Scientific Writing Jun2012

7/31/2019 Scientific Writing Jun2012

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Writing a Scientific Paper: General Principles

NH RaoNational Academy of Agricultural Research Management,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

http://www.icar.org.in/




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India: MS submissions and acceptance rates

• India’s share of submissions has increased by 2.2% (next only to China’s 5.5%)• < 20% of submissions were accepted in 2005-10 (lowest 3 countries)• acceptance rates are coming down

Source: Thomson-Reuters, April 2012

global




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• “Writing papers is a central part of research. If your research does not

generate papers, it might just as well not have been done. “interesting and unpublished” is equivalent to non -existent.

• your objective in research is to formulate and test hypotheses, todraw conclusions from the tests and to teach these conclusions toothers. Your objective is not to collect data

• A paper is not just an archival device for storing a completed researchprogram. It is also a structure for your research in progress. If youclearly understand the purpose and form of research it can beimmensely useful to you in organizing and conducting your research “

(Whitesides, 2004; > 1100 papers; 124 patents, h index >100)

General principles - Purpose

“The goal of scientific research is publication” (Robert Day, 1988)




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General principles - definition

• The first publication describing original research results

• In a form whereby peers of the author can:• assess observations• repeat the experiments and test the conclusions

• evaluate the intellectual processes• In a journal or other source document readily available in the scientific

community

Source: How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper,

6th edition, by Robert A. Day and Barbara Gastel(Greenwood Press/Cambridge University Press, 2006)




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A scientific paper must be written in a certain way and it must bepublished in a certain way, as defined by three centuries of developingtradition, editorial practice, scientific ethics, and the interplay of printing

and publishing proceduresDay, 1988




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General principles - Organization

• Writing a scientific paper is largely a matter of organization – structure - to meetthe needs of valid publication

• Highly stylized with distinctive component parts

• The front matter – Title, Authors, Abstract, key words• Title: fewest possible words to adequately indicate contents; Important in

literature searching• Authors: those with important intellectual contributions to the work

• Abstract/Summary: paper in miniature, complete within itself• Main body: Standard IMRAD Format for Scientific Papers (Introduction,

Methods, Research [and] Discussion) 1. Introduction: What was the question?2. Methods: How did you try to answer it?

3. Results: What did you find?4. Discussion: What does it mean?• Note : People read sections in various orders; and tables and figures

independently of text (each section needs to be independent and at the sametime all sections must form an integrated unit)




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• key to scientific writing is clarity ; particularly since it is a firstcommunication of original work contributing to new knowledge

• the best English is that which gives the sense in the fewest short words – no room for ornamentation

• most important requirement is reproducibility – this is what makes scientificwriting unique

• poor writing prevents or delays the publication of good science

General principles - clarity




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• snapshot of the complete paper

• comprises four distinct components:

• problem studied – significance, hypothesis, objectives(What problem did you study and why is it important ?)

• methods/approach used

(What methods did you use?)

• principal results obtained (What were your principal results?)

• summary of the conclusions reached (What conclusions can you draw from your results about the problem you studied?)

Abstract

Short abstract ?one sentence answers

Longer abstract ?several sentence answers

One page abstract ?One paragraph answers

• make sentences as specific and as quantitative as possible

• Write the abstract after you’ve finished the paper as writing is an evolutionary process, and the focus or emphasis of a paper may change during the writing

Source: Effective Abstracts, Celia M. Elliott, 2012




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Dryland Grain Sorghum Water Use, Light Interception, and Growth Responses to Planting GeometryJ.L. Steiner*

ABSTRACTProblem/ Rationale

Crop yields are primarily water-limited under dryland production systems in semiaridregions.

Objectives / hypothesis

This study was conducted to determine whether the growing-season water balance couldbe manipulated through planting geometry.

Method The effects of row spacing, row direction, and plant population on the water use, lightinterception, and growth of grain sorghum [ Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] wereinvestigated at Bushland, TX, on a Pullman clay loam (fine, mixed, superactive thermicTorrertic Paleustoll).

Results In 1983, which had a dry growing season, narrow-row spacing and higher populationincreased seasonal evapotranspiration (ET) by 7 and 9%, respectively, and shifted thepartitioning of ET to the vegetative period. Medium population crops yielded 6.2 and 2.3Mg ha – 1 of dry matter and grain, respectively. High population resulted in high dry matter

(6.1 Mg ha – 1) and low grain yield (1.6 Mg ha – 1), whereas low population resulted in low drymatter (5.4 Mg ha – 1) and high grain yield (2.3 Mg ha – 1). Row direction did not affect wateruse or yield. In 1984, dry matter production for a given amount of ET and light interceptionwas higher in the narrow-row crops. Evapotranspiration was less for a given amount oflight interception in the narrow-row crops and in the north – south row crops.

conclusion Narrow-row planting geometry appears to increase the partitioning of ET to thetranspiration component and may improve the efficiency of dryland cropping systems.

