Science Review for Graduation Exam

1.) Select appropriate laboratory glassware, balances, time measuring equipment, and

optical instruments to conduct an experiment.

• Graduated cylinders measure liquid volume.

• 10 ml—volume of ink pen

• 20 ml– volume of marble

Beakers

• Beakers are used to mix, measure, or heat liquids, but they are not designed for accurate measurements.

Erlenmeyer Flask• An Erlenmeyer flask is used for boiling

liquids and helps prevent liquids from splashing or giving off nauseous fumes.

Test Tubes

• Test tubes are used to mix, measure, or heat liquids. Test tubes are not usually marked with measurements, so they are only used to make approximate measurements.

Microscope slide

• Used to see microscopic unicellular organisms.

pipette

• A pipette is a laboratory instrument used to transport a measured volume of liquid.

Petri dish

• Used to grow bacteria on a nutrient agar.

Balance

• A triple-beam balance is used to determine the mass of heavier materials to the nearest gram.

stopwatch

• A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece designed to measure the amount of time elapsed from a particular time when activated to when the piece is deactivated.

microscope

• A microscope enables us to see very small objects or organisms too small to see with the unaided eye.

Compound microscope

• The compound microscope uses multiple lenses to further increase magnification.

Electron microscope

• An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to illuminate a specimen and create an enlarged image. Electron microscopes have much greater resolving power than light microscopes and can obtain much higher magnifications.

Magnifying glass

• Simple Magnification• A magnifying glass is a

bi-convex lens. It is convex on both sides, meaning that the glass is curved outward to form a dome. Things look bigger looking through convex lenses.

Using appropriate SI units for measuring length, volume, and

mass

Scientific Measurement

• SI System of Measurement —a measurement of matter based on units of ten.

• Mass—amount of matter in an object

• Volume—amount of space an object occupies

• Length– distance from one point to another.

• The basic unit of length is the meter.

• The basic unit of liquid volume is the liter.

• A meniscus is the curve you see at the surface of a liquid. Liquids are always measured from the bottom of the meniscus.

• kilogram—basic unit of mass in the metric system

• Describing the steps of the scientific method

• Make an observation.• Ask questions.• Form the hypothesis.• Set up an experiment to

test the hypothesis.• Collect and record the

data.• Analyze the data.• Draw a conclusion.• Make a prediction.

Comparing controls, dependent variables, and independent

variables

• A control group is used so that results can be compared.

• A variable is the part of the experiment is changed.

• The dependent variable always depends on the independent variable.

• • Identifying safe laboratory procedures when handling chemicals and using Bunsen burners and laboratory glassware

Chemical Safety

• Never smell any chemical directly from its container. Always use your hand to waft some of the odors from the top of the container toward your nose, and only when instructed to do so.

• Keep all lids closed when chemicals are not in use.

• Dispose of all chemicals as instructed by your teacher.

Bunsen burners• Procedure

Bunsen burner safety guidelines:• PLACE the Bunsen burner away from any overhead shelving, equipment or

light fixtures. • REMOVE all papers, notebooks, combustible materials and excess

chemicals from the area. • TIE-BACK any long hair, dangling jewelry, or loose clothing. • INSPECT hose for cracks, holes, pinched points, or any other defect and

ensure that the hose fits securely on the gas valve and the Bunsen burner. • REPLACE all hoses found to have a defect before using. • NOTIFY others in the laboratory that the burner will be in use. • UTILIZE a sparker / lighter with extended nozzle to ignite the Bunsen

burner. Never use a match to ignite burner. • HAVE the sparker / lighter available before turning on gas. • ADJUST the flame by turning the collar to regulate air flow and produce an

appropriate flame for the experiment (typically a medium blue flame). • DO NOT leave open flames unattended and never leave laboratory while

burner is on. • SHUT-OFF gas when its use is complete. • ALLOW the burner to cool before handling. ENSURE that the main gas

valve is off before leaving the laboratory.

Lab Glassware

• When heating or rinsing a container such as a test tube, point it away from yourself and others.

• Inform the teacher immediately of any mishap, such as fire, bodily injuries or burns, electrical shock, glassware breakage, and chemical or other spills.

