UNIT10: Science, Technology and

Ethics

Ethics: A system of moral principle or

values

Principle: A basic truth, law, or

assumption

Value: A principle, standard, or quality

considered worthwhile

Focus of Ethical Dilemmas in S&T

Ethical issues related to science and

technology usually focus on the

following:

Medicine

Military

Economics

Ethics in Medicine:

Biotechnology

Cloning

Gene Therapy

Altering species for enhanced

production, e.g., growth hormone

Medicine

Transplants

Life Extending Machines

Fertility

Ethics and the Military

Weapons of Mass Destruction

Nuclear Testing

Human subjects in Military Experiments, i.e.,

Chemical Warfare, LSD, Nuclear testing

Ethics and Economics

Pollution for Profit

Whistle Blowers

Monopolies

Advertising

Buying Influence

Ethical Decision Making in S&T

Generally ethical issues can be usefully clarified if the following considerations to ethical decision and judgment making are applied.

1. The facts of the matter

2. Affected Patients and Their Interests (all affected parties)

3. Key concepts, criteria, and principles (What is life? What does it mean to kill)

4. Ethical Theories and Arguments

Ethical Theories and Arguments

The theories and arguments for ethical behavior in science and technology have developed over many centuries. The sources and foundations for our ethical and moral behavior are usually traced to religion, family, schools, employers, moral leaders, even ancient philosophers. Generally speaking our ethical decisions can be associated with one

of three models ethical decision making. Teleology (Consequence Ethics)

Deontology (Duty Ethics)

Personal Ethics

Teleology (Consequence Ethics)

Teleology (Consequence Ethics): determination of rightness or wrongness based on consequences .

Utilitarianism - the view that an action or policy is right if and only if it is likely to produce at least as great a surplus of good over evil consequences as any available alternative

Hedonic Utilitarians: 19th century, Jeremy Bentham, Pleasure is the only good and pain the only bad

Ideal Utilitarians: Friendship and beauty (good) and opposites, alienation and ugliness (bad)

Deontology (Duty Ethics)

Deontology (duty ethics): Certain actions are

inherently or intrinsically right or wrong - that

is, right or wrong regardless of

consequences. For example, telling lies or

breaking a promise are intrinsically wrong,

regardless of the consequences

Six Classifications of S&T Ethical Conflicts

1. Violation of Established World Orders: (Natural or Social Order of Things):

2. Violations of Supposedly Exception less Moral Principles

3. Distribution of Science or Technology Related Benefits

4. Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant Risks of Harm without Prior Consent

5. Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant Risks of Harm without Prior Consent

6. Science or Technology-Engendered “Positive Rights”

Violation of Established World Orders: (Natural

or Social Order of Things):

Some ethical conflicts arise from the fact that scientific

or technological breakthroughs make possible

actions that some believe violate some “established

natural or social order.”

Biomedicine

Genetic Engineering

In vitro fertilization

Animal Science:Transgenic Animals (Beefalo,

etc.) Bovine Growth Hormone

Ethical Responses to Violations of Established World

Orders: (Natural or Social Order of Things):

Teleologists: Concern for safety of humans who consume from

an “unnatural alliance”

Deontologists: The “natural order of things” is intrinsically good.

Technology is seen as artificial, therefore, its use to change the

natural order is bad.

Those in favor of this technology might counter by saying that God

created the natural order. Humans are part of the natural order.

Therefore, intervention of humans is natural.

Some opposition to intervention in the “natural” or “social” order is

based on “sacredness”.

Examples: Hasidic Community of Brooklyn, NY. Birth control is

forbidden on the basis of the Torah. Wahibi Muslim sect. TV

violates sacred order related to the Koran.

Violations of Supposedly Exception less

Moral Principles

Ethical issues related to the use, failure to use, or

withdrawal of particular scientific or technological

procedures that are seen by some as violating one or

another important moral principles that is believed

exception less.

Examples:

1. Any course of action sure to result in the destruction of

innocent civilian lives in time of war is ethically

impermissible. Iraq

2. Life must always be preserved (Kavorkian)

3. A human being must never be treated merely as a means to

an end (harvesting of fetal tissue).

