentially significant benefits to biodiversity through tourism, these include:

A source of financing for biodiversity conservation, especially in legally protected areas;

Economic justification for protected areas; Economic alternatives for local people to reduce overexploitation of wildlife

resources on protected areas; Constituency-building, which promotes biodiversity conservation; and An impetus for private biodiversity conservation efforts.40



Table 6. The potential impacts that tourism can have on biodiversity, with supporting evidence.

Activity Primary Impact/s Secondary Impact/s

Examples / Evidence of impacts in Thailand

Cons

truct

ion

Activ

ities

Clearing and construction for hotels and resorts

Landtake and direct habitat destruction; Disturbance of ground and soils; Disturbance of fauna Siltation of the water column – Impacts on mangrove forests and coral reef (Mangrove / seagrass and near shore reefs are interdependent and some species may use all three habitats for different reasons. Damage to one habitat may also impact upon the others41).

Important turtle nesting sites such as Patong beach on Phuket, have been destroyed by tourism over the last 30 years.42

The King Naresaun-the-Great Coast has been eroded along more than 100km. At Hua Hin, erosion has taken about 100 meters of the beach and foreshore during the period 1974 to 1988.43

Clearing and construction for roads and infrastructure

Landtake and direct habitat destruction; Fragmentation of habitats; Disturbance of fauna; Increased land clearance44. Obstruction of migration routes; Impacts on watershed management; Accelerated erosion.

Land Reclamation for tourism development

Loss of habitat e.g. mangroves45; Sedimentation increases turbidity46 Impacts on ecosystems due to decreased light penetration

Development of coastline, marinas and breakwaters

Landtake and direct habitat loss; Dredging; Sedimentation Siltation alters light levels – Coral is light sensitive

Sedimentation and wastewater pollution associated with rapid coastal development are recent and increasingly severe problems in many provinces along the coastline. Jetty construction in several locations, especially in the west coast of the Gulf of Thailand, resulted in coral reef and seagrass degradation.47

In recent years, Marine Protection Areas at Hat Nopharat Thara - Mu Ko Phi Phi and Khao Laem Ya - Mu Ko Samet have been affected by the rapid growth in tourism activities. In just one year of tourist resort development on the islands of Samui, Pha Ngan, Tao and Ang Thong Marine National Park, coral reefs were significantly degraded to a cover of 20%. Results from a questionnaire for ranking the threats to MPAs indicate that overall, domestic pollution and development are perceived as the most serious threats, followed by tourism activities, siltation at sea and destructive fishing.48





Reso

urce

Use

Use of water resources

Alterations in the water table and river levels Reduction of growth in flora; Death of flora; Reduction in freshwater entering the sea and subsequent impacts on marine ecosystems; Impacts on wetlands

The popularity of golf in Thailand has risen dramatically and many new courses have sprung up across the country - over 200 at present count49. An average golf course in a tropical country such as Thailand needs 1500kg of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides per year and uses as much water as 60,000 rural villagers. 50

In Phuket water consumption has risen to 200 litres per person per day, while authorities have been able to supply only 27 litres per person per day.51

Harvest of minerals, fossil fuels and other building materials. Including dynamiting and mining of coral for resort building materials

Landtake and direct habitat loss; Destruction of marine habitat through dredging; Destruction of coral through mining for construction material; Land degradation; Reduced foraging grounds; Disturbance and loss of fauna;

Coastal Development: Dredging, landfilling, mining of sand and coral, coastal construction, and discharge of sewage threaten 25% of the coral reefs at medium to high threat.

Fuel wood collection and land clearing

Deforestation; Direct destruction of flora; Loss of habitat for fauna

Increased demand for food

Conversion of habitat for food production; Impacts of agricultural runoff; overfishing

Was

te

Generation of waste water and sewage – insufficient treatment facilities especially during the high season

Water pollution; Eutrophication; Algal growth Smothering of coral reef

Sewage and pollution control systems are often substandard, leading to degradation of habitats.52

There is evidence of impacts on seagrass meadows as a result of pollution and eutrophication from tourist resorts and shore based construction.53

The main sources of land-based pollution affecting coastal habitats and resources in Marine Protection Areas include tourism areas, especially beach resorts.54

In 1990 not one of the 22000 hotel rooms along the beach in Pattaya was attached to a sewage plant, and the sea along the coast was coated with a film of raw sewage55

Solid waste and littering

Injuries to fauna





Recr

eatio

nal A

ctivi

ties Trekking Trampling impacts on vegetation;

Direct habitat loss; Trampling impacts on soil; Deterioration of habitatEffects of trampling include: Loss of organic matter in the

soil Reduced regeneration in

plants Decrease in air and water

permeability of soil Loss of ground cover Increase in run off Change in species

composition Accelerated erosion Disturbance of fauna -

Behavioural changes in animals; Loss of foraging area; Impacts on breeding

Tourism has been identified as a threat in several parks and nature reserves including Khao Yai Park which forms part of the Dong Phayayan Khao-Yai Forest Complex, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Tourist pressure is increasing here, but is not yet too heavy, though the areas around riverside attractions are vulnerable, especially the waterfalls in Khao Yai.56