Describe cell processes necessary for achieving homeostasis, including active and passive transport, osmosis, diffusion, exocytosis, and endocytosis.

Endocytosis (active) Exocytosis (active)

homeostasis

• The ability of an organism or cell to maintain internal balance and stability by adjusting its physiological processes.

Active Transport• Movement of a substance across a

biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins.

Passive transport

• The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane.

osmosis

• Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Diffusion

• The spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area.

Exocytosis

• The cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the cell membrane.

Endocytosis

• The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the cell membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.

•

• Comparing the reaction of plant and animal cells in isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions

• A cell in a sugar solution will be smaller because water left the cell by osmosis.

• A paramecium achieves homeostasis when water enters the cell by osmosis and contractile vacuoles eliminate excess water by active transport.

• In passive transport, There is a concentration gradient across a semi-permeable membrane where molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

• Osmosis movement of water

• Diffusion movement of substance other than water.

• Explaining how surface area, cell size, temperature, light, and pH affect cellular activities

Temperature, concentration, Surface area

• In both chemical and physical reactions, increasing temperature or concentration increases the rate of the reaction.

• Also, increasing the surface area between reactants gives more opportunity for interaction, and this speeds up reaction rate.

• Identifying functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and

nucleic acids in cellular activities

carbohydrates

• WHAT'S IT USED FOR?

• A carbohydrate is called an organic compound because it contains carbon. Sugars provide living things with energy and act as substances used for structure. Some examples of structures might be the shell of a crab or the stem of a plant.

Lipids

• Lipids are another type of organic molecule (contains carbon). When you think of fats, you should know that they are lipids. Lipids are also used to make steroids and waxes. So if you pick out some ear wax and smell it, that's a lipid, too!

GET THE WAX OUT OF YOUR EARS• Waxes are used to coat and protect things in nature.

Bees make wax. Your ears make wax. Plant leaves even have wax on the outside of their leaves. It can be used for structures such as the bees' honeycombs. Waxes can also be used for protection. Plants use wax to stop evaporation of water from their leaves.

Proteins• Proteins are made of amino acids. Even though a protein can be

very complex, it is basically a long chain of amino acids, all twisted around like a knot.

•Proteins are very important molecules in our cells. They are involved in virtually all cell functions. Each protein within the body has a specific function. Some proteins are involved in structural support, while others are involved in bodily movement, or in defense against germs.

Proteins vary in structure as well as function. They are constructed from a set of 20 amino acids and have distinct three-dimensional shapes.

Nucleic Acids• THE NUCLEIC ACIDS• The nucleic acids are the building blocks of living organisms. You

may have heard of DNA described the same way. Guess what? DNA is just one type of nucleic acid. Some other types are RNA, mRNA, and tRNA. All of these "NA's" work together to help cells replicate and build proteins. NA? Hold on. Might that stand for nucleic acid? It might.

• THE BASICS• We already told you about the biggie nucleic acids (DNA, RNA,

mRNA, tRNA). They are actually made up chains of base pairs stretching from only a few to millions. When those pairs combine in super long chains (DNA), they make a shape called a double helix. The double helix shape is like a twisty ladder. The base pairs are the rungs.

• • Applying the concept of fluid pressure to biological systemsExamples: blood pressure, turgor pressure (water pressure against cell walls of plants), bends, strokes

Blood pressure

• What is blood pressure?

Blood pressure is the pressure of the blood against the walls of the arteries.

• Blood pressure results from two forces. One is created by the heart as it pumps blood into the arteries and through the circulatory system. The other is the force of the arteries as they resist the blood flow.

Turgor pressure

• turgor pressure or turgidity is the main pressure of the cell contents against the cell wall in plant cells, determined by the water content of the vacuole, resulting from osmotic pressure.

The Bends

• Nitrogen seeps into the bloodstream. It blocks blood flow.

Strokes

• A stroke is an interruption of the blood supply to any part of the brain. A stroke is sometimes called a "brain attack."

• 3.) Identify reactants and products associated with photosynthesis and cellular respiration and the purposes of these two processes.

