Science & Technology:

Ancient India

Synopsis

1. Introduction

2. Mathematics (Maths,Algebra,Geometry; Contributions of

Aryabhatta,Varahamihira,Brahmagupta,Mahaviracharya &

Bhaskara)

3. Astronomy

4. Physics

5. Chemistry

6. Metallurgy

7.Medicine & diffusion of medical knowledge

8.Reasons for decline of S & T in Ancient India.

1. Introduction:

• Ancient Indian scientists knew about the techniques of

observation, experimentation and analysis.

• Mathematics, astronomy, astrology, physics, Chemistry,

metallurgy, medicine, etc; made matchless progress in ancient

India.

2. Mathematics

• Grid system and vertical alignment of buildings in the

Harappan cities indicates that Plumb Bob or a similar

instrument was used.

• In the field of mathematics the ancient Indians made 3 distinct

contributions, viz;the notation system,the decimal system and

the use of zero.

Plum Bob

• The Indian notation system was adopted by the Arabs who

spread it in the western world.

• The Indian numerals are called as Arabic numerals in English,

but the Arabs themselves called their numerals as Hindsa.

• Indian numerals are seen in the inscriptions of Ashoka, which

were engraved in the third century B.C.

• The Indian decimal system was the manifestation of the

Buddhists-The Chinese learnt it through the Buddhist

missionaries-The western world borrowed it from the Arabs.

• Zero was discovered by the Indians in about 200 BC-The

Arabs learnt and adopted it from India and spread it in Europe.

• In Western Europe the knowledge of Algebra was borrowed

not from the Greeks but from the Arabs who had acquired it

from India.

• In 200 BC,Apasthambha produced a Practical Geometry for

the construction of altars at which the kings could offer

sacrifices-It describes acute angle, right angle and obtuse

angle.

❑ Gupta Age-tremendous developments in mathematics &

astronomy.

• Brahmanical and Buddhist educational institutions played a

prominent part in this connection.

• Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and Brahmagupta were the most

outstanding mathematicians and astronomers of the Gupta age.

❑Aryabhatta's Contribution

• He wrote Aryabhatiyam,a treatise on astronomy and

arithmetic

i. Astronomy was recognised as a separate discipline from

mathematics due to him.

ii. He formulated some rules for the calculation of eclipses and

discovered solutions for some of the problems in Spatial

Astronomy.

iii.He was the first to hold the view that the earth was a sphere

and it rotates on its axis.

iv. He said eclipses were caused by the shadow of the earth

falling on the moon and sun.

v. He explained the variations in the planetary motions by

introducing epicyclical theory.

vi. His equation of Spherical Trigonometry to find out the right

ascension and declination of any point of the ecliptic sphere is

also correct.

vii. He calculated Pi to 3,1416 and the length of the solar year to

365, 3586805 days, both remarkably close to recent estimates.

viii.Aryabhatta calculated the correct angular diameter of the

earth's shadow at the moon orbit, and he knew how to find out

half the duration of an eclipse and the total obscuration.

ix. He also framed a rule to ascertain what part of the moon will

be observed in an eclipse.

❑Varahamihira's Contribution

• He was a great astronomer, mathematician and astrologer who

lived in the Gupta age.

i. He divided astronomy into 3 branches, viz; astronomy,

astrology and horoscopy.

ii. He emphasised more on astrology rather than on astronomy.

iii. He wrote Brihatsamhita,Yogayatra,Samasasamhita and

PanchaSiddhantika.

• His astronomical achievements influenced Greek astronomy to

a very great extent.

• The works of Varahamihira were translated into Arabic by

Alberuni.

❑Brahmagupta• Born in 598 AD, carried on investigations in the famous

observatory at Ujjain.

• He wrote Brahma-sphuta-Siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka

• He wrote about factors and integers,progressions,Rule of three, simple interest and mensuration of plane figures.

• He also formulated the rules for the negative numbers in algebra and made important contributions in quadratic and indeterminate equations.