Diving and boat cruises

Increased sediments in the water; Trampling by tourists and divers; Ship groundings; Pollution from sewage; Destruction of coral from anchoring57; Boats may injure or kill larger animals such as Dugong. Siltation alters light levels – Coral is light sensitive; Damaged Coral reef may become more prone to disease58

The following activities have been identified as having an impact on biodiversity in Marine Area Reserves in Thailand: Anchoring on coral reefs; Construction close to the waterline

including the construction of jetties; Visitors walking on the reef; Spear fishing; Water pollution through inadequate

sewage and solid waste disposal; Unregulated use of jet skies; Damage to corals by divers and

snorkelers; and Walking at the bottom of the sea.59

“Poorly managed tourism affects reefs through anchor damage, garbage accumulation, diver damage and wastewater discharge from coastal hotels and resorts. Live coral coverage on Nang-Yuan Island in Surathani, one of the most popular snorkelling sites has declined 17% within a 5-year period. Reefs close to beach resorts are used intensively for tourism related activities. Chanthaburi, Rayong, Surathani, Phuket, Trang, and Krabi are the major provinces for reef-related recreation. Reefs in several localities such as Pattaya, Koh Samet, Koh Hae and Mu Koh Phi Phi group face the impact of conspicuously heavy tourism demand. Many localities are also facing a rapid and steady growth in tourism, with obvious increases in coral reef-related activities.”60

Damage caused by anchors of tour boats. Mooring buoys have now been installed in most tourist sites. This has effectively reduced the impact from anchoring. Trampling on corals in shallow water by snorkelers and boat groundings are still major factors causing reef damage.61

Oth

er

Increase in road traffic

Air pollution Impacts on flora and fauna

Overbuilding and extensive paving of shorelines

Landtake and direct habitat loss disruption of land-sea connections (such as sea-turtle nesting spots).

Commercial harvesting / Illegal hunting for sale to tourists

Impacts on coral reef, Impacts on Animal populations

Locals convert their fishing boats into tour boats and also collect shells for the souvenir trade. This is seen in several provinces, such as Trad, Surathani, Pang-Nga, and Trang. The illegal collection of marine resources (particularly seashells) as tourist souvenirs and for export and aquarium fish trade seems to have an equally damaging impact as that of destructive fishing outside established parks.





Expanding Settlements

Increased resource use, direct landtake and habitat loss

In Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park, Park managers have recognised that pressure from tourism is making it difficult to maintain the quality of ecosystems. To maintain the ecological and economic values of a park, it is essential to prevent visitor numbers from exceeding the park’s carrying capacity.62

Uncontrolled tourism development

Multiple impacts Surveys undertaken of several islands with tourism development have shown that the basic problems due to uncontrolled tourism development are linked to:

the supply of drinking water; sewage and waste water treatment; solid waste disposal; and the use of coral reefs as construction

material.

The King Naresaun-the-Great Coast has been eroded along more than 100km. At Hua Hin, erosion has taken about 100 meters of the beach and foreshore during the period 1974 to 1988.63


Case Study: UK Tourism in Thailand

Mitigation measuresMitigation measures should aim not only to protect, but also to enhance biodiversity in Thailand. Mitigating the impacts of tourism demands action and cooperation from all parties with an interest in tourism development. The large variety of stakeholders includes: the national, regional and local government; local communities; development agencies; developers; tourism associations and all manner of tourism businesses from multinational tour operators and hoteliers, to local family businesses; and tourists themselves.

Although the Thai government may recognize the economic value of Thailand’s natural resources, and realize the importance of biodiversity and protected areas in attracting tourists, the potential win-win situation needs to be broadcast to, and accepted by, all stakeholders. Mitigating the impacts of tourism needs to occur at every level, and a coordinated approach is required.

National, Regional and local governmentNational, regional, local government, and specific governmental departments have a major role to play in minimizing the impacts of tourism on biodiversity. The types of mitigation necessary include:

The application and enforcement of appropriate planning laws including: a robust framework for the implementation of environmental impact assessment (EIA); consideration of buffer zones around protected areas in which strict development control is applied; and thorough consideration of alternatives when planning for tourism development.

The implementation of a strategic approach to biodiversity conservation and the acceptance that protected areas cannot survive in isolation.

The improved use of planning tools such as Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). Policy should demand the production of tourism development plans at a regional and local level. These plans should be developed in partnership with local people, NGOs and other key stakeholders such as hoteliers and tour operators. Tourism development plans should undergo an SEA to properly assess alternatives for tourism development, minimize impacts on biodiversity and mitigate any residual impacts. An example of this can be seen in the Fiji tourism development plan64.