•Photosynthesis (CO2-O2 cycle)

6H2O + 6CO2 -----> C6H12O6+ 6O2

Water + carbon dioxide = glucose +oxygen(reactants) (products)

Cellular Respiration

• Relationship between photosynthesis and respiration:

• CO2 O2 cycle

• They are the reverse of each other!! Learn one and you know the other!!!

• Photosynthesis is affected by light, water, and temperature.

• The main purpose of photosynthesis is to use light energy from the sun, water, and carbon dioxide to make food.

• The primary purpose of cellular respiration is to use chemical energy from glucose molecules.

4.) Describe similarities and differences of cell organelles, using diagrams and tables.

• Nucleus—control center of the cell; DNA stored here

• Mitochondria—”powerhouse” of the cell– Where ATP is produced – Conducts respiration– More in muscles because need more energy

• Ribosomes—synthesizes proteins

Ribosomes are the small dots.

• Golgi Apparatus– packages proteins

• Endoplasmic reticulum —transport system of cell– Smooth (no

ribosomes)– Rough (ribosomes

attached to it)

• Nucleolus—produces ribosomes

Cell membrane

• The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane) is a semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells.

vacuole• Vacuoles are found in

the cytoplasm of most plant cells and some animal cells. Vacuoles are membrane-bound compartments within some eukaryotic cells that can serve a variety of secretory, excretory, and storage functions.

Organelles found ONLY in plant cells

• Central vacuole• Chloroplasts• Cell wall

Cell wall

• A cell wall is a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural support, protection, and acts as a filtering mechanism.

chlorophlast

• Conducts photosynthesis • Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts absorb light and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide to produce sugars, the raw material for energy

Central vacuole

• Found only in plant cells.

• Identifying scientists who contributed to the cell theoryExamples: Hooke, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow, van Leeuwenhoek

Schleiden (plants)

Schwann (animals)

Robert Hooke (cork)-named “cells”

Anton van Leeuwenhoekgiven credit for viewing the first LIVING

cells under a microscope

Virchow helped develop the cell theory

• Distinguishing between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

• Prokayote—has no true nucleus or membrane bound organelles

• Eukaryote—has a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles.

• Identifying various technologies used to observe cellsExamples: light microscope, scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope

Light microscope

• The light microscope, so called because it employs visible light to detect small objects, is probably the most well-known and well-used research tool in biology.

Scanning electron microscope

• The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that creates various images by focusing a high energy beam of electrons onto the surface of a sample and detecting signals from the interaction of the incident electrons with the sample's surface.

Transmission electron microscope• Transmission electron

microscopy (TEM) is a microscopy technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted through an ultra thin specimen, interacting with the specimen as it passes through it. An image is formed from the electrons transmitted through the specimen, magnified and focused by an objective lens and appears on an imaging screen, a fluorescent screen in most TEMs, plus a monitor, or on a layer of photographic film, or to be detected by a sensor such as a CCD camera.

9.) Differentiate between the previous five-kingdom and current six-kingdom classification systems.

• Sequencing taxa from most inclusive to least inclusive in the classification of living things

Taxonomy Hierarchy

• Kingdom(most inclusive)• Phylum• Class• Order• Family• Genus • Species (least inclusive)

• King King• Phillip Phillip• Came

Crapped• Over On• For Forest• Good Gump’s• Spaghetti Shirt

Classification Systems

5 Kingdom System 6 Kingdom System

• Kingdom Monera (Pro) Kingdom Archabacteria (Pro)• Kingdom Protista (Euk) Kingdom Eubacteria (Pro)• Kingdom Fungi (Euk) Kingdom Protista (Euk)• Kingdom Plantae (Euk) Kingdom Fungi (Euk)• Kingdom Animalia (Euk) Kingdom Plantae (Euk)

Kingdom Animalia (Euk)

Monera in the 5-kingdom system is divided into Eubacteria and Archaebacteria in the 6-kingdom system

Archaebacteria

– Cell membranes have lipids (this is not found in any other organism)

– No peptidoglycan in their cell walls– Prokaryotic– Unicellular– Unique ribosomal RNA (used to

differentiate between Archaebacteria and Eubacteria

– Commonly found in harsh environments– Commonly found in anaerobic environments

• Identifying organisms using a dichotomous key (two choices)

•

 Writing scientific names accurately by using binomial nomenclature (Genus species)-Homo sapien

Binomial nomenclature

• Uses the Genus and species to give the scientific name of an organism.