❑Mahavira or Mahaviracharya

• A mathematician who lived in mid-9th century AD in the court

of Amoghavarsha Nrupatunga of the Rashtrakuta dynasty

• He wrote Ganitasastrasangraha which contained numerous

problems involving series,radicals and equations.

❑Bhaskara (12 AD) of Ujjain

• Was the last mathematician of ancient India-He was also

specialized in astronomy.

• He wrote Lilavati which was translated into Persian during the

Mughal rule.

• He is credited with having anticipated Newton’s theories in the

discovery of the principles of Differential Calculus and its

application to astronomical problems.

• He also proved mathematically that infinity however, divided

remains infinite.

3. Astronomy:

• In Ancient India, religion and science were linked.

• The Vedic religion enjoined the performance of various sacrifices in different seasons of the year and knowledge of astronomy therefore was cultivated with the main idea of discovering proper time for commencing and ending such sacrifices.

• Astronomy progressed because planets came to be regarded as gods. Hence,their movements began to be closely observed.

• The study of Astronomy became essential on account of their connection with the change in seasons and weather conditions which were important for agricultural activities.

• Deep sea navigation for over-seas trade required a reliable study of the stars too.

• Fa-Hien:Scientific methods were known to the shipmen of the 5th century A.D. to direct their ships; they knew the direction in the nights by the position of the stars and in the day time by the sun.

❑ Bhaskara I wrote important works of Astronomy like

Laghubhaskariya and Mahabhaskariya.

4. Physics

• The ancient Indians made brilliant conceptions and sound

hypothesis concerning matter and energy, in different schools

of Indian philosophy.

• The atomic theory wass profounded by Kapila (founder of

Sankya philosophy) and Kanada (founder of Vaisheshika

philosophy)

• They argued that there must be some smallest thing which

cannot be further analysed-These smallest particles are called

atoms or anus.

• A single atom is devoid of qualities but has potentialities

which came into play when the atoms combined with others.

• Brahmagupta who lived in the Gupta period was responsible

in an elementary way for the introduction of the Laws of

Motions and the Theory of Relativity.

• He wrote Suryasiddhanta and is styled as the ‘Indian Newton’.

5. Chemistry

• Chemistry in India was first treated as alchemy and was called

Rasayana and developed chiefly as hand-maid of medicine.

• 2 of the greatest Chemists of ancient India were Patanjali and

Nagarjuna.

• Patanjali (200 BC). was an authority on metals – Loha sastra.

• Nagarjuna (a contemporary of Kanishka), was a great

Buddhist philosopher and a renowned chemist-He was the

inventor of the process of distillation and calcination.

• Al-Beruni of the 11th century paid glowing tributes to the

genius of Nagarjuna.

• He refers to chemical apparatuses used by Indian chemists

such as

a. Dolayantra (for extracting by suspending the substance in

steam),

b. Svedani-yantra (for sublimation and distillation)

c. Vidhyadhara-yantra (for extraction of mercury from cinnabar) and

d. Dhupa-yantra (for fumigation).

• The development of chemistry fostered Indian industries such

as the textile industry.

• Printed and dyed cloth was produced and exported to the

western world on a large scale in ancient India.

• Indian craftsmen were great experts in dying and making

various kinds of colours.

• The paintings at Ajanta and Ellora are the standing

testimonials of it.

6. Metallurgy

• Ancient Indians made great progress in metallurgy.

• Eg,The bronze images of Buddha discovered at Sultanganj and

Didarganj.

• The art of steel making was first developed in India.

• The Indian steel was exported to many countries of the world

from very early times and came to be called Wooz in later

times.

• Indian steel swords were in great demand in the entire region

from Asia to Europe.

• The greatest marvel of the metallurgical skill is the great

Mehrauli Iron Pillar-It is just over 23 ft high and scarcely

rusted.

• The knowledge of metals and the mastery over casting are

evident from the coins and seals that were produced during the

Gupta age.

7. Medicine:

• Ancient Indians had knowledge of medicine.

• The Harappans may have used Silajit to cure liver diseases.