In partnership with NGOs and the tourism sector, the government should form a targeted programme for capacity building. This relates to: capacity building in government bodies to improve sustainable planning and nature conservation; funding and expanding the scope of research to form an evidence base that can be used to support the management of tourism to protect biodiversity; and education of tour operators, hoteliers and the general public on the impacts of tourism on biodiversity and the consequences of these impacts.

Development and application of policies that promote the use of sustainable design to minimize the use of natural resources and the release of untreated sewage effluent, and subsequently to minimize impacts on biodiversity.

Development and application of policies that minimize land-clearance, in partnership with developers and the tourism industry. During the development of buildings and infrastructure land-clearance and the provision of roads should be minimized and measures put in place to minimize erosion. A resort


in southern Thailand was built without road access and without removing trees to make room for buildings, the resort buildings can barely be seen from the sea located nearby.65

The government in partnership with national and local tourism authorities, tourism operators and hoteliers should monitor the use and need for hotels, where hotel development is proposed all alternatives should have been considered including the current use and occupancy of hotels. There is a danger of overdeveloping hotels. In the past Thailand has exhibited a high level of hotel capacity and low level of occupancy (less than 50 percent)66.

National, Regional and Local government has an important role to play in decisions relating to reactive tourism

infrastructure such as roads, and accommodation for employees. These decisions can help to direct tourism to the most appropriate areas.

The Development of sustainable accreditation schemes for tourism operators and hoteliers that incorporate consideration of biodiversity interests.

Undertake a review of legislation and management structure in relation to protected areas. Consider the possibility of streamlining the management structure and /or legislation for protected areas in order to make laws and obligations clear to stakeholders. Ensure the legal backing of protected area management plans 67.

Ensure that fees generated from tourism are properly linked to the maintenance and enhancement of biodiversity / protected areas.

The national parks authority and forestry department should consider the use non-vehicle zones and require the use of guides in protected areas. In some areas there is a need to limit the number of tourists and control uncooperative tour operators68. Further studies into the carrying capacity of national parks and marine reserves should be commissioned.

The Watershed Management Division of the Forestry Department and the National Parks Division should be closely involved in the production of tourism development plans.

In the past local people have been the most effected by the negative environmental impacts of tourism development. Local authorities should assist in the empowerment of local people, who should be included in discussions on the protection of biodiversity in order to avoid the risk of local people undermining conservation efforts.

Box 4. Examples of accreditation schemes, initiatives and guidance:

The Green Globe 21 certification system Australia’s National Ecotourism Accreditation Program Cooperative Research Center’s International Ecotourism Standard The International Hotels Environment Initiative’s benchmarking tool The tour operators initiative The Greenleaf hotel scheme


The tourism sectorTour operators, hoteliers, and local businesses that form part of the tourism sector have a major role to play in minimizing the impacts of tourism on biodiversity. A great proportion of finance and influence, and at the same time responsibility, lies with relatively few multinational tourism companies which need to take responsibility for their actions69. The types of mitigation necessary include:

Creation of private reserves / Financial contributions to conservation projects. The adoption of accredited schemes that facilitate sustainable development and

management. The Thai Hotels Association is a key player in the tourism sector in Thailand and can help to minimise adverse impacts.

The development and implementation of environmental strategies which can help to: minimize resource use; inform decisions on the types of activities that are on offer to tourists; choose suppliers based on the balance of local employment and impacts on the environment.

Investment in employee and guest education with regard to local and international environmental issues

Providing customers with the opportunity to contribute to the protection of biodiversity e.g. the use of land stewardship schemes – a small optional increase in hotel bills to help fund local conservation initiatives.

Ensure that courses and activities (e.g. diving courses and trekking activities) are instructed and carried out in a manner that does not impact negatively on biodiversity.

Do not condone the collection and sale of tourist souvenirs that are collected or hunted from valuable ecosystems. (See Box 5)

Tourism trade associations have a significant influence, and initiatives from the associations can have a domino effect throughout the industry.

Improve contact with protected area management committees to promote appropriate tourism in protected areas.

Ensure adherence to the guidelines of management plans where available, limit the size of groups when visiting protecting areas and ensure the use of trained guides.

Educating and providing guidance to customers on how to avoid negative impacts.

Box 5

The association of Thai travel agents have a series of statements guaranteeing a particular type of service to the customer; this list does not contain any reference to sustainable tourism in terms of minimizing the environmental impacts of tourism.

(Source:http://www.atta.or.th/thailandinfo/whytravelwithATTAmember.htm)

Box 5WWF Thailand conducted a survey in 2000 that indicated almost 28,000 pieces of ivory valued at $3.5 million were openly on sale in Bangkok. Around 40% of this was found in shops on the premises of 35 well-known hotels, all members of the Thai Hotels Association (THA). WWF Thailand together with the THA developed a strategy to eliminate the sale of such items in Thailand.

A few hotels participate in the Greenleaf hotel scheme (http://www.greenleafthai.org/home_en.asp), and the Ministry of environment has also been active in some areas of environmental accreditation.