Structure of Abstract(model abstract- ASA-CSSA-SSAA Style Guide)




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Introduction

• Purpose : introduce the paper by providing background needed to understandthe paper and appreciate its importance ( In general, should be fairly short)

• Suggested rules (Day, 1988; Elliott, 2012):

• Give background so that reader can understand the nature and scope ofproblem (why did you do the work: motivations/importance),

• Review pertinent literature; back all statements of fact with a reference

• State the method of investigation – including reasons• State the principal results

• State the principal conclusion

• present only information that is relevant to the experiment

• It should be very clear where the background ends and your new workbegins – this is important

• In effect, a roadmap from problem to solution

• Typically should be funnel-shaped, moving from general to specific




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Methods

• Purpose : description of your work to allow others to replicate and to evaluatewhat you did (crucial as this is where the validity of the results is judged)

• Should describe the study design, materials, measurements, tests

• Should identify (if applicable)

• Equipment, organisms, reagents, etc used (and sources thereof)

• Approval of human or animal research by an appropriate committee

• How measurements were made and calculations were done

• Statistical methods/tests

• May include tables and figures

• An issue: level of detail in which to describe• Well-known methods• Methods previously described but not well known• Methods that you yourself devised

• use papers published in the same journal as models

Source: Writing a Scientific Paper: Basics of Content andOrganization Barbara Gastel, MD, MPH; Elliott, 2012)




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Results • Purpose : Objectively present key results without any interpretation;

(foundation for Discussion) – needs discrimination

• Present in an orderly, logical sequence with text, and tables & figures, or both

• Organize sections around tables/figures

• Introduce a Table or Figure in the text before you show it

• Important negative results must be reported; gives the basis for a good

discussion section • An issue: how much the information in the text should overlap with that in the

tables and figures – minimize overlap

• Design tables and figures to be understandable without the text

• Use the same formats for all tables of a series

• Avoid including too much information in one figure

• Should present results but not comment on them

• Combine with Discussion ?

Source: Writing a Scientific Paper: Basics of Content and Organization, Barbara Gastel: Elliott 2012)




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References

• Functions:

• To give credit

• To add credibility

• To help readers find further information

• Important to be accurate

• reference formats vary with journals

Source: Writing a Scientific Paper:Basics of Content and Organization

Barbara Gastel, MD, MPH




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• writing should be clear , concise , and complete

• Clear writing: short, active sentences; simple tenses; active voice.

• Concise writing: frugal use of words; shorter, simpler words.• Complete writing: difficult in technical work; fine line between writing

everything an article needs to be logically complete and writing morethan is necessary; definitions of symbols, notations; effective use ofcitations help

Style (3 Cs)




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• Good writing starts with good structure (sections (IMRAD) ; subsections,paragraphs

• List of the main points that are relevant to the section/subsection - topicsentences

• arrange topic sentences in a sequence so that each successive point isrelated to and builds on the previous point

• the topic sentences provide the framework for each section• construct the paragraph

• Rule: one topic sentence - one paragraph• begin each paragraph with the topic sentence (note: readers pay the

most attention to the beginning sentences of paragraphs)• explain and expand on the idea in the topic sentence; give examples• summarize such that it leads logically to the next paragraph• write short paragraphs ( 8 - 10 sentences)• ensure balance in paragraph structure

Style – constructing effective paragraphs

Source: CM Elliott, 2012; http://online.physics.uiuc.edu/courses/Phys496/Spring12/Lectures/




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Suggested reading:

Robert Barass: Scientists must write

“There is a definite rhythm in sentences. Read what you have written,and change the wording if it does not flow smoothly”.

If the proof of the pudding is in the eating, then the proof of the writingis in the reading. Follow this rule above all.”

Writing is a creative process




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Peer Review process

• anonymous - double blind

• editor chooses reviewers – increasingly authors are being asked tosuggest a few names

• decision on publication is editor’s

• vast majority of papers are advised to be revised – major revision,

minor revision• provide a point by point response on resubmission

• rejection rates of good journals are high (> 50%)

• editor and reviewers are usually on your side – trying to help you topublish good science

• reviews can be used to advantage by the authors in revisingscripts/work




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• “Plagiarism is scientific dishonesty” • What constitutes plagiarism:

• “Submitting another’s published or unpublished work, in whole, in part, or inparaphrase, as one’s own without properly crediting the author by footnotes,citations, or bibliographical reference• Submitting material that has been produced through unacknowledgedcollaboration with others as one’s own original work without written release fromcollaborators• Submitting material obtained from an individual or agency as one’s own originalwork without reference to the person or agency as the source of the material”

Guard against Plagiarism

“ Tips for avoiding plagiarism :• Study the original text until you fully understand its meaning• Set aside the original and write a summary of the text in your own words

• Check your version with the original to ensure that the meaning has beenretained

• Enclose any text or phrase that you have reproduced exactly in quotationmarks

• Cite the source! ” Source: Cooper SL and Elliott CM, 2012; Avoidingplagiarism, University of Illinois:

http://online.physics.uiuc.edu/courses/Phys496/Spring12/Lectures/Plagiarism.pdf


Scientific Writing Jun2012

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