Distribution of Science or Technology Related

Benefits

Benefits of developments in science and technology allocated in ways that do not seem equitable to one or another social groups; particularly so with respect to medical benefits, whether diagnostic tests, surgical procedures, or therapeutic drugs devices or services.

The ethical issue often centers on “who should receive the benefits and who will not.” Often life and death decisions.

Example: Transplant criteria often based on middle class values.

1. Motivated to save life

2. Understands the benefits

3. Capable of adhering to strict diet

4. Show up for post transplant appointments

5. Post treatment quality of life

6. Contribution of treatment candidate to community

Ethical Responses to Distribution of Science or

Technology Related Benefits

Deontologists: Medical care is a basic human right, therefore, it is

morally unthinkable to deny a person treatment simply because

of socio-economic status.

Teleologists: May find the concept of “absolute right” potentially

dangerous; that is that guaranteeing everyone who needs an

expensive exotic treatment may preclude many more individuals

from getting less expensive, more beneficial, non-life-or-death

treatments. Individuals do not have the moral right to draw,

without limit, on public or insurance company funds to have their

lives extended, regardless of the quality sustained life.

Infliction of Harm or Exposure to Significant

Risks of Harm without Prior Consent

Developments in science and technology while

undertaken to benefit one group, may inflict harm or

impose significant risk of harm on another without the

latter’s prior consent.

Examples: Research on animals; production of cross-

border and multi generational pollution; the

maintenance of carcinogen - containing workplaces;

and the operation of hair trigger military defense

systems.

Responses to Infliction of Harm or Exposure to

Significant Risks of Harm without Prior Consent

Teleologists: on cost-benefit grounds, activities that

promise future benefits for humans but inflict

suffering on animals are ethically permissible and

perhaps obligatory.

Rationale: since animals cannot consent to anything,

they are different in a moral ly relevant respect from

humans.

Deontologists: Research using animals as morally

wrong because animals are not capable of

consenting.

Science or Technology Precipitated Value

Conflicts:

Scientific or technological advances allow something

new to be done that precipitates a value conflict.

Example: Human life preservation and death with

dignity. The critical point is that this conflict would not

exist without technology.

Example: Genetic tests showing predisposition for

certain diseases. Should disclosure be made? What

actions are appropriate?

Science or Technology-Engendered “Positive

Rights

Irrevocable Entitlements: Right to “life” and “liberty”

Privacy is a part of liberty. Technology is often

perceived as a threat to rights of privacy.

Other Issues: Ethics in Science and Technology

Public Harm of Aggregation: Accumulation of small

transgressions by human’s results in an aggregation

that has significant consequences.

Example: The aggregate pollution of 400 million

automobiles.

Practitioner Problems:

Falling within the province of “Professional Ethics” we

often rely, perhaps unfairly, on the scientist or

technologist to make the “ethical decision”

Other Issues: Ethics in Science and Technology

(cont.)

Problems of Execution: Edward Wenk’s three kinds of ethical issues faced by engineers;

1. Distributive Justice: Should a project be given approval if a non trivial degree of risk to health and safety could exist without the consent of those within the impact area?

Examples: Hydroelectric dam in an unstable area. Dilemma often relates to what constitutes “acceptable risk”

1932, U.S. Public Health Service, 432 Black Males

1950s CIA, “mind controlling experiments”

1949-1969 Biological Warfare, 239 tests

2. Whistle Blowing: Cheap unreliable designs; testing shortcuts; misrepresented results; faulty manufacturing; botched installations, etc.

Example: Morton Thiokal - O-rings 1986 Challenger

3. Consideration of Long-term Effects:

Example: Half-life of nuclear waste, Design of Obsolescence

The Challenge of Contemporary Science and

Technology to Traditional Ethical Theory

Developments in contemporary science and technology require

revisions in traditional ethical thinking and decision making.

McGinn Proposal

Qualified Neo Consequntialism: Assessments must have the following Neo Consequentialist Qualities:

1. Focused on harm and well-being: directed to identifying and weighing the importance of consequences likely to influence the harm or well being of affected patients

2. Refined: designed to be sensitive to subtle effects

3. Comprehensive: designed to attend to all harm and well being related effects - social, cultural, as well as economic and physical on all participants.

4. Discriminating: Designed to enable scientific and technological options to be examined on a case-by-case basis.

5. Prudent: Embodying and attitude toward safety