(Source: IUCN Asia)

http://www.greenleafthai.org/home_en.asp

http://www.atta.or.th/thailandinfo/whytravelwithATTAmember.htm

http://www.atta.or.th/thailandinfo/whytravelwithATTAmember.htm


The local communityLocal people and landowners can play a major role in the protection of biodiversity from tourism impacts. The majority of employees in the tourism industry are likely to be local people and can have a significant influence if properly managed and coordinated.

Local people can contribute to the protection of biodiversity through the establishment of local representative governance systems. This can ensure that local people play an active role in decision making, and take responsibilities for actions and management within protected areas. Local people also have a role to play in capacity building and in raising visitor awareness of the impacts of tourism on biodiversity. There is currently a low social basis for conservation in Thailand and a need to raise public awareness in the importance and value of biodiversity70.

Landowners have a significant contribution to play, especially in buffer zones around protected areas, where the pattern of development and management practices employed can be determining factors in the protection of biodiversity.

Developers and Development AgenciesWhere tourism development occurs, developers should, wherever possible, make the most sustainable choice of building materials e.g. not sourcing from primary forests but from tree farms and secondary forests, use of recycled materials, and the use of native plant species for landscaping. The choice of materials should be based on sources that minimize damage to biodiversity. Development agencies should assess the impacts of their development portfolios on biodiversity and should aim to minimize negative impacts. Development agencies should also play a role in funding the conservation of biodiversity.

How can external parties influence the mitigation of negative impacts of tourism on biodiversity?The key points of influence for external governments and NGOs are with the Thai government, tourism associations, tour operators, research agencies, and developers (which may be directly linked to the UK or other European countries). Key mechanisms to invoke changes include:

The funding of NGOs in Thailand; Funding of research to provide an improved evidence base to inform policies

and management of tourism development; Capacity building of Thai government departments Capacity building of those employed by the tourism sector and local people; The initiation of accreditation schemes for tour operators and hoteliers; Funding specific conservation projects; Monitoring the impacts of tourism development; Helping to develop innovative tourism partnerships that can make

contributions to biodiversity conservation; Encouraging transparent reporting from tourism operators; and Educating UK residents on their global impacts on biodiversity.

Examples of where external governments and organisations have assisted in the protection of biodiversity include: projects initiated by the European commission for capacity building, and the promotion of local conservation projects71; and funding of research through organisations


such as the Technical Cooperation Service that contribute to the planning and assessment of tourist development in a range of member countries, and contributed to the Sustainable tourism development master plan (2000-2001) for Thailand.

A few examples of potential research projects that demand funding include detailed studies of the economic benefits accrued through ecotourism in Thailand to demonstrate the value of protecting and enhancing biodiversity; and research on the carrying capacity of national parks and marine reserves.

The Association of British Travel Agents (ABTA) is the UK's Premier Trade Association for Tour Operators and Travel Agents. ABTA's travel agency offices are responsible for the sale of some 85% of UK-sold holidays. Groups such as ABTA could act as a catalyst for change in overseas tourism development by advocating tourism development and activities aimed at conserving biodiversity and minimising the use of natural resources.

Challenges The anticipated growth of tourism in Thailand is huge, the government forecasts that between 2005 and 2008, revenue from inbound tourism should surge by 15 percent annually 72, in order to ensure that no further negative impacts occur to biodiversity in Thailand stringent measures and controls will need to be put in place and adhered to. With the legislative framework as it stands, this is likely to be very difficult to achieve. The vast array of acts, regulations plans, and policies along with the distribution of responsibilities amongst a large number of government departments has led to confusion in the management structure of protected areas.

Local communities are key to the conservation of biodiversity and must be on board if initiatives to protect these resources are to be successful. A great proportion of the Thai population live within Forests that are officially owned and managed by the King and the government, this is an on-going controversy as the forests were taken back into government hands away from feudal chiefs. There is a history of conflict over the rights to natural resources and access to forests which people see as being public land.

Relatively few multinational companies dominate the tourism sector. “Few of these big companies have any long-term investments in particular destinations—even large hotel chain properties are often franchises rather than freehold properties. As such, their influence on tourism in a particular location may be much greater than their long-term commitment to that destination”73. Some companies have now seen the value of protecting biodiversity resources, to enhance the value of the product that they are selling and business reputation, whilst others have not. These companies are able to transfer resources quickly and effectively and once environmental degradation triggers a reduction in tourism, they are able to transfer to new locations. Actions such as encouraging transparency in reporting, lobbying for the use of environmental accreditation schemes and the implementation of the polluter pays principle could help to further reduce this problem.