• Genus is capitalized and species is lowercase

• Both should be either written in italics or underlined.

• Written in Latin

• Example: Panthera leo

• Carolus Linnaeus—binomial nomenclature

5.) Identify cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems as levels of organization in the biosphere.

Cells—tissues—organs—organ systems—organism

• Cells—smallest unit of life

• Tissues—group of cells that work together for a common function

• Organs– group of tissues that work together for a common function

• Organ systems —group of organs that work together for a common function

• Tendon is a tissue

• species– organisms

• Population—all the species in an area

• Community—all the populations in an area (different populations/organisms)

• Ecosystem—all the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) parts of an environment.

» organism

» populations --same species

» communities

» ecosystem

Least complex

Most complex

Community or Ecosystem?

• All parts of area—abiotic (water) included is an ecosystem.

• If only asking about “living” organisms in an area, then the answer is community.

• OrganismpopulationcommunityecosystemLeast

complex

MostComplex(abiotic

And biotic)

Samespecies

• Recognizing that cells differentiate to perform specific functions

Examples: ciliated cells to produce movement, nerve cells to conduct electrical charges

ciliaCilia

6.) Describe the roles of mitotic and meiotic divisions during reproduction, growth, and repair of cells.

• Mitosis---2n2n

• Meiosis---2n n

Meiosis and variation

• Meiosis leads to variation in a species.

Meiosis and reproduction

• Meiosis produces haploid cell used in reproduction.

Mitosis in cell repair

• During respiration, mitosis helps replace cells that are destroyed or damaged.

• Mitosis in growth

• Meiosis and mitosis are reproductive processes.

• Crossing-over occurs in Prophase I of meiosis.

• Meiosis is a way to create diversity.

• Mitosis is NOT.

• Meiosis—

• Oogenesis—production of eggs

• Spermatogenesis—production of sperm

• Stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

Meiosis

• Spermatogenesis—production of sperm

• Oogenesis– production of eggs

• Sexual reproduction

• If homolog or homologous is mentioned, it is Meiosis I

Meiosis I (four phases)Meiosis I (four phases)

• Cell division Cell division that reduces the chromosomechromosome number by one-half.one-half.

• four phasesfour phases:

a.a. prophase Iprophase I

b.b. metaphase Imetaphase I

c.c. anaphase Ianaphase I

d.d. telophase Itelophase I

Crossing over occurs in Prophase ICrossing over occurs in Prophase I

Meiosis I : the reduction division

Prophase I(early)

(diploid)

Prophase I(late)

(diploid)

Metaphase I(diploid)

Anaphase I(diploid)

Telophase I(diploid)

Nucleus Spindlefibers

Nuclearenvelope

Meiosis II : the equational division

Prophase II(haploid)

Metaphase II(haploid)

Anaphase II(haploid)

Telophase II(haploid)

Four nonidentical

haploid daughter cells

Results of meiosis

Gametes

Four haploid cells

One copy of each chromosome

One allele of each gene

Different combinations of alleles for different genes along the chromosome

Spermatogenesis

• Occurs in the testes

• Production of sperm

SpermatogenesisSpermatogenesis

2n=46

humansex cell

diploid (2n)

n=23

n=23

meiosis I

n=23

n=23

n=23

n=23

sperm

haploid (n)

meiosis II

Oogenesis

• Occurs in the ovaries

• Production of the egg

Oogenesis

Oogonium(diploid)

Mitosis

Primaryoocyte(diploid)

Meiosis I

Secondaryoocyte(haploid)

Meiosis II

(if fertilizationoccurs)

First polar bodymay divide (haploid)

Polarbodiesdie

Ovum (egg)

Secondpolar body(haploid)

a

A

X

X

a

X

A X

a

X

a

X

Matureegg

A

X

A

X

• Comparing sexual and asexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction is the ability of an organism to reproduce without the need of the production of eggs and sperm. – Takes place in the lower forms of animals

• Phylums:– Porifera --sponges– Coelenterara (Cnidarians)--jellyfish– Platyhelminthes—planaria, tapeworms

• All these can reproduce asexually by cell division, budding, regeneration, or fission.