• The drainage system and bathing ghats found in several

Harappan sites indicate that Harappans gave importance to

health and hygiene.

• The Rigveda refers to a father as physician-Thus a knowledge

of medicine was known to the people of early Vedic period.

• Atharva veda-refers to some herbs and metals endowed with curative properties-They were even given divine attributes and worshipped.

• Charaka and Sushuta were expert Ayurvedic doctors.

• Charaka,a contemporary of Kanishka wrote the Charaka-Samhita which describes:

a) Various types of fever, leprosy, hysteria and tuberculosis.

b) Names of various herbs and plants which were to be used in medicine.

• The Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta refers to:

a. The method of operating cataract, stone diseases and several

other ailments.

b. Mentions as many as 121 implements to be used for

operations.

• Ancient medical system emphasised on Humaral Pathology-It

distinguished 3 types of humours, namely,Vayu (air),Pitta

(bile) and Kapha (phlegm)

• It was believed that diseases were caused by the disturbance of

these humours.

• The Indians were also the first to advocate the oral

administration of mineral preparations generally and in

particular mercury.

• Charaka, Sushruta and Nagabhatta recommended for internal

use many minerals and salts.

❑ The Gupta Age witnessed specialisation in General medicine.

a. Vakbhataradhya wrote Ashrangahridaya which deals with

medical, physical and surgical importance of the 8 limbs in a

human body.

b. The age also witnessed the first detailed appearance of a work

on Veterinary science, relating mainly to the diseases of the

horses and elephants namely,Hastyayurveda written by

Palakapya.

• Fa-hein who visted India during the Gupta period states:

a. Rich people established houses for dispensing charity and

medicines-The poor, destitute and diseased in the country

went to these houses and were provided with every kind of

help.Doctors examined their diseases.

b. Pataliputra had numerous charitable institutions including a

free hospital endowed by the benevolent citizens-The

hospital was the best in the world.

• The art of surgery was well developed in Ancient India. There are references to major operations like amputation,laparotomy(opening the abdomen for intestinal obstruction or other trouble),lithotomy (extraction of stone) and trophining of the skull.

• Indians were the first to realize the necessity of dissection of the human body for the education of physicians and surgeons.

• Indians knew about blood circulation much before it was discovered by Sir William Harvey in the 17th century.

▪ Diffusion of Medical Knowledge

• The Indian medical system exerted great influence upon other

systems outside India such as on the Greeks and Romans.

• Indian herbal knowledge had reached the western world, since

the Greek botanist Theophrastus gives detailed description of

the medical use of various plants and herbs from India in his

famous work, viz ; 'History of Plants'.

• The Indian medical knowledge travelled westwards and

aroused the interest of doctors in western Asia.

• Among others, a Persian doctor came to India in 600 AD to

study Indian medicine.

❑ Though Ancient India witnessed startling developments in

pure sciences, its further progress was checked due to the

following reasons:

i. The insular attitude shown by the scientists of India who

considered every new doctrine developed by them as their

family or personal property and refused to diffuse the same in

the very land of their birth-Al-Beruni who visited India in the

early part of the 11th century A.D makes a mention of it. He says the Hindus totally isolated themselves from the other countries and the importance of the outside world.

ii. The revival of Brahmanism also contributed to some extent to neglect of sciences like medicine.

• The Neo-brahmins in their zeal to overthrow everything that was Buddhist, neglected the practical sciences, medicine and surgery which was very popular with the Buddhists- As a result the science of medicine and surgery greatly declined between the period 1200 AD -1900 AD

iii. With the coming of the Muslims to India the free spirit of

enquiry and scientific progress suffered a setback.

• Islam laid great emphasis on blind obedience to the spiritual

leaders and free thinking was not encouraged.

• Furthermore, the Mulims attacked the various Buddhist

monasteries at places like Udahtapura and Vikramsila which

were great centres of science of medicine and killed a large

number of Buddhist monks. As a result the progress of science

was greatly checked.

• The people could not devote themselves to the pursuit of

science due to unsettled conditions and lack of sense of

security.

END