Indicators of tourism and biodiversityIt has not been possible to obtain the latest National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Thailand for this study, so it is presently unclear what indicators and targets are being used. What is clear is that further research into the relationship between tourism and biodiversity is needed. Potential indicators that may be used to further our knowledge of this relationship could include:

Land coverage of key habitats in different regions (this may be measured in an approximate manner through the use of air photography and GIS)


Status/condition of protected areas measured and monitored over time Number of planning applications for hotels and tourist resort related

developments Condition and coverage of coral reefs / Incidents of coral disease to indicate

the health of coral reef / Coverage of algae on reefs Number of hotels linked to waste treatment facilities Number of visitors to national parks Number of dive companies operating in marine reserves Population estimates for key species Development in protected areas

1 2006/2 - 15 million visits (13% annual increase), 533,000 million Bart expenditure (International), 79 million visits (4% annual increase), 378000 million Bart expenditure (domestic) - http://www2.tat.or.th/stat/web/static_index.php2 http://www.asiamarketresearch.com/news/000305.htm3 World Tourism Organization (2001) Sustainable Tourism Development for Thailand. WTO4 http://www2.tat.or.th/stat/download/tex/20/table%20summary%202004.xls 5 http://203.150.20.55/beijing/land%20of%20smile.htm. The Thai embassy, Beijing6 Derived From Tourist Authority of Thailand Statistics7 http://www.bangkokpost.com/tourism2003/markets.html / Data derived from International Passenger Survey Data / http://203.150.20.55/beijing/land%20of%20smile.htm. The Thai embassy, Beijing8 As at January 20049 World Tourism Organization (2001) Sustainable Tourism Development for Thailand. WTO - http://www.undp.or.th/publications/documents/Sustainable_Tourism.pdf10 * = TAT’s Statistical Report, 1999, identifies 9 primary tourist destinations accounting for approximately 50% of tourist accommodation (http://www.undp.or.th/publications/documents/Sustainable_Tourism.pdf)11 http://www.tourismthailand.org/12 World Tourism Organization (2001) Sustainable Tourism Development for Thailand. WTO - http://www.undp.or.th/publications/documents/Sustainable_Tourism.pdf13 http://www.thaismile.co.uk/index.php?page=2&mode=view&id=7314 http://www.mekong-protected-areas.org/thailand/docs/thailand_nr_no_pics.pdf - ICEM, 2003. Thailand National Report on Protected Areas and Development. Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Lower Mekong River Region, Indooroopilly, Queensland, Australia. t15 Paper: Issues and Challenges of Ecotourism in the National Parks of Thailand16 Personal correspondence: IUCN Asia.17 The Thailand Tourism Report (http://www.businessmonitor.com/tourism/thailand.html) / =Travel, http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/278412/ and Tourism in Thailand 2005 Report (http://reports.mintel.com/sinatra/reports/index/&letter=20/display/id=160414&anchor=a160414)18 The World Bank (2004) Thailand Environment Monitor 2004: Biodiversity.19 http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/projects/ranong/biodiversity.html20 World Resources Institute (2002) Reefs at Risk in South East Asia - http://marine.wri.org/pubs_pdf.cfm?PubID=314421 http://marine.wri.org/pubs_pdf.cfm?PubID=314422 Ramsar COP 9 Report23 Hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), Leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea), and Olive ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea). Green Turtle24 http://www.wwfthai.org/eng/news/articles/andaman_turtle.asp25 http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0119.html26 http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/g200/g054.html27 http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildplaces/flm/about.cfm28 http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/indo_burma/29 Thailand -National report on protected areas and development30 United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre31 World Tourism Organization (2001) Sustainable Tourism Development for Thailand. WTO – (http://www.undp.or.th/publications/documents/Sustainable_Tourism.pdf)32 Mu Ko Surin and Mu Ko Similan marine national parks are recognized internationally as globally significant (UP-MSI, ABC, ARCBC, DENR, ASEAN, 2002. Marine Protected Areas in Southeast Asia. ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity

http://www2.tat.or.th/stat/download/tex/20/table%20summary%202004.xls

http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/our_solutions/endangered_species/marine_turtles/olive_ridley_turtle/index.cfm




http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/278412/

http://www.businessmonitor.com/tourism/thailand.html

http://www.mekong-protected-areas.org/thailand/docs/thailand_nr_no_pics.pdf

http://203.150.20.55/beijing/land%20of%20smile.htm

http://www.bangkokpost.com/tourism2003/markets.html%20/

http://203.150.20.55/beijing/land%20of%20smile.htm


Resources allocated to biodiversity initiatives by the government The development of Thailand’s Biodiversity Information Network

Publications such as the national reports to the CBD and Ramsar offer some valuable information on the condition, current uses and threats to habitats and sites of international importance, and could provide good sources of information.

Production of the case studyThis case study was researched using desk-based studies and was further informed by secondary data and consultation with specialist groups including the WWF, IUCN Netherlands and IUCN Thailand. The key stages of the study were as follows:

Identification of UK tourist Flows to Thailand Research into the proportion of total tourism in Thailand that could be

attributed to the UK Identification of the destinations and activities of UK tourists in Thailand Identification of sensitive ecosystems in Thailand General research into the effects of tourism on biodiversity Evidence of the impacts of tourism on biodiversity in Thailand Cross-referencing of sensitive ecosystems and key tourist destinations Identification of mitigation measures in place in Thailand and other countries

The identification of UK tourist flows to Thailand looked at both the number of visitors, and visitor days in order to account for greater use of resources over longer stays. The evidence of impacts on biodiversity was gathered from a range of documents, reports and consultation with experts. A desk study into the impacts of tourism on biodiversity could be endless, and some examples may have been missed from this study, but this aspect was restricted by time and expert judgement had to be used in making the most reliable choice of information sources. The cross-referencing of sensitive systems against key destinations was achieved through the use of GIS.