• Prokaryotes—usually reproduce asexually

• Eukaryotes—asexually, sexually, or bothdepends on the organism

Asexual Reproduction

• ONLY ONE ORGANISM IS NEEDED!!

• One parent

• Copies of all genes to each offspring

• Actually a clone—genetically identical

• Prokaryotes—binary fission

Asexual reproduction

• Simplest method of reproduction– Some ways:

• Fission• Fragmentation• budding

Binary fission

• Parent separates into two or more individuals of approximately equal size

• Example: amoeba

Fragmentation

• Mulitcellular eukaryotes

• The body breaks into several pieces

• The fragments develop into complete adults when missing parts are regrown.

• Example: sea star

Budding

• New individuals split off form existing ones.

• Can break off or remain attached.

• Examples: hydra

• In a stable environment, asexual reproduction allows organisms to produce many offspring in a short period of time.– Not necessary to use energy to produce

gametes or find a mate

• Comparing sperm and egg formation in terms of ploidy

Example: ploidy-haploid, diploid

7.) Apply Mendel's law to determine phenotypic and genotypic probabilities of offspring.

• Defining important genetic terms, including dihybrid cross, monohybrid cross, phenotype, genotype, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant trait, recessive trait, incomplete dominance, codominance, and allele

Monohybrid cross Dihybrid cross

Punnett Squares

• Click on the words below to see an animation

• Practice LOTS of Punnett Squares!!• See your teacher!!

• The set of alleles that an individual has is called its genotype.

• The physical appearance of a trait is called a phenotype.

• A gene can be dominant or recessive.

• To express a recessive trait, an individual must have two recessive allelles.

• If the dominant allele is present, it will be expressed.

• If an individual receives two like alleles for a characteristic, the individual is homozygous. (AA, aa)

• If an individual receives two different alleles for a characteristic, the individual is heterozygous. (Aa)

Incomplete dominanceIn Caucasians, the child of a straight-haired

parent and a curly-haired parent will have wavy hair. Straight and curly hair are homozygous dominant traits. Wavy hair is heterozygous and is intermediate between straight and curly hair.

Codominance

• Both traits are displayed.

• Example: cattle– A cross between a homozygous red horse (cow) and a homozygous white horse (cow) results in heterozygous offspring with both red and white hairs in about the same number.– Called a roan.

Some traits are caused by mutations

• Mutations are changes in genetic material.– Harmful effects produced by inherited

mutations are called genetic disorders.

Interpreting inheritance patterns shown in graphs and

charts

Pedigree

• Pedigrees are particularly helpful if the trait is a genetic disorder and the family members want to know if they are carriers.

• Carriers are individuals who are heterozygous for an inherited disorder but do not show symptoms of the disorder.– They can pass the allele to

their offspring.

• • Calculating genotypic and phenotypic percentages and ratios using a Punnett square.

Genotypes: tt & ttPhenotypes:shorttt = 100%Short = 100%

Genotypes: Tt & ttPhenotypes: Tall &

shortTt = 50%tt = 50%Tall = 50%Short = 50%

Genotypes: TT & TtPhenotypes: tallTT = 50%Tt = 50%Tall = 100%

Genotypes: TT, Tt, ttPhenotypes: Tall &

shortTT = 50%Tt = 25%tt = 25%Tall = 75%Short = 25%

T = Tall (dominant)

t = Short (recessive)

This Punnett Square is wrong.WHY??

8.) Identify the structure and function of DNA, RNA, and protein.