Assumptions on the impacts of UK tourism on biodiversity in Thailand were based on the proportion of total tourism in Thailand that could be attributed to the UK. This does not take account of the varying distribution of UK tourists within Thailand. The lack of data showing the flows of UK tourists within Thailand means that it is difficult to accurately attribute the proportion of impacts from tourism on biodiversity for the UK. There has been no in-depth investigation into how events such as the outbreak of SARS in Asia and the Tsunami in December 2004 may have affected tourism trends in Thailand.

Conservation, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Los Baños, Philippines)33 Ramsar sites are wetlands designated as internationally important under the Convention on Wetlands, under one or more of 8 key criteria (see http://www.ramsar.org/key_criteria.htm)34 World Heritage Sites are sites that are considered to be of outstanding natural or cultural value to humanity. World Heritage sites are designated by countries that have agreed to an international treaty called the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted by UNESCO in 1972.35 RAMSAR COP9 National Report - Thailand36 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity / http://www.unescap.org/DRPAD/VC/orientation/M3anx_th_cbd_imp.htm37 Calculated for GIS data retrieved from www.reefbase.org38 http://www.info.tdri.or.th/library/quarterly/text/j97_2.htm39 All Ramsar information and data has been drawn from Ramsar site reports located at http://www.wetlands.org/RSDB/default.htm40 Brandon 1996 in Christ. C, Hillel. O, Matus. S, Sweeting. J (2003) Tourism and biodiversity: Mapping Tourism’s Global Footprint. Conservation International.

http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=175

http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=175

http://www.ramsar.org/


There is little definitive data to indicate changes in habitat coverage in Thailand, and even less scientific analysis directly attributing impacts of tourism to biodiversity. Much of the evidence is anecdotal. Furthermore, tourism is likely to contribute to other types of impact that have been included within other categories such as urban extension and the release of untreated waste into the sea, it has not been possible to evaluate these impacts in detail for this case study. Although reports on the impacts of tourism on biodiversity at a global level exist, there are no such reports available at a national level for Thailand.

This case study has principally focussed on the negative impacts of tourism on biodiversity. The positive effects of tourism in terms of financial contribution and awareness raising are widely recognised. This decision was made to enable an investigation of sufficient depth. This is a significant limitation to the study, and further research into this area should be conducted.

41 http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f00/web3/hayesconroyj3.html42 Dr. Robert Mather (2003) Report on Marine Turtle Conservation WWF Thailand43 World Tourism Organization (2001) Sustainable Tourism Development for Thailand. WTO44 Building infrastructure for access to tourist developments may have implications. Studies have shown that road building in Northern Thailand may promote land clearance. Cropper. Puri. Griffiths (2001) How the Location of Roads Affects Deforestation in Northern Thailand. World bank45 UNEP/ WCMC (2006) In the Front Line: Shoreline Protection and other ecosystem services from mangroves and coral reefs. UNEP / WCMC46 http://www.oceansatlas.org/servlet/CDSServlet?status=ND0xODAwOCY2PWVuJjMzPSomMzc9a29z47 Wilkinson.C (2004) Status of Coral Reefs of South East Asia. Australian Institute of Marine Science & the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network48 Marine Protected Areas in Southeast Asia. ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Los Baños, Philippines.49 http://www.thaismile.co.uk/index.php?page=6750 Source: Tourism Concern - http://www.uneptie.org/pc/tourism/sust-tourism/env-3main.htm51 http://www.mekong-protected-areas.org/thailand/n_report.htm52 http://www.mekong-protected-areas.org/thailand/n_report.htm53 Ramsar COP9 National Report - Thailand54 UP-MSI ABC, ARCBC, DENR, ASEAN, 2002. Marine Protected Areas in Southeast Asia. ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Los Baños, Philippines.55 Sweeting. J, Bruner. A, Rosenfeld. A (1999) The Green Host Effect: An integrated approach to sustainable tourism and resort development. Conservation International56 http://sea.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/dongphay.html57 Although such actions may only have minor impact, over time and in large numbers the impact becomes significant (UNEP/WCMC, 2006).58 Hawkins et.al, 1999 in UNEP/ WCMC (2006) In the Front Line: Shoreline Protection and other ecosystem services from mangroves and coral reefs. UNEP / WCMC59 World Tourism Organization (2001) Sustainable Tourism Development for Thailand. WTO60 Wilkinson.C (2004) Status of Coral Reefs of South East Asia. Australian Institute of Marine Science & the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network61 Thailand Environment Report 2004. World Bank62 The field study for Thailand focuses on two provinces, Rayong and Chanthabur -a river sub-basin containing Khao Chamao - Khao Wong National Park, with a focus on tourism and water supply and quality - http://www.mekong-protected-areas.org/thailand/field.htm63 World Tourism Organization (2001) Sustainable Tourism Development for Thailand. WTO64 http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/fijitourism.pdf65 Sweeting. J, Bruner. A, Rosenfeld. A (1999) The Green Host Effect: An integrated approach to sustainable tourism and resort development. Conservation International66 Christ. C, Hillel. O, Matus. S, Sweeting. J (2003) Tourism and biodiversity: Mapping Tourism’s Global Footprint. Conservation International. 67 ICEM, 2003. Thailand National Report on Protected Areas and Development. Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Lower Mekong River Region, Indooroopilly, Queensland, Australia. 68 The World Bank (2004) Thailand Environment Monitor 2004: Biodiversity.69 Christ et.al (2003) 70 The National Report on the Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity: Thailand

http://www.tourismconcern.org.uk/


It should be acknowledged that impacts on biodiversity are not limited to political boundaries, and that impacts outside the boundaries of Thailand may also have an effect on ecosystems within Thailand. This aspect has not been investigated in any depth, however other countries within Southeast Asia are experiencing even greater growth in tourism and have less of a capacity to protect biodiversity and valuable ecosystems.

Source CommentsThe Office of National Statistics – International Passenger Survey - http://www.statistics.gov.uk/ssd/surveys/international_passenger_survey.asp

UK government body with the primary objective of collecting and disseminating statistics on a range of issues. The IPS survey has a relatively large sample size and provides confidence levels.

WWF and WWF Thailand - www.worldwildlife.org and www.wwfthai.org

An international NGO whose primary interest is the protection of biodiversity. Provides some primary data and supplies a range of research documents sourcing both primary and secondary data. The WWF have a brand/reputation to protect.

Conservation International - www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB

International Organisation

IUCN - www.iucn.org International OrganisationThe Association of British Travel Agents -www.abta.com Over 1000 tour operators are members of ABTA,

which holds information/statistics on travel trends, initiatives and tour operators. Survey work draws from ABTA’s own surveys and in house information, and also from other industry sources. ABTA is a recognized brand with a reputation to protect. The aims of the association include the promotion of the tourism industry. Information is collated from varying sources and details on the methods of collection are not clear.

The World Resources Institute - www.wri.org “The World Resources Institute (WRI) is an environmental think tank that goes beyond research to create practical ways to protect the Earth and improve people’s lives”, favouring environmental protection. Provides a vast quantity of GIS data and other statistics. Data is collated from a range of different sources.

Source CommentsThe Convention on Biodiversity (Including Guidance on tourism and Biodiversity) - http://www.biodiv.org/default.shtml

Set up to drive forward and monitor the agenda for biodiversity protection. Collates country reports, the robustness of which are unclear and based on varying data sources and approaches.

The Tour Operators Initiative - www.toinitiative.org An international initiative supported by UNEP / UNESC / WTO. Promotion of sustainable tourism and tools to aid sustainable tourism. Primarily an initiative to provide examples of good practice as opposed to supplying tourism data. Encourages ‘sustainability reporting’.

The Tourism Authority of Thailand- www.tourismthailand.org / www.tat.or.th / thaismile.co.uk

The Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT), established in 1960, is the first organization in Thailand to be responsible specifically for the promotion of tourism. TAT supplies information and data on tourist areas to the public, publicizes Thailand so as to encourage Thai and international tourists to travel in Thailand, conducts studies to set development plans for tourist

71 Bugna. S, Rambaldi, G (2001) A review of the protected area system of Thailand. ASEAN Biodiversity72 http://www.boi.go.th/english/how/tid_detail.asp?id=173873 Christ. C, Hillel. O, Matus. S, Sweeting. J (2003) Tourism and biodiversity: Mapping Tourism’s Global Footprint. Conservation International.

http://www.tat.or.th/

http://www.tourismthailand.org/

http://www.toinitiative.org/

http://www.biodiv.org/default.shtml

http://www.wri.org/

http://www.iucn.org/

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/ssd/surveys/international_passenger_survey.asp

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/ssd/surveys/international_passenger_survey.asp

http://www.boi.go.th/english/how/tid_detail.asp?id=1738


areas, and co-operates with and supports the production and development of personnel in the field of tourism. Unclear on the methods used to collect data.

ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation - www.arcbc.org.ph

“An intergovernmental organization of ASEAN that will encourage and enable ASEAN Member Countries to meet the millennium development goal to reduce biodiversity loss.” Runs a program of scientific research.

World Tourism Organization - www.world-tourism.org Serves as a global forum for tourism policy issues and practical source of tourism know-how. Has a section devoted to statistics and economic measurement of tourism, and sets international standards for tourism measurement and reporting. Comprehensive source of data for tourism trends.

Tourism Concern - www.tourismconcern.org.uk NGO working to reduce social and environmental problems connected to tourism. Not so much a data source but a campaigning organisation.