• 

I. Structure of DNA

A. Each DNA strand consists of many nucleotide monomers linked by covalent bonds

B. Each nucleotide has three parts:

1. a phosphate group

2. a nitrogen base

3. a sugar (deoxyribose)

IV. Structure of RNA

A. A nucleic acid consisting of one strand of nucleotides

B. Contains the bases A, C, G, and UC. Contains the sugar ribose

• Amino acids make up proteins

• Proteins can function as enzymes

• Production of protein

• Patterns of base pairingDNA & RNA

• DNA makes up genes and chromosomes

• Proteins serve as enzymatic catalysts.

• RNA transports amino acids.

Base Pairing

• DNA Replication

• Thymine (T) pairs with Adenine (A)

• Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine(G)

• In RNA– Uracil (U) pairs with (A)—There is NO THYMINE IN RNA!!

• DNA replication preserves the genetic code from one generation to the next.

• Explaining relationships among DNA, genes, and chromosomes

Chromosomes

• The DNA and the proteins associated with the DNA coil into a structure called a chromosome as a eukaryotic cell prepares to divide.

DNA in Eukaryotic Cells

A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a protein or RNA molecule.

Genes play an important role in determining how a person’s body develops and functions.

• Each chromosome contains thousands of genes that play important roles in determining how a person’s body develops and functions.

• Relating genetic disorders and disease to patterns of genetic inheritance

• Examples: hemophilia, sickle cell anemia, Down's syndrome, Tay-Sachs disease, cystic fibrosis, color blindness, phenylketonuria (PKU)

•

RecessiveSymptom: Poor blood circulationDefect: Abnormal hemoglobin moleculesFrequency in human births: 1 in 500 African Americans

Sickle Cell Anemia

Tay-Sachs disease

• recessive• Symptom: deterioration of central

nervous system in infancy; affected individuals die in early childhood

• Defect: defective form of a brain enzyme

• Frequency in human births: 1 in 3,500 (Jews)

Cystic Fibrosis

• recessive• Symptom: mucus clogs many organs,

including the lungs, liver, and pancreas; affected individuals usually do not survive to adulthood

• Defect: defective chloride-ion transport protein

• Frequency in human births: 1 in 2.500 (whites)

Hemophilia A

• Sex-linked recessive

• Symptom: failure of blood to clot

• Defect: defective form of a blood-clotting factor

• Frequency in human births: 1 in 10,000 (white males)

Huntington’s disease

• dominant

• Symptom: gradual deterioration of brain tissue in middle age; shortened life expectancy

• Defect: inhibitor of brain-cell metabolism is made

• Frequency in human births: 1 in 10,000

•  Listing significant contributions of biotechnology to society, including agricultural and medical practicesExamples: DNA fingerprinting, insulin, growth hormone

• So what is biotechnology and genetic engineering? There are three major developments that act as the signature of biotech, with many more surprises coming down the road:

Biotechnology in Agriculture

• Modification of plants to change their response to the environment, disease or pesticides. For example, tomatoes can gain fungal resistance by adding chitinases to their genome. A chitinase breaks down chitin, which forms the cell wall of a fungus cell. The pesticide Roundup kills all plants, but crop plants can be modified by adding genes that leave the plants immune to Roundup.

Biotechnology in Medicine

• Bacterial production of substances like human interferon, human insulin and human growth hormone. That is, simple bacteria like E. coli are manipulated to produce these chemicals so that they are easily harvested in vast quantities for use in medicine. Bacteria have also been modified to produce all sorts of other chemicals and enzymes.

• Relating normal patterns of genetic inheritance to genetic variationExample: crossing-over• 

• Gel electrophoresis Crossing over (genetic recombination)

Variation

• Caused by – Crossing over– Random fertilization– Independent assortment

Relating ways chance, mutagens, and genetic engineering increase diversity

Examples: insertion, deletion, translocation, inversion, recombinant DNA

Deletion

• A piece of chromosome breaks off completely.

• The new cell will lack a certain set of genes.

• Many times is fatal.

duplication• A chromosome

fragment attaches to its homologous chromosome, which will then carry two copies of a certain set of genes.

inversion

• Chromosome piece reattaches to the original chromosome but in a reverse orientation.

translocation

• If the piece reattaches to a nonhomologous chromosome.