United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre - www.unep-wcmc.org

“UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre provides biodiversity information for policy and action to conserve the living world.” Data is collated from varying sources.

Reefbase - www.reefbase.org Detailed publications and GIS data on global reef resources. ReefBase is the official database of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) and the International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN).

Data reliability Statistics on the flows of UK residents to Thailand, obtained from the office of national statistics (IPS), are sample based and do not offer 100% confidence. The confidence levels are largely dependent on the sample size for each country. The 95% confidence intervals for the Thailand sample was relatively low compared with the majority of samples for other countries. This indicates that confidence in the IPS data for Thailand is greater relative to the data collected on other destinations. Generally the confidence levels for visitor nights were lower than for visitor numbers because of an additional layer of calculations.

The methodology used to collate the data obtained through the Tourism Authority of Thailand is not available, and no confidence intervals were provided with the datasets. It was therefore not possible to analyse the reliability of this data.

Although an indication of key tourist destinations was used in this case study, there is no data on the number of tourists visiting each destination. Consequently it has not been possible to compare the magnitude of impacts at each destination. More detailed data and mapping of the land coverage of tourist development and the number of visitors to different destinations would assist in providing an indication of the spatial distribution of tourism impacts.

It has not been possible to ascertain how data showing the number of visitors to national parks was ascertained. Sources for such data are likely to include registered tour operators and tourist resorts operating within national parks. There may however be further companies operating within national parks that have not been identified by these surveys.

Much of the mapping data used in this study was point based (i.e. Tourist destinations and Ramsar sites) and did not always offer an accurate spatial representation of development or sensitive ecological areas. The resolution of some of the GIS data was also poor and therefore detracts from the accuracy of the assessment.

http://www.icran.org/

http://www.gcrmn.org/

http://www.unep-wcmc.org/

http://www.unep-wcmc.org/



http://www.world-tourism.org/

http://www.arcbc.org.ph/


Research organisations and datasets such as ‘Reefs at Risk’ offer standardised scientific surveys identifying the status of reefs, and will provide information of trends over time. Such data is likely to offer a more accurate picture of impacts to habitats as more data is collated over time.

There appear to be some inconsistencies in reporting of data. This concerns particular variables such as number of visits to national parks, and the status of habitats at risk. It is difficult to ascertain which sources are the most reliable. However, some data sources offer more detailed information on how data was collated than others, and the financial backing and cooperation of respected organisations in certain research projects does give an indication of data reliability. In assessing the robustness of this case study, irregularities and inconsistencies between source documents should be taken into account.

Robustness of case study findingsThe robustness of this study is limited due to the lack of quantifiable information relating tourism impacts on biodiversity, and the failure to directly link UK tourism to areas in which impacts are experienced. Most evidence linking tourism to impacts on biodiversity appears to provide a general indication of the most urgent problems, generally based on expert judgement. A lot of this evidence is based on anecdotal evidence without any scientific measurement of the level of impacts directly resulting from tourism.

These limitations are in part difficult to remedy due to the complex nature of tourism impacts on biodiversity. However further studies of the interactions between various aspects of tourism activity and biodiversity, and into the flows and types of tourism that UK residents participate in could help to improve robustness.

The organisations that have undertaken research and published documents relating to this subject have varying aims and objectives from absolute promotion of tourism for economic reasons, to an exclusive interest in the protection of biodiversity. Valuation of the impacts of tourism on biodiversity is often based on perception of risks and the interests of the parties involved. These stakeholders may have a different view on the severity and value of impacts, and this should be considered in assessing the robustness of this study.

This study has been useful in highlighting the impacts of tourism on biodiversity, with some specific examples of tourism impacts in Thailand that are difficult to dispute. A further merit of the study has been in the identification of data gaps. These need to be filled to provide a robust evidence base for the formation of legislation, planning decisions and management procedures. This case study provides a tool for directing future research, and should help to narrow the scope of future studies. Four areas have been identified for future studies: particular habitats and protected areas that the suffer the most significant impacts from tourism (e.g. Coral reef), particular issues such as the limited carrying capacity of national parks; studies on tourism activity growth areas (e.g. ecotourism, golfing holidays and diving); and issues relating to the use of natural resources.

The results of this study can be generalised to other tourist destinations, and many of the issues considered here will apply elsewhere. Many of the data sources and key contacts/organisations used here will also provide useful information on tourism and biodiversity in other countries.

In the long-term the success and sustainability of tourism directly depends upon the protection of biodiversity and natural places. It is in the interests of all stakeholders to seek the most sustainable approach to tourism.


Author & reviewer:Andrew Luke, Scott Wilson, March 2006.

Reviewed by Jonathon Loh, Living Planet and Victoria Wood, Scott Wilson, March 2006.

Acknowledgements: Jonathon Loh, Living Planet

Mr. Janaka A. de Silva, IUCN Asia

SCP Evidence Base Case Study Proforma

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Transcript of SCP Evidence Base Case Study Proforma